1. science
2. biology
3. zoology
4. endangered species

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Vegetation Structure and Composition of Pioneer Species in Reforestation Area at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve
Cha Hui Kee (26030)
Bachelor of Science with Honours
(Plant Resource Science and Management)
2013
Vegetation Structure and Composition of Pioneer Species in Reforestation Area at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve
Cha Hui Kee (26030)
This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science with Honours
(Plant Resource Science and Management)
Supervisor: Dr. Mohd. Effendi Wasli
Co-supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hamsawi Sani
Plant Resource Science and Management Programme
Department of Plant Science and Environmental Ecology
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
2013
I
APPROVAL SHEET
Name of candidate
: Cha Hui Kee
Title of dissertation
: Vegetation Structure and Composition of Pioneer Species in
Reforestation Area at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve
Dr. Mohd. Effendi Wasli
Supervisor
Dr. Rebicca Edward
Coordinator
Plant Resource Science and Management Programme
Department of Plant Science and Environmental Ecology
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
II
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Final Year Project Report 2013 is based on my own work
besides the citations and quotations that had been acknowledged. And also to declare that it
has not been submitted to any other degree of qualification at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(UNIMAS) or other institution of higher learning.
CHA HUI KEE
Plant Resource Science and Management Programme
Department of Plant Science and Environment Ecology
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank God for giving me the strength and health to finish
my final year project. After that, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Mohd.
Effendi b. Wasli, my research supervisor, for his patient guidance and constructive
suggestions on this research project. The time and effort he spent into guiding me for this
research project is very much appreciated. I am also grateful to have my co-supervisor,
Prof. Hamsawi Sani, who too guided me during my research study. The assistances given
by lecturers and staffs of the Faculty of Resource Science and Technology (FSTS) were
greatly appreciated. I wish to specially thank Mr. Hidir Marzuki, technical staff of the
FSTS, for his help on plant species identification.
Next, I wish to acknowledge the help given by the supporting staffs from Gunung
Apeng Forest Reserve who patiently helped me with my data collection and species
identification.
I would also like to offer my appreciation to my family, which includes my parents,
Mr. Cha Chew Ching and Mrs. Sum Kam Liang; and my siblings, Cha Wai Yip and Cha
Hong Yip, for all their mental supports during the research study.
Not to forget, many thanks to my friends and seniors who helped out and supported
me during the completion of my research. I wish to specially thank my research partner,
Ms. Lee Pick Sean, for helping me out with my data collection and always supporting me.
And last but not least, I would like to thank the Faculty of Resource Science and
Technology (FRST), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, for giving me the opportunity to
conduct this research.
IV
Vegetation Structure and Composition of Pioneer Species in Reforestation Area at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve
Cha Hui Kee
Plant Resource Science and Management
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
This study was cconducted to collect information on the vegetation structure and composition of pioneer
species in reforestation area at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve that was artificially planted with Dipterocarp
species Dryobalanops beccarii. There were two study sites constructed, namely R05 located in a
reforestation area established in year 2005, and R07 in a reforestation area established in year 2007. The data
collected and analyzed were height, diameter breast height (dbh), species name, plant group, and number of
occurrence of each species. Comparison in terms of species diversity and evenness between the study plots
were determined using Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index and Species Evenness Index. In both R05 and R07
study sites, the plant group with the highest number of species is tree, followed by climber, fern, and shrub.
The density of undergrowth species is higher than the density of tree species in R05 and R07. In study site
R05, Rubiaceae family has the highest number of plant species, while Rubiaceae family and Moraceae family
are the two families that have the highest number of plant species in R07. Pioneer tree species in R05 was
dominated by Macaranga gigantea, while most pioneer tree species encountered in R07 were Commersonia
spp. Diversity and evenness indexes showed that study site R05 has higher and more even plant diversity
distribution than R07. The vegetation structure and composition of pioneer species in reforestation area is
important in determining the current regeneration condition of the forest, and it is also an important reference
for future forest management activity.
Key words: Reforestation, vegetation survey, tree crown distribution, pioneer species, Gunung Apeng.
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengumpul maklumat tentang struktur and komposisi spesies perintis di dalam
kawasan penghutanan semula di Hutan Simpan Gunung Apeng yang telah ditanam dengan spesies
Dipterocarp Drobalanops beccarii. Dua kawasan kajian telah dikonstruk, iaitu R05 yang terletak dalam
kawasan penghutanan semula yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 2005, dan R07 terletak dalam kawasan
penghutanan semula yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 2007. Jenis data yang telah dikumpul dan dianalisis ialah
ketinggian, diameter perepang paras dada, nama species, kumpulan tumbuhan, dan jumlah setiap species
yang dijumpai. Indeks Kepelbagaian Shannon-Wiener dan Indeks Kesamarataan Species telah digunakan
untuk membandingkan kepelbagaian dan persamaan spesies. Dalam kedua-dua kawasan kajian R05 dan R07,
kumpulan tumbuhan yang mempunyai spesies yang paling banyak ialah kumpulan pokok, diikuti dengan
tumbuhan menjalar, paku-pakis, dan pokok renek. Kepadatan tumbuhan kategori semak adalah lebih tinggi
berbanding dengan kepadatan spesies pokok dalam R05 dan R07. Rubiaceae mempunyai spesies tumbuhan
yang paling banyak dalam kawasan kajian R05, manakala Moraceae dan Rubiaceae mempunyai spesies
tumbuhan yang paling banyak dalam R07. Spesies pokok perisntis dalam R05 didominasi oleh Macaranga
gigantea, manakala kebanyakan pokok perintis dalam kawasan kajian R07 merupakan Commersonia spp.
Indeks kepelbagaian dan kesamarataan menunjukkan bahawa taburan spesies tumbuhan di R05 mempunyai
kepelbagaian dan kesamarataan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan kawasan penghutanan semula R07.
Maklumat tentang struktur dan komposisi spesies perintis adalah penting untuk mengetahui keadaan
pertumbuhan semula hutan, dan maklumat tersebut juga boleh digunakan sebagai rujukan untuk aktiviti
pengurusan hutan.
Kata kunci: Penghutanan semula, kajian tunbuh-tumbuhan, taburan silara pokok, spesies perintis, Gunung
Apeng.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
Title Page .............................................................................................................................. I
Approval Sheet ................................................................................................................... II
Declaration ........................................................................................................................ III
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. IV
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. V
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. VI
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... VIII
List of Tables and Figures ............................................................................................... IX
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2.0 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Tropical Rain Forest .................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Forest in Sarawak and Its Importance .......................................................................... 4
2.3 Threats of Sarawak Forests .......................................................................................... 5
2.4 Secondary Forests ........................................................................................................ 6
2.5 Rehabilitation of Secondary Forests ............................................................................ 8
2.6 Previous Studies on Secondary Forests Vegetation and Dynamics after Various Form
of Disturbance .................................................................................................................... 9
2.6.1 Indonesia ............................................................................................................... 9
2.6.2 India .................................................................................................................... 10
2.6.3 Sri Lanka ............................................................................................................. 11
VI
2.6.4 Thailand............................................................................................................... 13
2.6.5 Himalaya: North-Eastern Hill Region of India ................................................... 14
2.6.6 Malaysia .............................................................................................................. 14
3.0 Materials and Methods .............................................................................................. 16
3.1 Study Area ................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Sampling Design ........................................................................................................ 18
3.3 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 18
3.4 Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’) and Species Evenness Index ........................ 20
4.0 Results and Discussion ............................................................................................... 22
4.1 Vegetation Composition of Plant Species within R05 and R07 ................................ 22
4.2 Shanon-Wiener Diversity and Evenness Indexes for All Species ............................. 25
4.3 Composition and Structure of Tree Species with dbh of 10cm or more in R05 ........ 26
4.4 Composition and Structure of Tree Species with dbh of 10cm or more in R07 ........ 32
4.5 Shanon-Wiener Diversity and Evenness Indexes for Tree Species with dbh of 10cm
or more ............................................................................................................................. 37
4.6 Plant Composition and Structure on Forest Regeneration Condition and Silviculture
.......................................................................................................................................... 39
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................ 42
References ......................................................................................................................... 44
Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 49
VII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
cm
– Centimeter
dbh
– Diameter at breast height
m
– Meter
m2
– Meter squared (m×m)
mm
– Millimeter
PFE
– Permanent Forest Estate
sp.
– Species
spp.
– Several species
TPAs
– Totally Protected Areas
VIII
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables
Table
Content
Page
1
Dipterocarps recommended for planting in Malaysia and Indonesia…….
9
2
Regeneration of natural species in man-made plantations in the
Panchmahal district of Gujarat state and the Uttara Kannada district in
the Western Ghats of Karnataka state compared with the total species
composition of natural forests of the Valsad area of Gujarat. All values
indicate the number of species per hectare……………………………….
10
3
4
Natural regeneration in 6-years-old JFM mixed-species plantations in the
Uttara Kannada district, Western Ghats, South
India……………….................................................................................
11
Similarity of species before and immediately after shifting cultivation at
Sigiriya area in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Dominant species and families
which composed 75% of the vegetation are given in descending order of
abundance. Species and families found in both before and after shifting
cultivation are underlined………………………………………………..
12
Common plant associations in dry deciduous secondary
forests…………………………………………………………………….
12
6
Plant groups that were recorded in R05 and R07….................................
22
7
Shannon – Wiener Diversity Index and Species Evenness Index of all
species in R05 and R07…………………………………………………..
25
Shannon – Wiener Diversity Index and Species Evenness Index of tree
species in R05 and R07……………………………................................
37
Dbh measurement of tree species encountered in R05 with dbh ≥ 10 cm
……………………………......................................................................
49
Height measurement of tree species encountered in R05 with dbh ≥ 10
cm............................................................................................................
51
Dbh measurement of tree species encountered in R07 with dbh ≥ 10 cm
……………………………....................................................................
53
Height measurement of tree species encountered in R07 with dbh ≥ 10
cm ………………………………………………………………………
54
List of plant species encountered in R05……………………………….
56
5
8
9
10
11
12
13
IX
14
List of plant species encountered in R07…...........................................
59
Figures
Figure
Content
Page
1
Location map of Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve……….……………..
16
2
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve in year 2007……………………………
16
3
Log-transformed plant density by plant groups in R05 and
R07………………………………………………………………………
24
Tree crowns structure of tree species in R05 with dbh ≥ 10
cm ……………………………………………………………………….
27
Diameter distribution of pioneer tree species in R05 with dbh ≥ 10
cm...........................................................................................................
30
Height distribution of pioneer tree species in R05 with dbh ≥ 10
cm...........................................................................................................
31
Tree crowns structure of tree species in R07 tree dbh ≥ 10
cm ……………………………………………………………………….
33
Diameter distribution of tree species in R07 with dbh ≥ 10
cm ……………………………………………………………………….
35
Height distribution of tree species in R07 with dbh ≥ 10
cm……………………………………………………………………….
36
4
5
6
7
8
9
X
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rainforests are forests that grow in parts of the world where the forest would
receive a lot of rainfall. It receives rain consistently throughout the year, rather than just
heavy rain in certain time of the year. Generally, there are two common types of rain forest,
which are the temperate rain forests and the tropical rain forests. Temperate rain forests are
found in places such as North America’s northwest coast, on the South Island of New
Zealand, and in southern Chile (Champion, 2007). For Malaysia and a few other countries
along the equator, our forests are covered by the tropical rain forests.
Tropical rain forests are known for its rich biodiversity, which includes many
species of plants, animals and other living organisms. In 1 hectare of rain forest, we can
find between 50 to 200 different types of tree species, which is 20 times the species that
can be found in temperate forests (Champion, 2007). This shows the importance of rain
forest as a habitat to numerous living organisms on earth. But, some of the forests in
Malaysia are destructed, mainly by human activities such as logging and shifting
cultivation. After the forest is destructed, it is usually left to regenerate, and the
regenerated forest is known as secondary forest.
According to Brown and Lugo (1990), tropical secondary forests are forests formed
after the occurrence of human impact on forest lands. The forest regenerates largely by
natural processes after experiencing disturbance or destruction of the original forest
vegetation. The vegetation of the secondary forest has a major difference as compared to
the primary forest in terms of canopy species composition and forest structure. It usually
contains much lower biodiversity compared to the original forest (Raffles Museum of
Biodiversity Research [RMBR], 2012). It is unlikely for secondary forest to return to a
1
pristine forest in a short time, unless it is protected from further exploitation for a century
or more (Odera, 2002).
In order to restore the disturbed forest area at a faster pace, one option to recover
the depleted forest is thru reforestation. Reforestation is the replanting of trees on forest
areas which was disturbed by human activities or natural means (Hine & Martin, 2004).
Unlike the function of replanting of exotic or fast growing timber species for supplying
material for timber and wood products, reforestation is applied mainly for conserving the
natural forest ecosystem and at the same time mitigates climate change. One example of
important environmental services provided by forests is to act as an agent in ameliorating
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere thru carbon sinking properties. Reforestation can help
in protecting the biodiversity of the forest, which may include many valuable plant or
animal species.
The success of reforestation depends on a lot of factors, and one of it being the
interactions between the planted trees and the secondary forest’s pioneer species. Pioneer
species are species of trees or plants that colonize the forest land after a disturbance, and
they are usually fast-growing, shade intolerant and short–lived. Pioneer species include
woody and herbaceous (non-woody) species, because there are certain herbaceous species
that are able to colonise disturbed land. In Mediterranean, pioneer herbaceous legumes
with hard-coated seeds are usually among the early post-fire colonizers (Arianautsou &
Thanos, 1996). Some possible interactions would be competing for light, nutrients and
water. But, the pioneer species might also help in forest restoration. One type of helpful
pioneer species would be the soil enrichers. The soil enrichers will improve the degraded
secondary forest soil by enriching the soils with nutrients such as nitrogen, and their leaf
litter will increase the humus content of the soil.
2
Reforestation will involve human intervention and also artificial planting of trees.
The problem with reforestation is that the artificially planted trees might not grow well, or
even die because they might face competition from the pioneer species. Pioneer species are
the type of fast growing plant that dominates the forest in secondary forest. The species
diversity and structure of reforestation area can be used as a reference as whether further
silvicultural treatment needed in the reforestation area. Species diversity of naturally
existing plant species is vital in understanding the interaction between the naturally
existing plant species with the growth of planted indigenous tree species for reforestation
purpose in the area. Also by performing studies on the pioneer species, we can find out the
regeneration status of a reforestation area.
The study was carried out to determine the composition and structure of pioneer
species in two different reforestation areas of different ages that was located in Gunung
Apeng Forest Reserve. The data collected can be used as a reference for future sivilculture
activites, and it also can be used to find out the regeneration state of the reforestation area.
3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical rain forests are tall, dense, evergreen forests that are formed in wet tropics,
which receives consistent rain fall, have hot climates, and have short or absent dry seasons
(Corlett & Primack, 2011). They can be found in regions which are near to or on the
earth’s equator, such as Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia
(Champion, 2007). Malaysia is one of the countries in Asia that have tropical rain forests.
There is a very rich diversity of plant species that can be found in tropical rain
forests as compared to temperate forests which have lesser plant diversity. Most of the
rainforest trees are evergreen, and have broad leaves. The forests are crowded with all
kinds of plants, from small shrubs to big trees. In order to compete for sunlight, trees in
tropical rain forests can grow enormously high, often reaching 60-90cm (Champion, 2007).
Because of the persistent rain and the abundant sunlight, the plants in tropical rain
forests are always in growing seasons. Their growth continues all year long. This is
different from temperate forests that have seasonal change. During winter, the leaves of
trees in temperate forests will fall off, and living organisms goes into hibernation. This
does not happen in tropical rain forest.
2.2 The Importance of Tropical Rainforest in Sarawak
Currently, there are approximately 12.4 million ha of land area in Sarawak (Forest
Department of Sarawak, 2012). According to the Forest Department of Sarawak (2012), it
is estimated that 65% of the land area are still occupied by forest. The amount of forested
area has decreased throughout the last 50 years due to natural and human activities such as
commercial logging, shifting cultivation, and agriculture. The Sarawak Government has set
4
six million ha of production forest as Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) for sustainable timber
production (Forest Department of Sarawak, 2012). There is also one million ha of land
classified as Totally Protected Areas (TPAs), which includes national park, wildlife
sanctuaries, and nature reserves (Forest Department of Sarawak, 2012).
Without a doubt, tropical rainforest is rich in biodiversity and is a habitat for
various types of animals and plants. Besides the animals, we can also find a lot of timbers
and non-timber products in Sarawak forests. Some examples of timber species available in
Sarawak forests are Shorea (meranti), Dipterocarps (keruing) and Dryobalanops. One
example of non-timber products found in Sarawak forest is rattan. Rattan is widely used in
furniture making, and also to make smaller items such as baskets.
The second importance of forest is that they provide environmental services and
help to regulate our environment. Rain forests are known as carbon sink, because they
absorb carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and produce oxygen which are needed by
animals. Tropical rain forests also act as a water reservoir. They store water in the soil, and
later released back the water into the environment.
In Sarawak, there are still many indigenous people and local communities who rely
on the rain forests in their daily life. They live in or nearby the forests, earn their living by
collecting forest products, and also use forest lands for farming or shifting cultivation. For
example, the Penan people survive by hunting animals and collecting resources from the
forest.
2.3 Threats of Sarawak Forests
Nowadays, due to events such as natural phenomena and human activities, the area
of forested land in Sarawak is decreasing through time. We can divide the possible causes
5
of deforestation into three main groups, which are agricultural expansion, wood extraction,
and infrastructure extension (Geist & Lambin, 2007).
For Sarawak, possible agricultural practices that lead to deforestation would be
shifting cultivation and permanent cultivation. For shifting cultivation, the indigenous
farmers will clear a forest area by slash and burn technique, uses the area for cultivation,
and later leaves the area after harvesting so that it will regenerate. For permanent
cultivation, an area of land is cleared in order to be used for long period cultivation.
The second cause is wood extraction. As mentioned above, a lot of valuable timber
species can be found in Sarawak forests. These commercial woods are then logged by
timber companies to be sold. Wood in the forest may also be extracted for fuel wood and
charcoal production.
The third cause of deforestation is infrastructure extension. Since Malaysia is a
developing country, we are continuously building new infrastructures. In order to make
space for these infrastructures, we have to clear some forests and use the forest land for
construction.
2.4 Secondary Forests
According to Chokkalingam, De Jong, Smith, & Sabogal (2000), secondary forests
are “forests regenerating largely through natural processes after significant human
disturbance of the original forest vegetation at a single point in time or over an extended
period, and displaying a major difference in forest structure and/or canopy species
composition with respect to nearby primary forests on similar sites”. Secondary forests is
generally unstable and having successional stages.
6
Odera (2002) divided secondary forests into five different groups, which are post
extraction secondary forests, swidden fallow secondary forests, rehabilitated secondary
forests, post-fire secondary forests, and post-abandonment secondary forests. Post
extraction secondary forests are forests regenerating largely through natural processes after
significant reduction in forest vegetation through tree extraction in a single time or over an
extended period, and there are major changes in the forest structure and species. Swidden
fallow secondary forests are forests regenerating mainly by natural processes in woody
fallows of swidden agriculture for the purpose of food production by farmers and/or
community. Rehabilitated secondary forests are forests that regenerate mainly by natural
processes on degraded area. The regeneration process could be facilitated by protection
from chronic disturbance, site stabilization, water management and enrichment planting. A
post-fire secondary forest is a forest regenerating mainly by natural processes after a
reduction in primary forest vegetation caused by forest fires. Lastly, a post-abandonment
secondary forest is a forest regenerating largely through natural processes after land used
for agriculture and pasture development were abandoned.
In the succession process of secondary forest, there are two crude categories of
species, which are the pioneer species and the climax species (Swaine & Whitmore, 1988).
Pioneer species are the types of plants that germinate, establish, grow and mature very
quickly in the clearings and breaks created after the death of dominant plants.
Pioneer species only grow in highly disturbed area. They will exploit the resources
made available by the death of dominant plants. The early pioneer species are often fastgrowing, short lived weedy trees. Their seeds are able to germinate in in the dark
understory of forests, and the seedlings are shade-tolerant for a long period. When forest
disturbance occur, the pioneer species have more light and food resources, thus it increase
in growth.
7
2.5 Rehabilitation of Secondary Forest
Forest rehabilitation is human intervention to counter forest degradation processes,
such as to promote forest recovery in large gaps of Dipterocarp forest, or the conversion of
shrub forest to high story plantation forest (Mori, n.d.). Forest rehabilitation will maximize
forest function in order to satisfy human aims.
One of the methods used for the rehabilitation of secondary forest is enrichment
planting. Enrichment planting is an effective method in rehabilitating degraded tropical
forests, especially with the use of indigenous tree species that is beneficial such as timber,
tree species that can provide food, and tree species that have medical values, in Southeast
Asia (Appanah & Weinland, 1993; Ådjers et al. 1995; Lamb et al., 2005). Matsumoto et al.
(2011) reported that the rate of growth and survival of planted seedlings of indigenous tree
species namely Dyera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f., Dipterocarpus baudii Korth,
Neobalanocarpus heimii (King) Ashton and Gonystylus affinis Radlk are different among
species even though they belong in the same taxonomic group. The growth and
photosynthesis of D. costulata and Dipt. baudii were maximized at 30-40% canopy
openness, and may be suitable for planting under large canopy gaps unlike G. affinis and
N. heimii. Thus, G. affinis and N. heimii are more suitable to be planted under small gap
opening and low light condition. In order to improve enrichment planting, species-specific
ecological traits, especially adaptation and growth performance for light condition need to
be considered.
Mori (n.d.) conducted a study in East Kalimantan, Indonesia to find out suitable
rehabilitation methods for the restoration of Dipterocarp forest. Two important aspects for
rehabilitation using Dipterocarp species is light control and species choice. The light
requirements and growing stages of species should be taken into consideration. We can
8
control the light intensity using the pre-existing trees or fast-growing trees. One of the
problems of single Dipterocarp species stand is the irregularity of seed production. It is
recommended to perform mixed planting with other climax species, even though more
study is needed. Table 1 below shows the Dipterocarps recommended for planting in
Malaysia and Indonesia as proposed by Ishida et al. (2000).
Table 1: Dipterocarps recommended for planting in Malaysia and Indonesia.
For combination planting on grassland
in Indonesia
Species
Anisoptera marginata
Hopea sangal
Shorea leprosula
Vatica sp.
For enrichment planting in Peninsula Malaysia
Species
Anisoptera laevis
Hopea odorata
A. scalphuta
Shorea acuminata
Dipterocarpus baudii
S. leprosula
D. costulatus
S. macroptera
D. kerrii
S. ovalis
Dryobalanops aromatica
S. parvifolia
D. oblongifolia
S. platyclados
Sources: Ishida et al. (2000) and Mori et al. (1990).
2.6 Previous Studies on Secondary Forests Vegetation and Dynamics after Various
Form of Disturbance
2.6.1 Indonesia
In Indonesia, selective logging causes the forest to form large canopy opening
(Kartawinata et al., 2001). These canopy openings are then invaded by light-demanding,
fast-growing and light-wood pioneer species. Only a few of the species have commercial
timber value. The remaining undesirable trees left after logging will provide seeds for the
future crop. This makes the future crops undesirable, smaller and genetically inferior
(Blanche, 1978; Ashton, 1980). Climbers invade the bare grounds and supress the growth
of the residual trees (Kartawinata et al, 2001). The number of tree species in postextraction secondary forest is lower compare to primary forest, but the standing stock is
higher and the nucleus trees are sufficient for future development of the forest (Gintings,
1969; Tarumingkeng et al., 1989). The seedlings of certain timber species such as Shorea
9
leprosula and Dryobalanops lanceolata grow faster in secondary forest of different ages
than in primary forest, and they grow fastest in 1-year-old secondary forest (Howlett &
Davidson 1996, Oorschot et al., 1996). However, Dipterocarpus spp. and Agathis damara
show slower growth in secondary forest (Oorschot et al, 1996).
2.6.2 India
The social afforestation programmes in India was dominated by monocultures of
exotic species, such as Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus spp., and
Casuarina spp. (Bhat, et al, 2001). The teak plantations in the Panchmahal district of
Gujarat state show natural regeneration and the pattern of regeneration was comparable to
that of natural forests in the Valsad area of that state (Shah, 1996). Other studies in the
Uttara Kannada district in the Western Ghats region of the state of Karnataka in south
India also showed that the natural regeneration of species in the plantation is good and
similar to that in natural forests (Bhat et al, 2001). Table 2 below shows the comparison of
vegetation between several natural forest and plantation forests in India.
Table 2: Regeneration of natural species in man-made plantations in the Panchmahal district of Gujarat state
and the Uttara Kannada district in the Western Ghats of Karnataka state compared with the total species
composition of natural forests of the Valsad area of Gujarat. All values indicate the number of species per
hectare.
Life forms
Teak plantation in
Panchmahal1
Natural forest in
Valsad1
Tree species
88
Shrub and herb
19
species
Climber species
14
Grass species
16
Total species
137
Sources: 1Shah (1996) and 2Bhat et. al. (1984).
67
17
17
9
110
10
Eucalyptus
plantation
in Uttara Kannada2
25
11+7
Teak plantation
in Uttara Kannada2
1
2
44
44
24
10+8
The plantations in Uttara Kannada district are dominated by monocultures of exotic
species (Bhat et al, 2001). However, protections were given to the reforested areas in the
initial years, and it has promoted the regeneration of naturally occurring species (Bhat et al.,
2001). Table 3 shows the study in Uttara Kannada, in which significant natural
regeneration was observed under 6-y-old Joint Forest Management (JFM) plantations.
Table 3: Natural regeneration in 6-years-old JFM mixed-species plantations in the Uttara Kannada district,
Western Ghats, South India.
Village
Kalgadde
Nidgod
Illumane
HukliShiavlmane
Hulibailu
Total density
tree ha-1
Species planted
2003
1274
1708
1900
No. of
species ha-1
5
10
12
11
Tree density
ha-1
1455
1071
1658
1630
1545
6
1473
Species naturally
regenerating
No. of
Tree density
-1
species ha
ha-1
21
548
22
197
20
50
28
270
12
72
Source: Bhat et al., 2001
2.6.3 Sri Lanka
Most forests in Sri Lanka are secondary forests that are formed from swidden
agriculture. After the swidden field were abandon, the forest regenerates almost entirely by
vegetative regrowth rather than from seeds. This makes the secondary forest vegetation
very similar to the plant species existed prior to cultivation (Table 4). The young secondary
forests consist of mostly pioneer species that can reproduce from root suckers. A study
conducted in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka shows that 67% of the species and 57% of the individuals
that grow out immediately after swidden farming are early and late seral species (Perera,
1998). Also, at different ages of the forest, there are different plant associations (Table 5).
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Table 4: Similarity of species before and immediately after shifting cultivation at Sigiriya area in the dry
zone of Sri Lanka. Dominant species and families which composed 75% of the vegetation are given in
descending order of abundance. Species and families found in both before and after shifting cultivation are
underlined.
Value of Sorenson
coefficient
0.759 ± 0.106
Dominant
species
Dominant
families
Before shifting cultivation (12-15
year old secondary forest)
Chramolama odorata
Pterospermum suberifolium
Securinega leucopvrus
Catunaregam spinosa
Toddalia asiatica
Lantana camara
Greuiia damine
Mallatus philippensis
Zaiphus oenoplia
Solatia oblonga
After shifting cultivation
month old fallow forest)
Pterospermum suberifolium
Securinega leucopyrus
Chromolaena odorata
Grewia arientati
Mallatus philippensis
Grewia damine
Catunaregam spinosa
Toddalia asiatica
Euphorbiaceae
Asteraceae
Sterculiaceae
Rutaceae
Verbenaceae
Rubiaceae
Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Tiliaceae
Asteraceae
(1
Source: Perera, 1998
Table 5: Common plant associations in dry deciduous secondary forests.
Age of forest
>3 years
Plant associations
Many re-sprouted individuals
4-11 years
Phyllanthus polyphyllus -Croton
laccifer - Catunaregam spinosa* Securinega leucopyrus*
12-17 years
Ziziphus oenoplia* - Lantana
camara* - Catunaregam spinosa*
Securinega leucopyrus*
Grewia spp. - Pterospermum
suberifolium - Premna spp. Walsura trifoliolata
~18 years to old growth forest
*Shrubs with thorns or prickles.
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Other characteristics
Many agricultural weed and grass
species grow.
The soil is exposed to direct
sunlight.
Pseudo-canopy appears.
Individuals have many stems.
Croton laccifer grows well in
somewhat
shady/moist places (Dittus, 1977).
Thorny shrub species dominate
the land.
Tree species dominate the forest.
At early stage, the species diversity in dry deciduous regenerating forest increases
with succession. But at later stage, the species diversity decreases slightly. According to
Perera (1998), the species diversity is high in 20-25 years old forests, but low in old growth
forests. This finding agrees with the researches done by Cornell (1987) and Swaine & Hall
(1983) in the humid tropics, which is that forests in mid-successional stages have high
species and habitat diversities. Also, the diversity of plant family is lower in young fallow
forest, as compared to higher species diversity in mature swidden fallow secondary forests
(Perera, 2001).
2.6.4 Thailand
In secondary forest, most of the trees have small diameter, which results in high
density (1600 to 2000 trees ha-1) and low basal area (28 m2 ha-1) (Schmidt-Vogt, 2001).
Many tree species in secondary forests form high and narrow crowns to obtain more light
(Boojh & Ramakrishnan, 1982).
There are more than 30 species per 500 m2 in the tree layer of the most species-rich
swidden fallow secondary forest stands (Schmidt-Vogt, 2001). The most important species
are Schima wattichii and Eurya acuminata (Theaceae), Castanopsis armata, Lithocarpus
elegans and Quercus spp. (Fagaceae), Aporusa wallichii, A. vittosa and Glochidion
sphaerogynum (Euphorbiaceae), and Styrax benzoides (Styracaceae) (Schmidt-Vogt,
2001). The families Leguminosae, Lauraceae, Anacardiaceae, Ebenaceae, Rubiaceae,
Myrsinaceae and Caprifoliaceae are represented by the highest number of species
(Schmidt-Vogt, 2001).
13