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How to Study Guide
2013
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Learning Services Supporting innovation in teaching, learning and learner development
The Green Room, Library rm 217
www.roehampton.ac.uk/learningservices
Contents
How to… use this guide
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How to… improve your grades!
3
How to… take good notes
3
How to… read effectively
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How to... get the most out of lectures and seminars
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How to… give a presentation
13
How to... work in groups
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How to...write essays
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How to… write lab reports
35
How to… write dissertations
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How to…think critically
43
How to… avoid plagiarism
49
How to... reference
55
How to...get organised and meet deadlines
58
How to... prepare for exams
63
How to... get advice on your programme of study
73
How to… use the University’s Library
73
How to... use moodle
76
How to… get additional study advice and support
78
How to… improve your employability, find part time work, and
find a future career
82
How to… continue to improve your study skills
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How to… use this guide
Welcome to Roehampton
This ‘How to’ guide aims to help with some of the challenges and uncertainties
that come with starting a degree or other study programme.
The guide is divided into sections to give information about specific areas of
study skills and where to get help. Each section aims to give clear practical
guidance on different aspects of study. If you look through now, you will see
what it covers, and you will then be able to dip into the sections you need.
Study in Higher Education
Study in Higher Education (as the university sector is known) is different from
studying at school or college. The key differences most people find are:
You are responsible for your own learning
This means that you will have to go and find out information for yourself, for
example by using the library, and prepare work for assessment with greater
autonomy than you may have had in your previous experiences of study. This
includes checking what the requirements of your course are and meeting
deadlines.
You will be managing your own time
Meeting deadlines is very important. Your deadlines for several different pieces
of work will sometimes fall on the same day and you will have to plan in advance
to get all your work done on time.
You will be expected to develop critical and analytical skills
In practice, this means the ability to be sceptical and ask questions about facts,
ideas, explanations and theories. This is how our knowledge about the world
develops. Think of Galileo, for example, whose scepticism about the belief that
the sun went round the earth changed our view of the universe. As a student,
you do not have to come up with a new theory of the universe to be successful
but you do need to practise your critical and evaluative skills. This means
thinking about the information and ideas you come across, and not just
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accepting them as the 'truth'. When you form these judgements you must
provide supporting evidence.
You will need to present work in an acceptable academic form
Find out from your lecturers, and from programme handbooks, how your work
should be presented. There are always conventions, which may seem odd to you
at first (like how to present the list of books you used for your assignment)
which you have to follow. Some guidelines are given in this guide. Your course
tutor will also give you information about this in course handbooks on moodle
(the online learning environment for the university) and in your lectures.
You will be expected to participate in seminars and presentations
Some people will be used to this method of learning - to others it will be new. Do
not worry about feeling nervous; everybody feels nervous at some stage.
Talking through ideas is one of the best ways of understanding them. You will
gain a huge amount by participating actively.
We hope you enjoy your time studying here and find it valuable and exciting.
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How to… improve your grades!
The Academic Learning Advisers have created a number of study skills resources
to enable you to improve your grades. These are available via the Academic
Skills Development moodle site. The site can be found via the link below:
http://moodle.roehampton.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=226
Please note: you will need to login to moodle with your current Roehampton
username and password before you can access this site.
How to… take good notes
Note Taking
You will find you need to take notes while you are studying; it is also a skill you
will use after you leave Roehampton. Many people find it difficult to take notes
effectively.
It can be difficult to take notes quickly while you are in a lecture. Notes are only
helpful if you can refer back to them easily and find the information you need. In
addition when you are taking notes from your reading it is important that you
make it clear when you are using the ideas or words of the author.
A good note taking system will support your studies because you will be able to
extract the main points from a lecture or your reading, and understand those
points when you refer back to them. For this reason any system you use must
rely on taking down the key facts and information. It is equally important that
you allow space for your own comments and questions. If you are in a lecture
taking notes can be a good way to help you concentrate.
How to make good notesin lectures and seminars
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a) The more you know about a topic before you walk into your seminar or
lecture, the easier it will be to take notes. This is simply because there won't
be so much new information, and you will know what to expect. So one
important way to improve your notes is to check the title of the session
beforehand, and do any reading that has been recommended.
b) Lecturers often give handouts. If you are given handouts or have the
opportunity to print these out from Moodle beforehand, it can be
easier to make notes on these; you will need to write less, because some
of the information will already be on them. For example, you may not have to
write the date and title of the lecture if this is already printed out. You can
make a note of your thoughts and reactions alongside quotations or the
outline.
c) When making notes in a lecture write down the date of the session, its title
and what module it belongs to, and number every sheet to keep them in
order: it can help to put the date on every sheet in case they get mixed up
with other notes later. You can do this before the lecture/seminar starts.
d) Listen for the cues to the structure of the seminars or lectures. For
example, is the lecturer dealing with two opposing theories and then
demonstrating the strengths and weaknesses of both? Are they describing in
depth one theory, which they will go on to apply? What point does the case
study illustrate? The kind of cues to listen for are the ones like: “I'll give you
an example”, “There are three points supporting this”, “In conclusion”.
Track this structure in your notes and they'll be easier to understand later.
e) Experiment with how you keep your notes: you could try a bound notebook,
or loose sheets of A4 that you can file in a subject folder, or a spiral-bound
notebook with smaller sheets. Try plain paper, different line spacing or
coloured paper with little squares. Different things work for different people
and in different situations.
f) Do not write sentences (these take too long and have lots of unnecessary
words). Instead write down key words, which are much quicker to write. It
has also been shown that they are far more useful. By listening for the most
important words, people actually remember more of a lecture afterwards.
Key words are the ones that carry most information.
g) Think of good abbreviations to use. These can be symbols or shorter forms:
+ and
% percentage
/ or
∴ therefore
< less than
> greater than
+ ive positive
- ive negative
@ at
= equals/is the same
as/means
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h) Any words you use regularly can be shortened to a key letter or symbol: LC
for literary criticism; FR for French Revolution; F for Freud; P for patriarchy.
However, it is important not to be too creative or you will not remember what
your abbreviations stood for!
i) Think about using shapes and other visual prompts to make your notes
clear. Underline key words or put them in capital letters. Draw boxes round
them. If your lecturer makes a point and then gives five examples, draw a
box round the key point, then jot down the key words for each example,
drawing a line back to the main point to show the connection. Use a
highlighter pen to pick out the most important words. Use the space on your
page creatively to make notes as clear as possible.
j) Some people take their notes as mind maps or spider diagrams, with the
title of the lecture in the centre of the paper and all the ideas covered in the
lecture in bubbles radiating outwards, with subsidiary bubbles radiating off
them. Alternatively, you could use linear notes (where you note key points
using headings, subheadings and bullet points) or pattern notes (where you
use headings and use lines to link with sub points).
k) Some universities suggest their students divide an A4 page in half to take
notes. On the left-hand side you write down your key words and ideas from
the lecture. On the right hand side, you can put your personal comments,
questions, opinions and ideas. This can be very useful as it reminds you that
you aren't just there to accurately copy down information, you are there to
think about it too.
l) Go back to your notes within 24 hours to fill in any gaps, rewrite unclear
words, or add any thoughts you had about the subject matter. They will still
be in your short-term memory then - after that they'll probably be lost
forever! Tidying up your notes is usually more useful than rewriting
them, which uses up a lot of time.
m) Check your notes with a friend. This allows you to fill in any information
they got but you didn't, to check the accuracy of your notes, and to discuss
any points that were not clear. Doing this for 10 minutes over a cup of coffee
will be of enormous benefit to you in the long run, because you will
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understand the topic much better.
n) Do not be afraid to ask the lecturer to spell words, repeat dates, leave a
power point slide up for longer and so on. You will probably represent the
needs of at least half of the group if you do.
o) If you would like any specific support relating to note taking in lectures
because of a disability/dyslexia go to ‘How to get additional advice and
support’. This support may recommend that you are allowed to record the
content of lecture; it is a good idea to ask the lecturer’s permission to do this.
p) You may have a laptop that you wish to use in lectures to take notes. Many
lecturers will not object to this but it is a good idea to check at the beginning
of the first lecture for the module that this is acceptable.
How to take good notes from your reading
Important!
You must write down all the book/article/other source details, especially if you
are taking notes on separate paper. Nothing (except being interviewed for
plagiarism) is more frustrating than finding a perfect quotation but being
unable to use it because you don't know where it's from. Everyone has
forgotten to write down the details at least once in their lives and wasted
hours trying to find the source later.
So, before you write anything else, write down the author,
book/chapter/article/journal title, and editors if there are any, the date it
was published, the place it was published, if it's a book, and the page
number/s. For more advice see ‘How to avoid plagiarism’ and ‘How to
reference’.
Many of the points given above for note taking in lecture/seminars also apply
when you are reading. In addition, you may want to try the following:
a) Before you start reading, try asking yourself ―”what do I expect to learn
from this text?”, and make a list of a few questions you have:



what are the main points in this chapter?
what examples are used to illustrate the points?
are this person's ideas new?
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


if so, in what way?
are there any new words I need to learn?
how do the ideas in this source compare with other sources you have
read?
As you can see, these are quite general questions you could ask of almost any
article/chapter. If you do your reading looking for answers to these questions,
you are more likely to understand it, and read it faster. If you have written
down the answers to the questions, you will also have created clear notes,
which are your own interpretation of the article, not just a series of
quotations. Looking for the answers to these questions will also help you
concentrate.
b) If the article/chapter is an important one, make a photocopy. You can then
save a lot of time by using different coloured pens or highlighter pens to
annotate the text as you read. Mark the key words, the main points, any
good examples or quotations, book references you want to check, or ideas
and statements you agree or disagree with. Underline and highlight. Use
question marks, exclamation marks and lines in the margin. Write comments
to yourself in the margin to remind you later what you thought were
good/bad/confusing about the article/chapter. If the book is your own, you can
of course do this without taking a photocopy!
c) Keep a selection of post-its, in different sizes and colours. You can use these
to mark the text as you read, and to write notes on. The great advantage of
post-its is that you can use them on library books - but do remove them
before you return the book.
Tip for painless recall of notes:
Re-read your notes the next day, a week later and again a month later, and
you should find you know them with almost no effort. When you re-read your
notes use the ‘look away’ method, this is when you put the notes down and
summarise the content for yourself, to ensure that the information is in your
long term memory.
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How to… read effectively
Reading is an essential activity when studying at university. However, it is
possible to waste a huge amount of time by not doing it effectively. Here are
some guidelines to help you use your reading time as well as possible.
a) Don't just aim to read everything you can find from your reading list - you
need to plan your reading to get the most out of it. Check the books and
articles you have found for: (i) their date of publication; (ii) whether they
are collections of essays by experts, text books, or books on an author's
original research; (iii) how difficult you judge them to be; (iv)how useful
you judge them to be; (v) how much of them you will have to read.
b) Now you have got some idea of the complexity and the content of these
texts, select which books/chapters/articles you are going to read.
Introductions and conclusions are very useful because they often
summarise the writer's argument. Use the index and the glossary if there
is one; you may find it useful to keep a reference book of your subject
next to you - a dictionary of terms or an encyclopaedia, for example.
c) A useful strategy is to start with quickly skimming the section you are
going to read to get the main points and some idea of the structure.
Check the chapter titles, the key points made in the introduction, the final
points made in the conclusion. For a more thorough skimming, read the
first and last sentence or two of each paragraph; you can skip the
sentences in between.
Skimming is not 'cheating'; it is intelligent, preparatory reading. It
enables you to gain a sense of what a text covers and reveals what is going to
be important for you and what isn't. Remember, you need only read the parts of
a text that are relevant to your study. Don't be ashamed to skip what you don't
need to read. That's just sensible studying, after all.
Next, set yourself some tasks related to the reading - set yourself questions
to answer. These could be, for example, (i) what is the author's main point?
(ii)what is their evidence? (iii) what are the flaws in their approach ? (iv) how
does this link with or contradict other authors’ viewpoints? Or you could look for
which sections of the article are based on other people's publications and ideas,
and which appear to be original to the author.
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Then read the text, looking for the answers to your questions. The purpose
of the questions is to help you focus; you will notice if you stop paying attention
because you won't be able to answer your question! By having something
concrete to do as you read, you are also more likely to understand the text.
As you read, make notes or annotate the text to help you remember the
main points. Write down the answers to your questions, and any other ideas that
occur to you. It is not usually worthwhile copying long quotations out - if they
are really important, photocopy them and write your comments in the margin.
Don't forget to write down all the details of the book or article you will
need for your bibliography - including the page numbers of any
quotations.
If you feel you aren't concentrating very well, perhaps the text you are working
on is too demanding at the moment. If you can find an introductory text, or a
general reference text on a similar area, it may give you the background
knowledge you need to understand the more difficult one. Ask your lecturer for
advice.
Students who are really successful at their studies usually go significantly
beyond the reading their lecturers have set them. It can be very useful to find
and read journal articles in your field to help you to keep up to date with the
latest research in your subject area. It may also be useful to refer to conference
papers or newsletters from various organisations within your area of study –
some of which may be included on websites for large, reputable organisations or
in searchable databases.
See also ‘How to write essays’ and ‘How to take notes’ for more advice on
reading .
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How to... get the most out of lectures and seminars
What is a lecture?
Lectures are designed to:



Introduce and give an overview of the topic.
Provide a summary of the key themes, debates and controversies.
Be a prompt for carrying out further reading and research of a topic.
Preparing for a lecture
Effective preparation beforehand can make following the lecture more useful.
To prepare you should:




Look at your module handbook and become familiar with the weekly topic.
Check Moodle to obtain handouts and recommended reading list.
Ensure you attempt the recommended reading prior to the lecture and
make notes of any questions you may have or thoughts for further
clarification.
Be prepared to contribute during the lecture as you may be called upon to
comment on the reading.
During the lecture
Arrive on time to your lecture to ensure you obtain the best seat to enable you
to listen effectively and take notes.
Listening:
 Focus on what is being said.
 While listening consider the following:
o Do you agree with the information presented?
o What evidence is there to support your position?
o Can you establish links with viewpoints from other sources and
lectures?
Note-taking techniques:


Develop a personalised system to take notes efficiently.
Notes should act as prompts for further clarification and consideration.
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


Avoid writing in continuous prose; only record key points and leave space
to add notes from further reading.
Underline or highlight terminology and any acronyms that require
explanation.
For further support with note taking see the How to… take good notes
section of this guide.
After the lecture
To make the most of your lectures it will help if you:




Talk with peers to compare and contrast alternative viewpoints.
Review your notes to identify areas which require further reading or
research.
Establish a filing system which is categorised by topic for easy reference.
As well as hard copies, produce an electronic filing system for notes and
articles.
What is a seminar?
A seminar is a forum to discuss and share ideas generated from the lecture. A
seminar will:



Provide an opportunity for students to discuss the topic in more detail.
Give multiple perspectives from student peers.
Enhance your critical thinking skills.
Why participate?
Active participation enables the development of oral communication, increases
self-confidence and it will:



Result in interactive discussion with peers and lecturers.
Reaffirm your understanding of a topic.
Give the opportunity for Academic staff to hear your points of view.
Preparation
Instead of passively listening and taking notes, take advantage of the
opportunity to comment on reading and topics. To increase your contributions in
seminars there are several steps that you can take:


To feel confident to participate it is important to have attempted the
recommended reading.
Seminars only work if people have done the reading and thought critically
beforehand about the topics.
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
Ask yourself questions about the topic, or your reading, think about when
the text was written and by whom, what its biases are, and what your
view is.
Taking part: listening and speaking
Listening and speaking are both important. Try to:





Listen to what other people are saying: you may not agree with the point,
but that does not mean it is not important.
Practise making your point as well as acknowledging someone else's
viewpoint.
Monitor how much you contribute to allow others to contribute as well.
If you are someone who is anxious about public speaking plan your
question beforehand to give you the confidence to contribute. Aim to
speak at least once in each seminar.
Sit next to a peer with whom you feel at ease.
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How to… give a presentation
Why do lecturers use oral presentations?
Many careers involve speaking to groups of people in meetings or other
circumstances. Developing your communication skills is very important to future
employers and whether or not this includes the use of power point, being able to
demonstrate increased confidence in making presentations will support many job
applications. In addition, presentations are useful because researching and
presenting a subject usually results in better understanding and recall. By
gaining experience of giving presentations at Roehampton you will be able to
demonstrate that you can follow a ‘brief’, understand how to select information
and present it articulately.
Why are presentations beneficial? Because you:








Can attend presentations given by members of your peer group that can
stimulate interesting discussions. Presentations provide a chance for you
to develop your own thoughts and ideas.
Have the opportunity to practise giving presentations before you get into
the world of work; many people have to make presentations to be
awarded contracts, for example. Through presenting in your lectures and
seminars you can give yourself a head start in a relatively safe
environment.
Have someone other than the lecturer to listen to.
Have the chance to meet and work with other people, and enjoy the team
effort of putting your ideas together, when preparing group presentations.
Usually have some flexibility in the topic you present. It is your chance to
do something that interests you; if you're interested in the topic, your
presentation will benefit!
Can prepare and take all the materials in with you, unlike some exams.
Are sometimes set a presentation as part of the preparation for an
assignment. This then allows you to begin your research early and have a
stronger understanding of the topic as you need to be able to explain this
topic to other people.
Are assessed on your presentation as part of your assignments for that
module.
But, in the meanwhile, you need to practise the skills……
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What makes a good oral presentation?
a) It has to be audible. If the class can't hear you, they are not going to pay
attention. Looking up and making eye contact with people at the back of the
room will help you project your voice. Try to reduce the amount of
unnecessary noise around you; for example, if the classroom is by a busy
road, it may be worth making sure all the windows are closed, at least for
your presentation.
b) It has to be the appropriate length. Make sure you know how much time
you actually have, and practise the timing of your talk. There is nothing
worse than having to squash enough material for one hour into ten minutes.
You don't necessarily have to talk non-stop; you can leave time for questions
or discussion. You may also be able to include a ‘group activity’ for the other
students to complete and then discuss as a group.
c) The content of your presentation needs to be relevant to the module and to
your audience. Address your fellow students, not the lecturer, and make sure
the content is appropriate to their level of knowledge.
d) Talk to your audience rather than reading your notes out. It will be far
more interesting and far easier for them to follow.
e) Your presentation should have a clear structure. Your audience will quickly
get lost if you jump around and don't make the structure explicit. Putting a
slide up first with the outline of your talk will help your audience pick out
your main points. It is helpful if you give ‘sign posts' to the structure of your
talk: for example you could start by saying “first, I am going to talk through
some definitions of X and then discuss the role of Y within Z” and later “so,
I've spoken about X, now I'll go on to Y”.
f) Aim for a presentation style that holds the attention of your audience.
Use understandable and clear language, slides, handouts, questions and
discussion. Look at the audience, make eye contact, smile. Ask the audience
questions, or ask them to discuss a point. Try not to distract the audience
with unnecessary fidgeting.
g) Your audience should have something to look at apart from you. It is hard
just to listen to someone talk. Use clear handouts/ slides/flip charts/etc.
Provide handouts containing a summary of the presentation, follow-up
reading, and any other crucial information. Make sure that your slides are
written/printed in a large font, and that not too much information is squashed
on to one slide (5 lines is sometimes suggested as the maximum amount for
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a slide). If you are using any multimedia make sure you know how to use the
equipment before you start. A visit to the room before the class is a very
good idea! You can also prepare flip charts beforehand.
h) Think about your timing. Check you know how much time you have to fill
and have a fairly good idea how long your material will take to cover. If you
are introducing a new idea to your audience, slow down a bit and be
prepared to explain it again in another way if necessary.
i) If you are presenting as part of a group, make sure everyone is clear about
their tasks and what they will need to do and when - you don't want three
people all doing the same thing. Think about who will stand and sit where
(and practise arranging the necessary furniture in the room beforehand).
Groups give you the opportunity to divide the topic into sections, with each
person presenting a section. Be careful however, that there is continuity and
each part is relevant. Someone should give an introduction and a conclusion
to hold the whole talk together.
j) Ask for feedback from the group and/or your lecturer on what was
good/bad, and what could be changed. It will help you improve for next time.
Preparing the presentation
Try answering the following questions. It may help you clarify what you are
going to do. Add any questions that will help you:









How long have I got?
What do I need to include to cover the topic?
Where can I find out information?
Have I cut out everything which isn't relevant?
Is the structure clear?
What handouts do I need?
When and how will I use them?
What activities can the group take part in?
Can I present from my notes without reading word for word?
Have a run through and then think about the questions again.
Before the presentation


Have I got the handouts/ slides etc. in the right order?
Have I got my notes to refer to?
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
Do I have the chance to familiarise myself with the technology in the
room?
During the presentation









Take a deep breath.
Relax and smile!
Use prompt cards.
Talk to the back of the room, so your voice carries.
Look at your audience.
Take your time and speak clearly.
Give the opportunity to ask questions/clarify issues.
Be flexible; if your audience doesn't understand, be prepared to re-think.
If someone throws in a question you are not entirely sure about, open it
up to the group to discuss.
This is the topic you have researched: relax and enjoy telling the rest of the
group. If you are enthusiastic, it will come across.
After the presentation
Feedback from the lecturer and/or group will be invaluable to your improvement.
Ask them the following questions:






What were the strengths of my presentation?
Did the handouts/slides etc. work well?
Did the group participate in/enjoy the activities?
Could I be heard? Did I hide? Did I make eye contact?
What were the weaknesses?
What could be improved for next time?
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How to... work in groups
There are distinct skills that can be gained from working in groups, and many
employers look for these skills when recruiting. Group working gives you
valuable experience of team working, communication skills, managing projects
and coordinating the work of others by agreeing roles and tasks and checking on
progress of the project.
Being a student is not just about working alone; it's also about working with
others. This might mean working in pairs and groups in seminars, working on
joint projects, and preparing and delivering joint presentations.
In seminars you'll be given a focus (e.g. a passage from a text, a concept, a
case study) for paired or group work. If the focus isn't clear, ask your lecturer to
clarify it. You may need to decide who should report back to the whole group
and who should record the discussion. Listen carefully to what others say,
respecting their views, and contribute your own perspective.
Whenever you are working in a group follow the guidance below to get the most
out of this experience:












Establish ground rules (when, where, how long you meet, what to do if
someone dominates or doesn't contribute).
Be clear about the purpose of the group (the task's focus and what's
required to fulfil it).
Define clear roles (who takes notes, who chairs meetings, who'll write
what, says what, etc).
Share the workload evenly (establish this at the beginning, and re-visit
later if necessary).
Consider the individual strengths and requirements of group members
when allocating roles and responsibilities.
Contribute to discussion (you don't have to speak all the time - far from
it! - but try to make a contribution to each meeting. Make some notes
beforehand to which you can refer as prompts, if necessary).
Listen carefully to others (respect different opinions. Learn from others).
Make criticisms of others constructive (begin by recognising strong points,
then move on to areas for development).
Check and revise each other's sections in group-written assignments.
Revise the completed assignment well before the handing-in date.
Practise group presentations before formal delivery.
Discuss how well the group worked and what you might do differently
next time.
Learn Higher has created a number videos about group working:
www.learnhighergroupwork.com
17
Speak to your lecturer at any stage if there are problems you cannot
deal with as a group.
18
How to...write essays
You might find it useful to refer to ‘How to avoid plagiarism' whilst preparing and
writing your essay.
What is an essay for?
An essay is a piece of writing which is structured according to the written
conventions within your discipline. Essay questions usually aim to give you the
opportunity to:



demonstrate you know and understand specific information relating to
your module.
critically engage with debates in your subject whilst developing your own
ideas.
show how you handle information, i.e. how you organise it, analyse it and
evaluate it.
Your lecturers will assess the extent to which you demonstrate these skills.
Essay questions
a) Choosing a title
There is a tendency to select the shortest essay question believing it to be a
‘soft’ option. This is not always the case as in some instances questions which at
first appear more complex can provide you with a more detailed account of what
information is required to answer the question. An essay title is not an invitation
to present all that you know about a subject. Instead you are required to select
and filter your reading and thinking in order to present the most relevant
information to answer the question.
b) Analysing a title
When you first analyse an essay title, a good way to start is to pick out the key
words. These words fall into three categories: content-related words,
instruction-related and scope/limiting words. Sometimes the types of
words described below can fall into more than one category and they may be
related to each other.
19
Content-related words
These are the words that signal to you what you should write about.
Instruction-related words
These are the words that indicate how you should write about it.
Scope or limiting words
These are words that set the scope or limit to the answer.
Example
“Pressure groups have never successfully affected government policy. Evaluate
this statement with reference to at least three pressure group campaigns from
the last five years.”
The key content words in this example are:





pressure groups
government policy
three campaigns
last five years
this statement
The key instruction word is:

evaluate
Scope or limiting words
 last five years
 at least
The words ‘never ’ and ‘successfully’ in this question are interesting and might
require careful thought and discussion.
The content words set the parameters for what you can write about. The
instruction words control your approach. Sometimes questions do not
include any instruction words, in which case you will probably need to ensure
that you cover the relevant background information/facts, and include analysis
and evaluation of them.
Some key instruction words can be found on the next page.
20
Account for: give a clear explanation of something and evaluate (possible)
causes/reasons.
Analyse: examine the topic by dividing it into parts and looking at each part in detail;
form judgements about each element.
Argue: construct a case (a reasoned viewpoint, something that can be argued) in an
appropriate order, citing evidence, which may be other people's research, or other
kinds of facts/information.
Assess: judge the significance of something, referring to the special knowledge of
experts wherever possible (i.e. referring to/quoting from other people's work).
Comment on: give your own opinion about something, supported by reasons and
evidence.
Compare: examine one thing in relation to something else, to emphasise points of
difference or similarity.
Contrast: explore the differences between two things.
Criticise: give your judgements about the good and/or bad qualities of
theories/opinions supporting your decisions with reasons and evidence.
Define: explain the exact meaning of a word or phrase.
Describe: give a full account or detailed representation of something.
Discuss: consider something by writing about it from different points of view with
supporting evidence.
Enumerate: list and mention items separately in number order.
Evaluate: calculate the value/effectiveness of a theory/decision/object etc., including
your own opinion, and supporting each point with evidence.
Explain: give reasons for or account for something, so it is clear/easy to understand.
Illustrate: use examples or diagrams to explain something.
Interpret: give your own opinion of the significance of something (give
reasons/evidence wherever possible).
Justify: give good reasons for decisions or conclusions, perhaps by referring to other
texts.
Outline: give the main features, facts, or general idea of something, omitting minor
details.
Prove: show something is accurate/true/valid by using facts, documents and/or other
information to build your case.
Reconcile: show how apparently conflicting things can appear similar or compatible.
Relate: establish how things are connected or associated, how they affect each other
or how they are alike.
Review: to examine an area and assess it critically.
Show: explain something giving evidence or examples to establish a strong case.
State: put something clearly and concisely.
Summarise: give a brief, concise account of the main points of something (leaving
out details).
Trace: follow the cause or stages in development of something.
(Adapted from Casey, F. (1985) How to Study: a practical guide, London:
Macmillan)
21
You may also find it helpful to re-write the question in your own words. Your
interpretation of the essay title can then be clarified with the lecturer to ensure
you have fully understood the key requirements of the assignment. Ensure that
your essay title is visible throughout the whole writing process by sticking it up
on the wall above your desk.
Devising your own essay title
Some modules will require you to devise your own essay title. A well constructed
title will result in a well structured and logical piece of writing.
a) Devise a title that provides you with the opportunity to critically analyse
and evaluate contrasting opinions. Refer to the list of instruction terms
discussed previously to determine how you want to answer the question.
Essays that analyse and explore debates engage the reader, present
various perspectives and develop a well constructed argument.
b) Essay titles should be simple and easy to deconstruct. Avoid long,
complex titles and terminology.
c) If using a quotation within the essay title, ensure it is concise and it is
followed by an assignment question. Do not simply write a quotation and
follow with ‘discuss’.
d) Ask a peer or friend to read through your essay title to ensure it is clear
and concise.
e) The title should be narrowly defined. When devising your title avoid
setting out to explore a ‘whole’ subject, instead focus on a particular
period of time or geographical location.
For example: To what extent can it be argued that childhood has
disappeared?
This question is very vague and is unmanageable. An alternative essay
title could be:
To what extent can it be argued that childhood in 21st century Britain has
disappeared?
This version clearly outlines the focal point of the essay and ensures you
have a framework in which to work and focus your reading.
Planning your essay
22
Students sometimes go wrong when planning essays because they assume they
need to read a lot before they start to plan. The problem with this is that the
student rapidly acquires a lot of information that is very difficult to organise, and
the more they read, the worse it gets! A way of approaching your essay that
avoids this problem is to follow the sequence below:
a) Analyse the title - what does it require?
b) Find out the essential information - check any words in the title you
do not understand in a general reference book like an encyclopaedia, or a
reference text for your discipline. Try to avoid any reading yet.
c) Start to plan the structure of your essay. You should see what the
question needs you to put in your essay. Then when you do start to read,
your reading will be more focused. Some ways of starting to structure
your essay could include:



talk the title through with a friend
talk it though to yourself
draw a ‘mind map’. Write the main areas of your essay in the centre of
a large sheet of paper. ‘Brainstorm' ideas connected with them,
drawing in lines to show how they connect, and annotating the
connecting lines. Add more ideas in bubbles as they occur to you, till
you have a map of your essay, with all the ideas linked draw a flow
diagram, which is a series of boxes connected to one another, with a
stage of your argument in each box.
d) Look at the word count for the essay and decide how many
paragraphs this is likely to require.
For example, an essay of 2,000 words would need:



Introduction (10%)
200 words
Main body of the essay
1,600 words
(if your paragraphs are 250-300 words = 5/6 paragraphs)
Conclusion (10%)
200 words
This calculation can be done for other word counts. When you know how
many paragraphs you are likely to write you will be able to plan the
sequence of main points following your reading.
As you plan, start thinking about:



what areas are very complex and need more development
what areas need an example or illustration
what areas need references
23
As academic writing is highly structured you must produce a plan. This
will speed up the writing and research process. Planning an assignment
provides an opportunity to think through and develop arguments and
avoids illogical structure and repetition.
e) The next stage is to read, because now you should be much clearer about
what you need to find out from the texts. The planning you have done will
save you a considerable amount of time and make your reading much
more effective. This is because as you are searching for something
specific, you are more likely to recognise it when you find it. People
probably learn as much from the process of writing as they do from
reading – it is the time you really make sense of the new ideas.
f) Decide on the structure of your essay. For example, will each paragraph
be ordered in terms of themes or chronological progression of a
theme/idea? The order of your paragraphs should be structured so that
the argument presented in paragraph two depends upon the prior
establishment of the argument in paragraph one and so on. Each
paragraph should move the argument forward.
g) Remember that your paragraph needs planning as well:
Topic sentence: What is your point? Introduce your topic by using a
simple statement: ‘It is evident that’. Topic sentences indicate the
direction the paragraph is taking.
Evidence: Provide evidence to support your point. ‘Brown suggests’.
Evaluation: Explain how the discussion of the evidence answers the
question and supports your argument.
h) You are ready to write a draft essay now - first though you may need to
re-plan the essay in the light of your reading. This is fine - it proves you have
learnt from the reading! When you are drafting, it is more important to write
something than to get it perfect.
If there are any real tangles, leave them for the time being; they may be
clearer later.
i) Revise your draft - be quite ruthless if necessary. There is a saying that
―to be a good writer, you have to be prepared to ‘murder your darlings’! This
means that you may have to edit out some parts that you have spent some
time writing.
j) When you are happy with the content of your essay - or when you have
run out of time (this happens to everyone!) - MAKE SURE YOU PROOF
READ YOUR ESSAY for accuracy. When you have completed your piece of
work, put it to one side for a couple of days (or as long as you can). Then
print it out and read it out loud again, making corrections as appropriate.
24
k) Make sure you back it up every time you work on it, either on the
University server or a memory stick/CD/DVD. It is also a good idea to email
an electronic copy to your Roehampton email account. Ensure you keep all
your notes and plans in a folder as well as a hard copy of the essay. Do not
throw anything away until you graduate.
Proof Reading
Accuracy: If at all possible, print out a copy of the draft to have an alternative
format to read to the usual on screen viewing of your work. Check the essay title
has no mistakes in it and then that the text you have written actually answers
the question or title you have chosen.
Spelling: Sit down with a dictionary and a ruler and work through your essay
line by line backwards, starting at the end, using the ruler to focus on each
word. If you are word processing, use a spellcheck. Even so, you will need to
check your essay for ‘typos', such as ‘fro' instead of ‘for' and ‘form' instead of
‘from', which your computer will not spot. Also, make sure the computer is
checking for UK English not American English.
Punctuation: Read the essay aloud, slowly, as if you were giving a speech. In
particular check for mistakes with apostrophes, verb tenses, inconsistent use of
single and plural subjects and verb forms and run on sentences.
References: Cross-check that all of the work quoted or theorists named in your
essay are in your reference list.
Please see below for some additional common mistakes made by students:

Use of colloquialisms or clichés: e.g. “On my placement there was never a
dull moment”; “I was over the moon”

Starting sentences with conjunctions: or, and, but, yet

Using abbreviations without spelling the words out first: e.g. NHS, dept

Using contractions outside of dialogue: can’t, won’t, I’ll, he’ll

Incorrect/lack of use of transitional words: however, therefore,
furthermore

Writing with too much certainty: “This is this way because….”
Writing introductions
If you find it difficult to write your introduction before you have written the rest
of the essay, it can be written last of all. There are several ways you can
approach an introduction:
25
a) “This is what I am going to tell you”
Your introduction can be a ‘map of the essay' for the reader. This means you will
list the key stages of your essay, so your reader knows what to expect in what
order. This approach is particularly useful for longer assignments, as it prepares
the reader and helps them to follow your arguments, but try not to simply
repeat the wording of the question.
For example:
In this essay the arguments around X will be outlined and critically evaluated.
The approach adopted will be predominantly A, but consideration will also be
given to B and C. A review of the effects of X in the context of M and L will be
conducted which will form the basis of the conclusion drawing upon recent
research in this area published by Z.
b) “Thesis statement”
Your introduction can be a summary of your overall argument, i.e. a ‘thesis
statement'. For example:
In this essay it will be argued that X is Y. The evidence for this is A, B, and C.
The counter-evidence offered by P, will show that it is inconsistent with P's later
claims. The essay will demonstrate that when X is treated as Y, it can be applied
effectively and efficiently in context O.
(In most dissertations, you should devote approximately 250 - 300 words to the
thesis statement; it is then called an ‘abstract', and you should place it at the
front of the dissertation on a separate page)
c) “Why is this an interesting question”
You can use the opening paragraph to discuss why this is a worthwhile question
to ask and to answer. This is a sophisticated opening, showing the extent to
which you understand the context of the question. For example:
The question of X has attracted considerable controversy recently. This is
because of the 1995 Public Access Act. Changes in the context have also focused
attention on X, and with current changes in the distribution of funding, the role
of X in society is becoming increasingly significant.
There is no reason why, for a longer essay of 5000 words or more, you should
not use all three of these introduction styles. The best order is probably: 2
(thesis statement/abstract), 3 (why this is an interesting question), and then 1
(this is what the essay is going to tell you). For shorter essays, choose one - or
reduce them all to a sentence or two.
Writing conclusions
Many people find writing conclusions difficult. Again, there are actually a few
models you can choose from:
26
a) “I have told you”
This is probably the simplest way to finish your essay (and the one most people
opt for in exams). You simply summarise the content of your essay, drawing
attention to your main points. The disadvantage with this is that for a relatively
short essay, your reader will probably still remember what you told them; it
adds little to your essay, it is just a way of stopping! However, if your essay is
longer than perhaps 4,000 words, it is always worth including a short summary the reader can refer to it if they have missed any of your main points.
For example:
This essay has sought to explore X, Y and Z by drawing upon literature from A
and B.
b) “My answer to this question is”
If you have so far described the arguments for and against a particular point of
view, you can use the conclusion to give your own perspective and explain why
you hold this viewpoint. You need to be careful though, because the conclusion
is not a good place to introduce new information. It is better to evaluate
information you have already given earlier in the essay. If you find yourself
tempted to introduce new ideas, you should go back and build them into your
essay.
For example:
There are strong arguments supporting X and Y. However, the arguments for Z
perhaps carry more weight. This is suggested in particular by factors A, B and C.
c) “A comparative evaluation”
You can use your conclusion to look at the arguments you have raised from a
different point of view, to acknowledge that there is more than one way to view
the situation.
For example:
Although it is true that A and B are regarded in Europe as X, from the
perspective of another culture they might appear Y.
d) “Where this essay could go next”
When someone completes a research paper, they usually end by suggesting
what the next person to do research in that area needs to look at.
For example:
Having shown that potatoes can be poisonous when consumed in large
quantities, future research might investigate the long term effects of eating
potatoes on cats, dogs, pregnant women, and people who live in Liverpool.
27
This again is a sophisticated ending, to be used if you are fairly confident about
the topic you are writing about, but to be avoided otherwise, because it can also
expose what you do not know!
To use this approach in your essay, you could identify gaps in ‘current
knowledge'.
For example:
Although there is considerable knowledge about A, and its effect on B, there is
as yet little information about the effect of A on C, particularly from the
perspective of D. Until more is known about this area, conclusions must remain
tentative.
Again, you might choose one of these endings for a shorter essay, and a
combination of several, or all of them for a longer piece of work, like a
dissertation.
Tips on content
a) As we have discussed, a thesis is a point of view, a claim, or an attitude you
want to support/prove/explain which should be at the centre of your essay. Try
to keep the focus on your argument throughout your essay – do not get
sidetracked or wander off from the main point.
b) Be aware of other points of view. You only have to think about the different
beliefs people held 100 years ago, or that people from different cultures hold, to
realise that different points of view can be held on absolutely everything. You
need to acknowledge this diversity - and comment on why you hold the view
that you do. Use appropriate examples and illustrations to support your points
as these really help to give weight to your ideas.
c) Identify relations between different facts and ideas, make comparisons, point
out contrasts and draw analogies as appropriate.
d) Give your evidence, and weigh it up, pointing out any flaws or ambiguities in
it.
e) Try to keep every sentence you write relevant to the overall direction of your
essay. This is very hard at first, but it gets easier with practise.
Tips on style
a) Should you use ‘I' or not?
This may be to do with style. Some disciplines like you to write in a formal style,
and this will involve not using the words ‘I' or ‘my' or ‘me'. Other disciplines may
be less formal and will accept ‘I', particularly when you are writing reflectively.
You may also need to consider how objective/subjective your discipline expects
you to be. If you are studying a science subject, you will be expected to write in
28
an objective, impersonal way, and therefore you will not be expected to use ‘I'.
Some other disciplines like a degree of subjectivity - your personal response and will be quite happy for you to use ‘I' to indicate your viewpoint. Reflective
essays which require a personal response allow the use of ‘I’ in the essay. The
best thing to do is ask your lecturer before you write the essay. You can also
consult your programme handbook for guidance.
b) Use appropriate terms to signal the stages in your argument and identify
transition from one point to another; for example, ‘however', ‘despite the fact
that', ‘an additional example is', and so on. This is called signposting, and
helps your reader to follow your reasoning processes. The best way to use
transitional words and phrases effectively is to think of the context in which they
should be placed. Do not just choose a word because you think it will work – be
certain of the word’s meaning in the context of your sentences. Below you will
find a list of some transitional phrases/conjunctive adverbs and their possible
use. The groupings are a guide to their usage; however, there is a lot of
potential crossover between the groups.
Example Transitional Phrases
Additions: in addition, also, similarly, likewise.
Summary: overall, finally, thus, undoubtedly.
Reinforcement: above all, moreover, furthermore, accordingly, nevertheless,
notably.
Contrast: comparatively, conversely, alternatively, meanwhile, however,
elsewhere.
Result/consequence: accordingly, consequently, subsequently, therefore,
as a result
Remember, transitional phrases will improve the flow of your argument
and prevent your points and references from seeming isolated within
your essay. Transitional phrases should, however, be used carefully, and
only when their meaning appropriately enhances your argument.
c) Whilst writing ‘academically’ takes time and practise, you should be trying to
use the appropriate vocabulary within your discipline. It may be helpful to start a
29
checklist of the words associated with a certain topic, together with short
definitions.
d) The important thing is that you are clear, relevant, and that the only claims
you make within your essay you can support, either with quotations or with
other evidence. You should also look at section 12 on presenting bibliographies
and quotations in this guide.
What do lecturers look for in a successful essay?
Many students feel unsure about what their lecturers are looking for when they
are marking essays. You should check your programme's assessment criteria,
and remember that there can be variations from discipline to discipline.
However, you may find the very rough guide below to the different classifications
helpful. Remember that criteria can vary between programmes. If you are on a
combined honours programme make sure you read the criteria for both of your
disciplines.
Although there will be some differences from discipline to discipline, the main
difference is between the ability to ‘regurgitate' information (which probably
won't earn you above a 2.2), and the ability to analyse your knowledge to put in
context, and to see the implications of your argument (which are the
expectations of a piece of work gaining a 2.1 or a 1st).
Rough guidelines to marking criteria:
 A condonable fail: evidence of some knowledge of the basic aspects
of a topic; perhaps contains irrelevant or muddled materials; confusion of
theoretical positions; little evidence of reading or the use of conceptual
models; descriptive, not analytical or evaluative.
(grade: 30% - 39% or ‘F’)

Third: a grasp of the basic issues demonstrated; attempt to relate the
material to the essay question; largely descriptive but some evidence of
reading; some understanding of relevant theory, but perhaps some main
points missed out, or interpreted inaccurately. (grade: 40% - 49% or ‘D’)

2.2: a good description of the topic, perhaps without much analysis or
critical thinking; an adequate structure; an evaluative conclusion;
question analysed and most material relevant to the question; use of
some appropriate theoretical models.
(grade: 50% - 59% or ‘C’)

2.1: demonstration of knowledge across substantive areas and
fluent use of theory and concepts; evidence of background knowledge
30
and reading; sound structure and cohesive (a good ‘flow'); some critical
evaluation. (grade: 60% - 69% or ‘B’)

1st: as well as a good grasp of all the relevant facts and analysis/critical
thinking (as described for a 2.1), a first class essay puts ideas into
context, can be self- evaluative and self-critical, and will have some
original thinking in it. It will be very clearly structured and completely
relevant to the question. (grade: 70%+ or ‘A’)
Checklist for essay self-assessment
Using a self-assessment list is a good way of improving your ability to
judge your own work, which is a very important stage in improving the
work itself. Copy the checklist below and use it before you submit your essay;
check it against your marker's comments afterwards. This list is for your use;
you do not have to show it to anyone else.
Checklist


















Background reading
Proof reading
Understanding of topic
Sentence structure
Understanding of theoretical issues
Spelling
Relevance of answer to question
Cohesion (flow, pointing out connections between stages of
argument)
Thesis' statement
Introduction
Clear argument
Paragraph structure (length, organisation)
Original thought
Use of appropriate evidence
Appropriate use of terminology
Analysis and evaluation
Conclusion
References and bibliography
Writing Reflective Essays
There are several courses at Roehampton that require students to write
reflectively. Reflective essays may be asked for occasionally or they may be a
core feature on most or all of the assignments you are asked to submit. Either
way, a reflective essay should follow a similar structure to other academic
31
essays in that it needs to comply with the rules of academic tone and style and
still needs to follow proper referencing conventions (when references are
needed).
Reflective writing is more personal than other kinds of academic writing. We all
think reflectively in everyday life, of course, but perhaps not to the same depth
as that expected in good reflective writing at university level. Below are some
guidelines to help you structure and write your reflective essay.
In an academic context, reflecting writing usually includes:





Evidence of reflective thinking – being able to review what you have done
and why you have done it in a clear and succinct way.
Analysing the experience – looking at the experience from all angles and
being aware of your strengths as well as any weaknesses.
Making reference to theory or research – linking what you may have noticed
to the overall theory. This includes critical evaluation as well: looking at
situations in which the theory seemed to be supported and other times when
it fell down.
Using critical thinking, reading and writing – keeping an open mind when
reading, writing or experiencing and not being afraid to question or critique
the “experts”.
Reflecting forward - thinking about what your experience means for you and
your process as a learner and a professional going forward.
Reflective writing can help with:






Understanding your strengths and weaknesses, allowing you to learn and
grow as a result of an experience.
Identifying and questioning your underlying values and beliefs.
Acknowledging and challenging possible assumptions on which you base your
ideas, feelings and actions.
Recognising areas of potential bias or discrimination in you, in others and in
research.
Acknowledging your fears – in reflective writing, it is okay to admit that you
struggled in places or made some mistakes. It is all part of the learning
process.
Identifying possible inadequacies or areas for improvement – being honest
with yourself as to what your next steps might be e.g. you may need to gain
further understanding about the theory before moving on to another
experience.
Reflective Essay Structure
Reflective writing can typically be broken down into three parts. This is just one
way of structuring a reflective writing essay, however, so please check with your
lecturer to ensure that you are covering all of the points and areas that you need
to be covering:
32

Description – what happened/is being examined? What did you do/say?
Who else was involved?
o

Interpretation – what is important about this experience? How did it make
you feel? How is it similar/different to current theory ?
o

This should be the briefest section as it is really just setting the
scene for the discussion and analysis to come. Do not get into too
much detail here or you could waste your word count on being
overly-descriptive and may lose marks in the process.
This is the most important section as it illustrates what you have
learned from your experience. It is important to use examples here
to give an insight to the reader about how these made you think
differently, upheld/went against a theory or provided you with an
important learning experience.
Outcome – what have I learned? What might I have done differently?
What does this mean for my future?

This is the area in which you begin to “reflect forward” on your
experiences. Based on everything that you tried, learned or
discovered. It is important to discuss how all of this affects you as
a student (i.e. how it aids in your understanding about yourself and
the method/theory). It is also useful to ascertain how your learning
will impact on you one day as a professional in your field.
Reflective Essay Writing Tips
Here are some tips on writing an effective reflective essay:


Try not to confine your writing to the event and your feelings – try to see
your experience from a greater perspective to review its impact.
Use examples to raise new questions or to speculate about
causes/reasons
For example:
Once a teacher came into the play therapy area of the room when I was with a
child. I felt angry that she just barged in on our session, not respecting my
boundaries.
Instead: Once a teacher came into the play therapy area of the room when I
was with a child and it made me feel angry. Clearly this behaviour was not
appropriate. However, upon reflection, I realised that this teacher was new and
perhaps did not understand that the area I was working in had been set aside
33
for the purpose of therapy. It reminded me to explain to all of the staff using the
room what my purpose was there. That way a situation like this could be
avoided in the future.

When writing reflectively, it is important to not just write about experience
(what happened) but to also link the experience to theory.
For example:
Rogers (1989) states that it is important that therapists experience an empathic
understanding of their client's internal frame of reference. I find that I
experience a strong sense of empathy when I allow myself to focus only on what
the client is saying, quieting my own internal voice. I practiced doing this in my
triad group last week and found myself really able to concentrate on what Karen
was saying. As a result, Karen seemed more comfortable in talking about her
relationship with her father, whereas in the past she seemed reluctant to discuss
this matter.

Be aware of what tense you are writing in as reflective writing often
requires movement between past, present and future tenses.
For example:
As part of my placement at Queen Mary’s Hospital I worked closely with the
nursing staff. They were very supportive of me and often answered my
questions (past). Upon reflection, I feel as though I was an integral part of the
team (present). I will be able to use the communication skills I learnt in this
placement in my future work (future)
Common Mistakes in Reflective Writing
Reflective writing can be interesting as well as challenging. Be aware that even
though you are able to use the first person in reflective writing, this is by no
means a sign that you can depart from the normal academic writing
conventions. Therefore, you must reference where appropriate and keep to a
structure to avoid going off on a tangent and confusing the reader.
34
How to… write lab reports
What is a lab report?
If you are studying science, at some point you will be expected to write a report.
Between disciplines there are slight differences in the report writing conventions
used. However, there is a general agreement about the structure of a report.
The aim of a report is to inform others of your research findings and what they
mean. The report needs to be written succinctly, but must contain sufficient
information for another researcher to be able to use your techniques to check
your findings.
Lab Report Conventions


Write in the past tense. e.g. ‘The participants were placed in one of three
conditions.’
Write in the third person. e.g. ‘Each participant's blood pressure was
measured.’ This is more appropriate than the following: ‘I measured the
blood pressure of each participant.’
The different sections of a Lab Report
A report is divided into various sections:
Title, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references and
appendices.
Title
The title should be clear and brief - no more than 15 words. It should include the
key variables being investigated in the study.
For example: ‘The effect of IQ on performance in the Stroop Test.’
For example: ‘A comparison of blood pressure in a group of male and female
undergraduate students.’
Abstract
The abstract gives a summary of the study's aims, methods, findings and
conclusions. It should normally be less than 150 words. It is easiest to write the
abstract after completing everything else in the study.
35
Introduction
This section of the report explains to the reader why the study is taking place. It
needs to cover three topics:

A review of relevant background literature on the subject (References of
the research reviewed should be clearly cited. See also ‘How to
reference’.).

The aims of your study.

A clear statement of the hypothesis (or hypotheses) in the study. The
background research referred to in the introduction should effortlessly
lead into the aims of the study.
Method
The method section explains how the study is carried out. It must be written in
enough detail so that other people will be able to repeat your study just by
reading this section. It is important that the method is written in full sentences
and not as a long list, like a recipe. If a questionnaire (or similar tool) is used, a
copy of it must be placed in the appendices. In the method section you refer to
the fact that a copy of a questionnaire can be found in the appendices.
The method section may consist of sub-sections. For example, in Psychology the
following subsections are often used: design, participants, apparatus and
procedure. However, it is important to note that the subsections used will differ
from discipline to discipline. It is important to find out what sub-sections (if any)
are commonly used within your discipline. Ask your lecturer if you are unsure.
Results
The results section states the findings from the study. This section is split into
two distinct parts (without sub-headings). The first section consists of
descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation, etc, of the
groups/conditions). This section consists of summary statistics, the raw data is
placed in the appendices. All tables (tabulated data, or tables of text) and
figures (graphs, diagrams etc.) should be individually numbered and titled. The
titles for tables and figures must be sufficiently explanatory so that a reader can
understand what is being presented from the table or figure alone.
The second section is the inferential statistics. This section is only written when a
statistical test is appropriate. It shows the extent to which the results are
significant in support of a hypothesis. This section should state: the hypothesis
being tested, the test being used, test statistic, degrees of freedom, probability
value and the conclusion (accept/reject the hypothesis).
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to discuss what the findings of the study
mean. The discussion section should do the following:
36

Summarise your main results and state whether they reject or retain the
hypothesis.

Explain how your findings relate to previous research. If they differ, why
may this be the case? What implications may this have to the current
theory?

Outline any limitations of your study. Were the limitations serious? How
could these limitations be addressed if another study was carried out?

Suggest possible further research in this area.

Finish the discussion by summarising the main conclusions that can be
drawn from your study.
References
This lists all the resources that have been quoted in your study. See section 12
in this guide for more details on referencing.
Appendices
This is the place to put raw data or additional material which is relevant but not
essential to the main report.
Final Comment
Reports vary in structure by the conventions adopted within different disciplines.
If in doubt, consult your lecturer for advice.
37
How to… write dissertations
When you are doing your dissertation you will have the advice and support of a
supervisor. The advice given below is a guideline only and you should refer to
your supervisor for specific advice. Keep in touch with your supervisor
throughout the process and you will find meetings with your supervisor more
useful if you take the time to prepare beforehand.
What is a dissertation?
A dissertation is an extended piece of writing, usually divided into chapters. It
contains a detailed exploration of an area of study. You may be doing an
empirical (i.e. researched based) dissertation or a non-empirical (i.e.
literature based dissertation).
The different sections of an empirical dissertation
You must be clear about your methodology and the work must be underpinned
throughout by awareness of theory; your argument should be placed within the
context of existing theory relevant to the subject.
An empirical dissertation will usually also have the following sections but make
sure you check what the expectations of your programme are:
Title, abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents, introduction,
literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion and
recommendations, bibliography and appendices.
Title
The title should be clear and brief. It should include the key areas being
investigated in the study.
Abstract
The abstract gives a summary of the study's aims, methods, findings and
conclusions. Your tutor will give you guidance on the word count for this. It is
easiest to write the abstract after completing everything else in the study.
Introduction
38
This section of the dissertation explains to the reader why the study is taking
place. It needs to include the following information:






Statement of the problem
Purpose and objective of the study
Significance of the study
Assumptions/hypothesis
Scope and limitations
Definition of terms
Literature Review
Some programmes require a literature review. This is a summary of other
research that has already been done in your study area. It should look at several
important aspects:




Earlier research which uses some of the same design or methodology that
you will be using.
Literature and theoretical perspectives relating to your proposed study
A critical evaluation of relevant research – those studies that support your
ideas and those that refute them.
A further reiteration of the rationale for your study.
Be sure to use primary sources as much as possible in your literature review and
ensure that this section flows easily and makes sense to the reader. You may
want to end this section with a brief summary of what was covered.
Methodology
The methodology section explains how the study is to be carried out. Here you
must justify your chosen methods and acknowledge any ethical considerations.
It must be written in enough detail so that other people will be able to repeat
your study just by reading this section. It is important that the method is written
in full sentences and not as a long list. It is also important to be as specific as
possible in this section. If other people will be involved in your study, you must
make it clear what your target demographic is (e.g. students between the ages
of 21-23). If a questionnaire (or similar tool) is used, a copy of it must be placed
in the appendices. In the methodology section you should refer to the fact that a
copy of the questionnaire can be found in the appendices.
The methodology section may consist of sub-sections. For example, in
Psychology the following subsections are often used: design, participants,
apparatus and procedure. However, it is important to note that the subsections
used will differ from discipline to discipline. It is important to find out what subsections (if any) are commonly used within your discipline. Ask your lecturer if
you are unsure.
Results
The results section states the findings from the study. This is where you show
what you did and how the results were obtained. You need to be as clear and
concise as possible here.
39
This section can be split into two distinct parts (without sub-headings). The first
section consists of descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation, etc, of
the groups/conditions). It consists of summary statistics and the raw data is
placed in the appendices. All tables (tabulated data, or tables of text) and
figures (graphs, diagrams etc.) should be individually numbered and titled. The
titles for tables and figures must be sufficiently explanatory so that a reader can
understand what is being presented from the table or figure alone.
The second section is the inferential statistics. This section is only written
when a statistical test is appropriate. It shows the extent to which the results
are significant in support of a hypothesis, i.e. how the data supports or rejects
your hypothesis. This section should state: the hypothesis being tested, the test
being used, test statistic, degrees of freedom, probability value and the
conclusion (accept/reject the hypothesis).
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to debate what the findings of the study
mean. The discussion section should do the following:

Summarise your main results and state whether they reject or retain the
hypothesis.

Explain how your findings relate to previous research. If they differ, why
may this be the case? What implications may this have to the current
theory?

Outline any limitations of your study. Were the limitations serious? How
could these limitations be addressed if another study was carried out?

Suggest possible further research in this area.

Finish the discussion by summarising the main conclusions that can be
drawn from your study.
References
This lists all the resources that have been quoted in your study. See ‘How to
reference’ for more details on referencing.
Appendices
This is the place to put raw data or additional material which is relevant, but not
essential, to follow the main report.
Final Comment
Dissertations vary in structure by the conventions adopted within different
disciplines. If in doubt, consult your lecturer for advice.
A non-empirical dissertation
40
You must be clear about your methodology and the work must be underpinned
throughout by awareness of theory – your argument should be placed within the
context of existing theory relevant to the subject.
A non-empirical dissertation will usually also have the following sections but
make sure you check what the expectations of your programme are:
Title, abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents, introduction,
literature review, discussion, conclusion, bibliography and appendices.
Title
The title should be clear and brief.
Abstract
The abstract gives a summary of the study's aims, findings and conclusion. Your
supervisor will give you guidance on the word count for this. It is easiest to write
the abstract after completing everything else in the study.
Introduction
This section of the report explains to the reader why the study is taking place. It
needs to include the following information:




Description of the area of focus.
Purpose of the study.
Scope and limitations.
Definition of terms.
Literature Review
Some programmes require a literature review. This is a summary of other
research that has already been done in your study area. It should look at several
important aspects:



Earlier research.
Literature and theoretical perspectives relating to your proposed study.
A critical evaluation of relevant research – those studies that support your
ideas and those that refute them.
Be sure to use primary sources as much as possible in your literature review and
ensure that this section flows easily and makes sense to the reader. You may
want to end this section with a brief summary of what was covered.
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to debate what the findings of the study
mean. The discussion section should do the following:

Summarise and evaluate your main findings.
41

Explain how your findings relate to previous research. If they differ, why
may this be the case? What implications may this have to the current
theory?

Suggest possible further research in this area.

Finish the discussion by summarising the main conclusions that can be
drawn from your study.
References
This lists all the resources that have been quoted in your study. See section 12
in this guide for more details on referencing.
Appendices
This is the place to put additional material which is relevant but not essential.
Conclusion
Dissertations vary in structure by the conventions adopted within different
disciplines. If in doubt, consult your lecturer for advice.
42
How to…think critically
Introduction to Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking involves developing particular dispositions, skills and knowledge
that enable you to make informed judgements, enhance your language and
presentation skills, develop creativity and become more self-reflective. In order
to develop this type of thinking you will need to practise the following:







Understanding the logical connections between things.
Identifying, constructing and evaluating arguments.
Detecting inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning.
Solving problems systematically.
Identifying the relevance of important ideas.
Reflecting on the justification of your own beliefs and values.
Ability and willingness to take risks.
What is Critical Thinking
The word critical has positive and negative meanings; being critical does not
mean you have to criticise an idea. It is the quizzical attitude you hold whilst
reading a chapter or an article or hear a piece of news; being critical means
weighing up the arguments for and against a particular point, as well as being
aware of your own bias.
Barriers to critical thinking:




Going with your initial reaction/opinion; our reasoning skills are not
objective, we are biased ourselves.
Wanting to know what is right and wrong.
Reluctance to criticise the experts/lecturers.
Not reading deeply enough around a subject - surface knowledge.
How to think critically
1. Be persistent – consider an issue carefully, more than once.
2. Look at the evidence for a viewpoint – evaluate it – what are they trying
to ‘sell’ me?
3. What are the implications of a view point – is it
realistic and rational?
4. Knowing facts and what is right is not what academia
is about.
5. It is important to identify strengths, satisfactory points
and weaknesses when being critical – then you must
know why this is so.
43
6. You should be critical when reading, writing and listening.
Critical reading:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Prepare for critical reading – skim read the introduction and conclusion.
Find the conclusions first to help clarify the rest of the reading.
What is the underlying argument/ view point?
Theory can help fill in the gaps. What is theory? Theory is aset of ideas to
explain why something happens and predict outcomes in the future.
Develop yourself a question bank to help you think more deeply about a
topic/argument/idea. You can apply these questions in different forms to all of
your work, but collecting them will encourage you to remember to question what
you are reading/what is being said.
Examples:










Why?
What does this really mean?
Do the reasons support the argument?
Is there any supporting evidence?
Does this match what I know about the subject already?
Does it fit in with what other people have said on the subject?
Is this relevant and useful to my current purpose?
How does this add to previous research on the subject?
Are there any flaws in this?
What is the author trying to ‘sell’ me?
Criteria for Credibility
The criteria of credibility can be used to assess the credibility of documents
or individual sources. It has become standard to use the mnemonic RAVEN
to remember the five criteria of credibility:
R = Reputation
A = Arguments
V = Validity
E = Expertise
N = Neutrality



Reputation: whether the source’s history or status suggests reliability or
unreliability. Methods used byt the author? Substantial evidence?
Arguments: substantial arguments throughout, supported by evidence
which also considers counter-arguments.
Validity: whether source of information is relevant to your purpose. Are
your arguments actually related? Are they true counter-arguments? Does
it answer my question?
44


Expertise: credibility is weakened by lack of expertise. Is the author
employed at an academic institution? Published in a peer-reviewed
journal?
Neutrality: Question theoretical assumptions underlying the research.
Does the evidence really strongly support the conclusions made or only
weakly?
Critical Writing
Use your word count to assess the number of points to be made and define the
scope of your research. It is not enough to simply describe ideas or explain
theories, you must evaluate them.
Essay instruction terms:
To critically evaluate: weigh arguments for and against something, assessing all
evidence. Decide which ideas/theories are preferable, judge, criticise in terms of
impact/significance, and investigate the implications.
Assess: decide the value of, judge, measure the importance of something.
Discuss: present and give a judgement on the value of arguments for and
against, consider all angles.
Moving beyond description:
Below there are three paragraphs, one is merely descriptive, one provides an
explanation and one is analytical/critical. You can see that the word count
increases considerably as the writing gets more complex. This gives you an idea
of how many points you can make in an essay that is descriptive in comparison
to one that requires you to be critical (note that at university, unless otherwise
specified you are generally expected to be critically analysing throughout your
assignments).
Attachment theory states that children become attached to adults who remain as
consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to
two years of age (ref).
Attachment theory states that children become attached to adults who remain as
consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to
two years of age (ref). It is suggested that this is due to the trusting bond
developed from the repeated interactions with certain individuals (ref).
Attachment theory states that children become attached to adults who remain as
consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to
two years of age, and it is suggested that this is due to the trusting bond
developed from the repeated interactions with certain primary carers (ref).
However, there are many cases of abused children who form strong attachments
to their abusers despite being subjected to severe neglect (ref) suggesting that
there are problems with this theory of attachment.
45
Critical Writing
An argument may include a disagreement, but is more than simply a
disagreement if it is based on reason/evidence. The ability to read a passage
and pick out its conclusion and the reasons offered in support of it is perhaps the
most basic skill required for critical thinking.
Reasons: The reasons within an argument are the claims made in an attempt to
persuade you that the conclusion is true.
The Because Test: A test that can help you to identify the reasons in a passage
is the ‘because test’. Simply insert the word “because” into the passage directly
before the phrase that you think is a reason. If the passage makes sense, then
you’ve probably got the right section. If it doesn’t, then you haven’t.
Conclusions: The conclusion of an argument is the main point that it is trying to
get you to accept. You’ll often (but not always) find this statement either at the
beginning or the end of a passage.
The Therefore Test: A test that can help you to identify the conclusion of a
passage is the ‘therefore test’. Simply insert the word “therefore” into the
passage directly before the phrase that you think is the conclusion. If the
passage makes sense, then you’ve probably got the right section. If it doesn’t,
then you haven’t.
Indicator Words: There are certain words that often indicate the presence of a
particular element of an argument.
Conclusions: ‘therefore’; ‘thus’; ‘hence’; ‘so’; ‘in conclusion’; ‘consequently’;
‘showing that’; ‘demonstrating that’; ‘proving that’; ‘establishing that’; ‘meaning
that’; ‘entails that’; ‘implies that’; ‘as a result’.
Reasons: ‘because’; ‘as’; ‘since’; ‘in order to’; ‘otherwise’. Sometimes authors
enumerate their reasons, writing ‘First, …’, ‘Second, …’, ‘Third, …’ etc., which can
also help in their identification.
Counter-Arguments: ‘X and Y argue that’, ‘it has been suggested by Z that’,
‘however’, or equivalent phrases.
Structure of an Argument




A premise, position, or point of view – usually a reflection of a general
conclusion you want to make.
Supporting evidence (reference to theory or research).
Reasoning or analysis – should always come with supporting evidence.
A conclusion.
Examples:
46
If you want to find a good job, you should be hardworking. (premise) You do
want to find a good job. (premise) So you should be hardworking. (conclusion)
Research (DoP 2006) suggests that those who work hard find good jobs.
(supporting evidence) You do want to find a good job. (premise) So you should
be hardworking. (conclusion)
Evaluate this argument:
Males perform better academically than females. Research (YCS, 2005) showed
that girls did worse than boys in GCSEs, gaining on average 85 points less. This
suggests that simply being born a male is of itself an advantage in the academic
arena. Female children are automatically disadvantaged within education.
These arguments have a premise, supporting evidence and a conclusion, but
they are not solid arguments and they contain very poor conclusions.
Fallacies
Fallacies are mistakes of reasoning and arguments in which the premises given
for the conclusion do not provide the needed degree of support. The study of
fallacies is an application of the principles of critical thinking. Being familiar with
typical fallacies can help us avoid them; we would also be in a position to explain
other people's mistakes.
Types of fallacy:
‘Two weeks after they put fluoride in St. John’s water I got sick. I had a fever
and couldn’t keep solid food down. So, I switched to drinking bottled water and I
recovered in a day or so. That fluoridated water is dangerous stuff.’
This is an example of a causal fallacy. Just because the fluoridation of the
water preceded the headache and the headache cleared up after he stopped
drinking fluoridated water, we can't assume that the fluoride caused the
headache. We'd need much better evidence than that.
‘War is the only way of stopping Saddam Hussein. After all, sanctions haven’t
worked at all.’
This seems to assume a false dichotomy in that it assumes that the only
options are war or sanctions, but what about diplomacy or other possibilities? In
other words, the argument assumes that the possibilities of sanctions and war
exhaust all the possibilities, but they don't. As such it commits the fallacy of
false dichotomy.
‘Undemocratic societies kill the human spirit. The reason is clear: unless the
people have the power in their society, the human spirit withers.’
47
This is a standard instance of begging the question. The conclusion seems to
be that undemocratic societies kill the human spirit, but the only reason we are
given to believe this is essentially that same conclusion in different terms.
‘If you don't get to bed early, you'll be too tired to do well in your A-Level
exams. If that happens, you won't get accepted into a decent university. You’ll
end up a washed-out alcoholic living in a bin.
This is a pretty clear instance of the slippery slope fallacy. A whole load of 'ifthen' claims are made here (and some others seem to be assumed), that
together provide very evidence for the ultimate conclusion of the argument.
Tips for Improving your Critical Thinking
Question the Evidence
Whenever you are analysing something try to question the validity of the
evidence. Is the evidence correct? What reasons do we have for trusting the
evidence? Claims should be backed up with some evidence that can stand up to
scepticism.
Establish Criteria
It is good to establish a set criteria when analysing subjects. We would then
apply these criteria fairly to each car in our evaluations. We would need to
establish criteria by which to judge them evenly and fairly, for example,
evidence, method, theoretical underpinnings, author bias.
Learn about Logical Fallacies
Learning about logical fallacies will help you identify others’ claims that are built
in a logically fallacious manner and structure.
Identify the Premise
When hearing a claim or analysing a statement it is important to identify the
premise. When you identify the premise you can decide if it is valid or you agree
with it. If you do not agree with the premise of a statement or claim you cannot
continue further. Instead, you must go back and try to figure out a valid
premise, if one exists.
Learn about Cognitive Bias
A cognitive bias is a trick where the mind distorts reality. Having a knowledge of
what cognitive biases are will help you identify these biases when you include
them and when others include them.
Try to Prove yourself Wrong
In order to think critically we have to admit we are wrong on occasions. No one
has all the answers. If you try to prove your beliefs and ideas wrong and test
them you will help yourself admit error more. The more errors we get rid of in
our beliefs the more likely we are to hold good logical beliefs.
48
How to… avoid plagiarism
Introduction
Plagiarism is a very serious matter, the consequences of which can be far
reaching. In severe cases it can mean that your degree is withheld or that you
are required to withdraw from your programme. In more minor cases it can still
result in you failing a module and your degree classification being affected.
Please, therefore, take a few minutes to familiarise yourself with this section of
the guide.
For more details on plagiarism and other forms of academic misconduct and the
process used by the university for dealing with allegations of plagiarism, please
refer to the Student Disciplinary Regulations, which are available on the
university website.
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is presenting another person’s work as your own. When you include
the arguments, ideas, or theories of someone else, or use the words they have
used and present them as your own argument, then this is plagiarism. This may
be written words or may be an idea, an artefact, musical composition,
choreography, image or string of computer code etc, dependent on your
programme of study. The term plagiarism is derived from the Latin Plagiarius,
which means kidnapper. Plagiarism in written work can occur intentionally (e.g.
you copy a section from a book without referencing it) or unintentionally (e.g.
you paraphrase another person's work or ideas but fail to acknowledge them as
the source).
A lack of awareness of the rules of referencing is not an acceptable excuse for
plagiarism so please double check all of your quotations and paraphrases and
make sure every source is listed correctly in your bibliography.
Please note: just changing one or two words somewhere in the quote does not
mean it becomes your own work and you do not need to reference it. This is still
a form of plagiarism.
The University of Roehampton takes plagiarism very seriously. The following is
taken from Section 5 of the Student Disciplinary Regulations:
49
a) No student shall represent the work of another person as his or her
own in any academic material submitted for assessment.
b) No student shall contribute any work to another student with the
knowledge that the latter may submit the work in part or whole as his
or her own.
The university has a number of systems in place to find plagiarism in student’s
work including software such as ‘Turnitin’ which detects how original your work
is. If you plagiarise you may face disciplinary proceedings, fail your module and
even, at worst, be expelled from university. You should always ensure that you
reference your work properly and carefully.
Go to the Library Research Skills moodle site to find out more about
Turnitin and how to use the Turnitin practice tool.
Forms of plagiarism and collusion, all of which are unacceptable, include:
a) Using sentences, parts of sentences, or larger pieces of text without
attributing them. This includes cutting and pasting sections from websites.
b) Citing the name of an author but not making clear which words are the
author's and which are yours.
c) Mixing and matching parts of sentences to create new ones: if you use
recognisable phrases that are not your own then you are plagiarising.
d) Using unattributed sentences with odd words changed.
e) Quoting inaccurately. Even if you cite the author and source and put the
quote in inverted commas, if you do not reproduce a quote faithfully then
you have plagiarised.
f) Failing to list all sources used in your essay in your bibliography or cited
works/reference list. All websites visited, emails used, radio/television
programmes watched as well as books and journals read, should be
included.
g) Writing a piece of work with another student (unless this is group work).
h) Submitting a piece of work written in whole or in part by someone else.
i) Paying to have a piece of work written by someone else.
j) Resubmitting part of or a whole assignment you have previously
submitted. Even if this is your own work the university considers this
plagiarism as each piece of work you submit must be original.
Quoting very long passages (unless the point being made is particularly complex
and needs extensive quotation) is not exactly plagiarism but it is poor practice.
50
Roehampton does not accept any of the reasons below as excuses for
plagiarism:




Lack of time/poor time management.
Not understanding the nature of plagiarism. First, if you do any of the
things listed above you have plagiarised. Second, if you are in any
doubt consult your tutor before submitting an essay: they will be
happy to offer you advice.
Not being able to do/not understanding a piece of work.
Muddled notes leading to confusion between original material and
quotes.
Examples of plagiarism
When using source material from another author's work in your assignments you
must do this correctly to avoid plagiarism. The following examples demonstrate
what is acceptable practice when quoting or paraphrasing. The full reference is
located at the end of this section.
This example is taken from Dr Peter Weston's book, The Froebel Educational
Institute: the Origins and History of the College. The full reference for this text is
located at the end of this section.
Example 1
Original Text
The Froebel movement is a term loosely used to refer to the activities of a group
of persons committed to the development and spread of that set of educational
principles and values which found their first embodiment in the kindergarten.
Version A
The Froebel movement refers to a group of persons dedicated to the
development and spread of a set of educational values and principles first found
in the kindergarten.
Comment:
This represents a very common form of plagiarism that you must avoid. Version
A of this text simply paraphrases the original source, omitting certain words and
changing the order of others. The original author is not cited and the writing is
basically a shortened version of the original text.
51
Version B
Weston (2002) notes that the Froebel movement is a term loosely used to refer
to the activities of a group of people committed to the development and spread
of a set of educational values and principles that found their first embodiment in
the kindergarten.
Comment:
This version still represents a form of plagiarism. Although the author has been
cited, the presentation of his ideas is largely reproduced in the same format as
the original text. In this case the citation might have been better reproduced as
a direct quotation.
Version C
Weston (2002: 13) notes “The Froebel movement is a term loosely used to refer
to the activities of a group of persons committed to the development and spread
of that set of educational principles and values which found their first
embodiment in the kindergarten.”
Comment:
This version is acceptable as the author is directly quoted and referenced. Care
should be taken, however, not to use too many direct quotations within an
academic piece of work. Lecturers are more interested in the development of
your ideas and understanding than your ability to reproduce others' work.
Version D
Whilst many commentators on early childhood education have based their work
on later thinkers such as Montessori, Weston (2002) suggests that early
followers of Froebel's teaching were instrumental in developing the notion of the
kindergarten.
Comment:
This represents a model approach. The author has been correctly cited and the
content of his work has been used to enhance an assertion you are making
rather than merely reproducing his work as in version C. This is the type of
52
critical analysis and thinking that degree programmes seek to develop in
students.
Example 2
This example is taken from The Bedford Handbook for Writers by Dianne Hacker.
The full reference for this text is located at the end of this section.
Original Text
If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling
news for animal behaviourists. (Davis, 26)
Version A
The existence of a signing ape unsettled linguists and startled animal
behaviourists.
(Davis,1997:26)
Comment:
This is clearly plagiarism. Even though the writer has cited the source, the writer
has not used quotation marks around the direct quotation ‘the existence of a
signing ape’. In addition, the phrase ‘unsettled linguists and startled animal
behaviourists’ closely resembles the wording of the source material.
Version B
If the presence of a sign-language-using chimp was disturbing for scientists
studying language, it was also surprising to scientists studying animal behaviour
(Davis, 26).
Comment:
This is still plagiarism. Even though the writer has used synonyms and cited the
source, the writer is plagiarising because the source's sentence structure is
unchanged.
53
Version C
According to Flora Davis, linguists and animal behaviourists were unprepared for
the news that a chimp could communicate with its trainers through sign
language.
(Davis,1997:26)
Comment:
This is not plagiarism. This is an appropriate paraphrase of the original sentence.
References
Hacker, D. (1991) The Bedford Handbook for Writers, Boston: St Martin's Press.
The University of Roehampton (No Date) Plagiarism: What it is and How to
Avoid it, London: University of Roehampton.
Weston, P. (2002) The Froebel Educational Institute; the Origins and History of
the College, London: University of Surrey Roehampton.
54
How to... reference
What is referencing … and why should I do it?
As members of the University of Roehampton you are part of an academic
community and it is essential that you make yourself familiar with the
conventions of academic writing. Every member of the academic community,
staff and student alike, is expected to follow these academic conventions in any
piece of work they produce. In academic writing referencing is one of these
conventions. Referencing is used to acknowledge the use of other people’s work,
words and ideas in our own work.
The term ‘referencing’ includes:


The citation used within the text to show where a quotation or
paraphrased statement is from.
The inclusion of the full details of the source in the correct format in the
bibliography at the end on the essay
At university you may find assignment writing is very different to your previous
experiences of producing written work. In academic writing we thoroughly
research a topic before beginning the writing process, and then begin to
incorporate this research into our own thoughts, ideas and analysis, ultimately
producing a thoroughly researched, well written and comprehensive piece of
work.
Referencing involves four key elements:




Paraphrasing
Quoting
Citations
Bibliographies or Cited Works Lists
Paraphrasing: When you include the arguments, ideas, or theories of anyone
other than yourself in your assignment but summarise them into your own
words, this is called paraphrasing.
55
Quoting: When you include the exact words of someone else’s work in your
essay you are quoting.
Any paraphrasing or quoting you do will need to acknowledge the source you
originally obtained the information from in the form of a citation within your
essay. If you do not include an acknowledgement, or the acknowledgement is
incorrect, then this is plagiarism.
Citations
With each quotation or paraphrase that appears in your assignments there must
be some acknowledgement of where that information comes from. In academic
writing we call this acknowledgement a citation. The form of the citation will vary
depending on the type of referencing style you are using. For the APA, Harvard
and MLA referencing styles (which are covered in the University of Roehampton
Referencing guide) we use an in-text citation i.e. the citation appears within
sentences and paragraphs of your assignment. This citation is a brief summary
of the source used, normally just mentioning the author’s surname and/or a
date/page number depending on the style you are using, surrounded by round
brackets (parentheses).
Bibliography or Cited Works/Reference List
A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have looked at to help you
compile the essay. Your bibliography should be laid out as neatly as possible so
it is easy for your tutor to find the full details of each source you are referring to.
This can include sources you have read but not actually quoted from or
paraphrased in your work.
Please note that some tutors prefer you to produce a cited works or reference
list. A cited works or reference list is a list of all of the sources you have directly
quoted or paraphrased in your work only. You cannot include works that you
have read but not cited in your essay. If you are unsure which type of list
your tutor is expecting it is a good idea to double check with them
before you begin writing your essay.
How do I reference correctly?
56
There are three main referencing systems within the University: Harvard, APA
and MLA If you are unclear as to which you should be using, check with your
department.
Full information on quoting, paraphrasing, citations and bibliographies can be
found at
http://core.roehampton.ac.uk/repository/search/dbm.pl?guid=5eb1482e-99ea4dd2-9042-7018fa765a71
57
How to...get organised and meet deadlines
Introduction
At some point everyone manages their time badly. This can result in:

missed deadlines.

feelings of anger, frustration, stress.

feeling as though you never have time for the important things in life.

not working to the best of your ability.
There are strategies you can use in order to organise your studies so that you
can feel in control of your degree and personal life, as well as having enough
time for the other things that matter to you.
Getting Organised
a) Make a plan. Include all unavoidable academic/work/family commitments;
time for relaxation, exercise or social events; exam dates and times, and the
times you can set aside for study, revision and library visits. Make sure your
plan is realistic, if you are not sure how long something takes (like reading a
chapter and making notes, for example) time yourself.
b) Make a long term plan as well as short term weekly and daily plans. A
long term is where you can work backwards from deadlines (you can set these
for yourself if you do not have formal deadlines). Long term plans range from 1
month to 3 years and can include planning for time spent literature searching,
reading, exam revision, and writing up research. These types of plans need to
be supplemented by short term specific plans (see below).
c) Be specific. It is not enough to set time aside to do reading, or write your
essay; you need to make sure that your weekly plan is detailed so that you
know exactly what needs to be done. This means that you will avoid
procrastination as you decide what to do, your work will have focus, and you will
see the real progress you are making.
58
d) Be clear about what you want to achieve.Divide your study time into
around forty-five minute slots. Decide what it is you are going to find out in that
time. Clearly mark your goal. On achieving your goal, you should then break for
ten minutes or so before starting again.
e) Prioritise.
 What do you need to do right away?
 What do you definitely need to allow enough time to do?
 What would it be helpful to do if you have time?
 What can you ignore/do differently/share with someone else?
 What tasks can be multitasks?
Give yourself deadlines for all the tasks - such as ‘today', ‘by the end of the
week', ‘by the end of the month'.
f) Recognise your own preferences. Part of using your time effectively
involves recognising your own preferred times of working, and the ways you
work best. For example, you need to know the answers to these questions:

Do you work better early in the morning or late at night?

What is the maximum amount of time you can work for productively?
It helps if you identify which kinds of activities you are best at doing at different
times of the day. Most people have a point in the day when their energy levels
are highest, and that's the best time to tackle new or difficult work, or
something you have been putting off because it makes you anxious.
g) Keep a diary.You should write in all pre-set appointments - such as tutorials
and lectures, and sports activities - which you will be able to do in advance at
the beginning of each term or semester. You should add all other appointments
as you make them. Carry the diary with you, it will help you see at a glance
what you have to do and prevent double-bookings. You can use your phone to
do this electronically.
h) Monitor your own progress. If you are working very slowly and not very
effectively, try approaching the topic in another way, for example, a different
book, work with a friend, invent some questions to try and answer, tackle
something else for half an hour.
Try making a ‘Things to Do’ list. Add tasks as they arise, and then tick them off
once they are done. An example can be found below. Also, most smartphones
have free ‘to do list’ apps that you can download. Make sure that you reward
yourself when you complete tasks.
Example:
Things to do
59
Date:
Task
Target date
Done
h) Know what is expected of you. It is your responsibility to know when
your deadlines are, what your word count is, when your exams are, what
reading you are supposed to do before a lecture. Remember, if in doubt
then ask a question; it is guaranteed that there are plenty of others
wanting to ask the same thing.
Researching Effectively
a) Keep efficient files. If there is one piece of advice any graduate will give
you it is make sure you keep your notes and records organised. Revision and
essay writing are by far simpler if you can find what you are looking for and
what you are looking for actually makes sense months after you filed it (see the
reading and note taking section for more information).
 Use binders, dividers and expandable files to keep your notes in; you can
order these alphabetically by author or by subject area/module.
 Create your own database of reading using Access or Excel. Enter all the
information you need to reference any reading in different columns. You
can enter keywords associated with the article. Being this organised
means that later on you can search for reading you’ve done on a
particular topic or by a particular author.
 Create index cards for your reading. Not only does this ensure you can
find reading you’ve done quickly but creating these ‘cue cards’ also serves
as an efficient learning tool.
b) Save time by using databases which search hundreds of different journals
for articles using keywords or authors. The university subscribes to many
databases which specialise in different subject areas, or you can use Google
Scholar which searches scholarly literature of all kinds for keywords. You may
not have access to everything you want so do not forget about the library’s
interlibrary loans service where you can request papers and books from other
libraries.
c) Search smarter. Your lecturer will recommend lots of different reading to
you, but there will be times when you have to start your research from scratch.
Start small using key texts and basic database and internet searches (but be
careful to only use reputable websites) where you can get an idea of basic
terms, key journal articles and chapters, and authors common to a topic area.
Then use bibliographies to source further reading around a subject area, and use
the ‘cited by’ function when searching using Google Scholar. Build your reading
up around key texts/papers like a spiders web until your feel you have a good
idea of the research and arguments on a particular topic.
60
c) Keep a small note book with you at all times. Good ideas come in the most
unusual places; you can also make sure that you can jot down any references
you might want to find from your reading. Similarly, use the voice recorder on
your phone or get a dictaphone.
d) If you are conducting a larger project you can set up citation alerts for key
journal articles. You can do this using Google Scholar and most journal host
sites so that you will be sent an email anytime another article is published citing
your chosen key text.
e) Use aggregator tools such as Google Reader. Aggregators will gather up
newly published information using RSS feeds from websites you have chosen to
monitor and pool them all into one place. So, rather than checking lots of
websites for new research, you can just check one. This is especially useful if
you have particular journals that you use regularly or specialist websites such as
the British Psychological Society, the Times Education Supplement, and Guardian
Science. Most smartphones have apps for this or you can simply do it online
using a computer.
Mitigating Circumstances
The University expects all deadlines for the submission of coursework to be met,
and all examinations to be attended. If you have genuine circumstances
identified as severe and/or unavoidable which have prevented you from fulfilling
the University's expectations you may put forward a case for mitigating
circumstances to be considered.
Mitigating circumstances are factors which have a detrimental effect on a
student's academic work. A student may ask for mitigating circumstances to be
taken into account in order:




To explain absence from class or from an examination
To explain failure to submit work, or to submit work on time
To support a request for an extension to a submission deadline, or to
defer
assessment
To explain cases where the student's academic performance falls below
expectations
Mitigating circumstances must be
 Significant, meaning that they should have a clearly detrimental effect on
the student's academic work; and
 Relevant, meaning that they must relate directly to the timing of the
class, assessment or deadline in question; and
61

Outside the student's control, meaning that the effect could not be
avoided, counteracted or reduced by the student taking reasonable steps
in preparation or in response.
Further details on mitigating circumstances can be found in the Mitigating
Circumstances policy at
http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/academicoffice/studentinfo/index.html
If you think that you may need to apply for an extension or deferral it is
important to act quickly and check with your programme department
administrator what action to take.
All requests for mitigating circumstances to be taken into account must be
submitted to the Department Office in writing by the student concerned. For
Combined Honours students, it is important to ensure that both programmes are
made aware of any mitigating circumstances; therefore please inform the offices
in both subject areas. Please make sure you have read and understood the
Mitigating Circumstances Policy before approaching your Office.
62
How to... prepare for exams
How do you feel about preparing for exams?
Read the statements below and decide which ones, if any, apply to you:










I find it difficult to begin revision while we are still studying new stuff.
I sleep badly the night before an exam.
I'm always certain I'm going to fail exams.
I can't draw up a realistic timetable.
I can't concentrate on my revision for long enough at a time.
I forget things so easily.
Other people seem so confident.
I can't get down to revision until the last moment.
I don't think I work hard enough.
Sometimes I feel like giving up.
(from Habeshaw, S., T. Habeshaw & G. Gibbs (1987) 53 Interesting Ways of
Helping your Students to Study, Bristol: Technical and Educational Services)
What do exams require of you?
Some students will take unseen exams in which the questions have not been
published beforehand. Others will take revealed exams for which the questions
have been published. There is a slight difference in the preparation for
unseen/revealed exams. For unseen exams you need to decide what topics and
types of question are likely to appear and revise for these.
For revealed exams you will know the questions beforehand so preparation of a
good essay plan, writing out your answer on a timed basis to check that you
have included the right amount of information/argument, and revision of the
plan is important.
To do well in exams, you need to:
a) Organise your knowledge for revision.
You need to allow time to sort through your notes. Check areas you are
unsure of in the library and with friends. Get an overview of your discipline by
reading the appropriate sections of reference books, which can provide
summaries of large areas of knowledge.
63
b) Recall what you have learnt.
You need to be able to memorise the information well enough to be able to
recall it under exam conditions.
c) Re-structure your knowledge in response to a particular question.
An important aspect of preparing for exams is knowing what the examiners
require from you. Many students can recall the necessary information, but
don't spend enough time shaping it into the form asked for by the exam
question. This means that you have to be able to analyse and evaluate
information and bring it together (synthesise) it to answer the question
asked.
For that last point, it's important to start by knowing the format of your exam.
Can you answer the following questions?





How long are your exams?
How many questions do you need to answer?
What format will they be in (essay, short answer, multiple choice)?
Will the exams follow the same format as in previous years?
Can you get copies of previous exam papers to work from?
If you are unsure of any of the answers, ask your lecturers, last year's students,
or other people on the module.
Past exam papers are held in the library and online via the university website.
Being sure of these facts will help to eliminate any unnecessary worry and set
you a framework for your revision.
Planning your revision
Make a timetable early on - perhaps 6 to 8 weeks ahead including other
unavoidable academic/work/family commitments, and time for relaxation,
exercise, social events, exam dates and times, and time you can set aside for
revision and visits to the library. It's worth doing this well before your exam
because people often find that by the time they include their course work and
other commitments, they have far less time than they thought. As we noted in
the section on meeting deadlines and handling stress, it's much better to find
this out while there's still enough time to do something about it than find out a
month beforehand when there's little you can do.

Prioritise your topics. You may wish to allocate more time to your weaker
areas. Decide whether you prefer to spend a complete unit of time on one
area, or whether you will change between areas at, for example, hourly
intervals.
64

Exam alert! It's a good idea to explain to those around you how important
the exams are to you, and persuade them to help wherever possible (e.g.
with the household chores or with time off work if you can arrange it). You
can promise to repay the favour when the exams are over!
Using past papers
Go to the library and photocopy the last 2-3 years' exam papers. Decide
how many topic areas you will need to revise. Gather together all your
relevant notes/reading etc. If your module is new, you should ask your
lecturer what the best way to prepare for the exam is. They may be able to give
you sample questions similar to those set in the exam.
In some subjects there are key areas that come up most years. It is worth
trying to spot these by checking through previous papers for the areas that
come up most frequently.

Some questions tend to be very specific, and on self-contained areas.
Others require you to draw on ideas and facts from more than one area
- you have to have both a broader knowledge of the subjects and be able to
think fast in the exam! People sometimes pick more general questions in
exams, thinking they will be able to get away with making vague statements.
But lecturers can spot this very easily.
It's worth making yourself familiar with the kind of topics that come up as selfcontained areas, and the kind that come up in far more general questions.

Use past papers to get used to the way questions are worded. Some will
begin with quotations and ask you to discuss them. Some will list different
areas and ask you to write a few paragraphs on each. It's also a chance to
get used to the kind of language used in exam questions.

When you have decided which areas you will be revising, look for previous
questions on those areas. Make essay plans of what you would include in
your answer - either as a mind map, in spider diagram format, in a linear
plan, or whatever method you prefer. If you want more practice at writing
essays, you can write practice exam answers. Remember if you do this most
people cannot write at a speed of more than 4 pages an hour (more if
your handwriting is very large, less if it's very small, obviously). If you are
allowing 45 minutes per essay, therefore, you will probably be writing about
a three page answers. Take this into account when you are planning exam
answers: include all your most important ideas in those three pages.
Organising group revision sessions
65
Without question, one of the best ways to revise is with other people. The
advantages include:







Company, to make the process of revision seem more worthwhile and
interesting, and to reassure you that you are not the only person who feels
the way you do.
Deadlines, to help you work to schedule; if you have agreed to meet up to
discuss a topic, you are more likely to complete your work on time.
Discussion, to help you understand ideas, and to explore them in a way
which makes them more individual to you.
Discussion, to help you remember ideas, since people often recall
conversations better than what they read.
Other people’s time. You can divide the workload, so that you take it in turns
to brief the others on specific areas. This can help you cover more ground
more quickly.
Other people’s brains. When you get stuck on something there is more
chance that you will work it out if there is more than one of you.
Less chance of missing out a crucial part. Sometimes if there's an area we
don't understand very well, we may not even realise it. Talking the topic over
with other students will help you identify these gaps, and sometimes your
fellow students can explain something in a way that's easier to understand
than your lecturer's explanation.
As you can see there's a lot to be said for group revision, so it's worth contacting
other people on your module and agreeing to meet up. This can be as often or
infrequently as you like. You can even do it by phone, or e-mail. Even if you
think there's no one on the module you know well enough to ask, give it a go
because you may be pleasantly surprised by the results.
Memory aids
Your memory works in two ways. You have a long-term memory where ideas
and memories from years before are stored, and a short term memory, where
recent information is stored. In your long-term memory, you will expect to store
most of the information about your subjects. In your short-term memory,
you will probably store formulae and quotations the kind of information you
would normally be able to look up. There are all sorts of things you can do to
improve your memory.
a) Memory works better the more ‘hooks' you have to help you recall the
information. ‘Hooks' are things you can associate with the information to help
you remember it. For example, try to make links between ideas and other ways
of representing them other than writing , drawing cartoons, or talking through
your ideas to a friend will help the ideas to ‘stick' in your head. Colours and
diagrams work well. A change of surroundings can help sometimes, so try
working in different places such as a cafe, in the kitchen, or in the bath, for
example!
66
b) However complicated your notes appear to be, try to reduce all the
important points on a topic to a single summary sheet. The process of
summarising will help fix the ideas in your mind, and one sheet is much easier to
revise from and memorise than a pile of notes.
c) After making your one page summaries, use index cards to show topic
headings and key points/dates. You can use the backs of your cards for
quotations/formulae you need to remember, and carry them around with you to
read (e.g. on the bus).
d) Use post-it notes for bullet points, key phrases, and important dates. Stick
them on your mirror, by the kettle, wherever you can see them to jog your
memory. Some people associate different topics with different rooms (e.g.
Hamlet post-its in the bathroom, Pride and Prejudice post-its in the kitchen) and
trigger their recall of the information by visualising where they placed their postits around each room.
e) Mnemonics. If you have a list of points to remember, try taking the first letter
of each word and making another word, or put them in a sequence you can
recall.
Active versus passive revision.
It's important that you make your revision as active as possible, and don't allow
it to become passive. Many people come unstuck in exams because they haven't
realised that there is a difference between recognising the material in their
notes, which can be achieved by passively reading through them a few times,
and being able to recall that information in an exam, which can only be achieved
by active revision methods.
In order to be sure that you can actually recall what you need to know in your
exam, you need to practise using the information. You can do this by
summarising it, making maps or charts showing the key points, by quizzing
yourself, getting friends to ask you questions on it, or by setting yourself mock
exam questions. You might, for example, follow these stages:
a) Make sure your notes are complete. If they aren't you'll need to visit the
library or complete them from your own books.
b) Re-read your complete set of notes and begin to summarise them, checking
you understand the relationships between the ideas as you go. Many people find
the best way to summarise their notes is in diagram form - as a bubble map or a
tree diagram. This will allow you to show the links between the main ideas and
to include examples and illustrations.
c) From your summary, produce a single summary sheet that outlines
everything you will need to learn on that topic for the exam. You will be able to
67
keep referring to this and checking you understand the relationships between
the different areas.
d) Make yourself a checklist of key questions, which you can ask yourself, or get
someone else to ask you. Aim to be able to answer all your own key questions.
It doesn't really matter whether you revise in this order, or even whether you
use these particular techniques. What is important is that you keep your revision
ACTIVE not PASSIVE. Many people spend a lot of time reading and re-reading
their notes without realising that their understanding is not increasing, and that
they won't be able to recall anything of what they've read. The important thing
is to ‘do things' with your notes, other than just reading them.
Managing exam stress
Many people find that the anxiety they feel about forthcoming exams is one of
the main obstacles to them performing well. For this reason, it is very important
to keep your stress levels down.
a) One of the best ways to do this is to prepare well for the exam, so you feel
confident. However, sometimes it is impossible to prepare as well as you would
like, and if it is an important exam, however well you prepared, you will still
probably feel nervous.
b) Anything that makes you laugh will help you relax. You could watch
something funny on TV or go to the cinema.
c) Try to have a routine worked out for the night before and the day of your
exam - what you will wear, how long it will take you to get to the place of your
exam, and if you are driving, where you will park. These are things that can
worry you otherwise, making you tenser, and having a plan will help you stay
calm.
d) If you find you are continually thinking negative thoughts, for example, ‘I
can't do this', ‘I should never have started this programme', ‘Now everyone will
find out how little I really know', ‘This was my one chance, and ‘I'm going to
blow it', these in themselves can be very destructive and interfere with your
performance. To block them, make a list of positive thoughts, for example, ‘I
was good enough to start it so I'm good enough to finish it', ‘I can do anything if
I try hard enough', ‘I'm intelligent, organised, committed, and I can do it'.
Repeat them to yourself when the negative thoughts start. It may seem a very
artificial exercise, but it really can help.
e) Don't forget to try and eat reasonably well. Small amounts of food often
will help keep your blood sugar levels on an even keel. If you eat fewer, larger
meals, you are more likely to want go to sleep immediately after eating. Vitamin
pills can help your general health; Vitamin B complex in particular is good for
your nervous system. Eating fruit and vegetables boosts your immune system
and helps you avoid getting run-down and ill. Try to keep your consumption of
68
alcohol fairly low - you don't sleep well after drinking, and therefore you won't
be able to work well the next day.
f) Exercise helps keep you healthy, increases your stamina and helps you get
rid of stresses and worries. A brisk half hour walk will do the trick - or a cycle
ride, a run, an aerobics class or a swim. You could also try yoga, or tai chi, or
any other exercise that concentrates on relaxation and breathing.
g) If stress is a great source of anxiety to you, find out about counselling,
stress management classes and hypnotherapy to help you handle you
exams.
Exam Techniques
The secret of doing well in exams is being prepared. This doesn't just mean
having done your revision, it also means being prepared for the experience of
doing an exam.
a) Visualisation
Visualisation is a very valuable technique used a lot in sport to help people
improve their performance. It's a way of mentally preparing yourself for what
you will need to do before the event - in this case an exam. It has been proved
that the process of visualising an action beforehand can improve your
performance.
Here's an example from a sports event. A runner might visualise herself on the
morning before a race: waking up, having a particular breakfast, what she'll be
wearing, her journey to the stadium, who she will talk to — and then walking out
into the stadium, the noise of the crowd, the heat, the crunch of the track under
her shoes. She'll think about how she'll be feeling — a bit nervous — her
stomach will be jittery, the adrenaline will be making all her limbs a bit twitchy.
She'll do her warm- up exercises, check her hair is tied back, nod to her coach,
take her position on the block, think about regulating her breathing, finding her
balance, feeling the power in her legs, and mentally focusing on the gun shot
that will start the race. She'll have already rehearsed her race plan — so, if the
others pull away first, she won't be fazed, because she knows she's stronger in
the second half of the race. As they start to ‘die', she will push through to win.
This is what you need to do in preparation for your exam as well. You need to be
prepared for the journey through heavy traffic, finding a parking space, the
clusters of nervous people outside the exam hall, the anxiety of finding the right
desk, your fear that you have forgotten EVERYTHING you ever knew about the
subject.
If you have mentally rehearsed these stages, you will recognise them as
a natural part of the process and be able to carry on calmly, regardless.
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It is also possible to use the visualisation process to foresee difficulties which
might arise on the day, and which, by visualising them beforehand, you will be
able to take action to avoid problems.
For example, it may be very hot or very cold in the exam hall - you might want
to dress in lots of layers that you can put on or take off as necessary. Take
water in with you. Make sure you know how you will get to the exam hall, how
long the journey will take at that time, on that day of the week, and so on.
b) Your game plan
You will need a ‘game plan', such as managers give footballers before a match.
This will include deciding how long you will spend reading the paper, choosing
your questions, and planning your answers. You need to allow an appropriate
amount of time for each section of the paper, in proportion to the marks
available for that answer. You also need to allocate enough time at the end to
check your paper: Are the questions all clearly numbered? Have you missed out
an important sentence?
If you work out your ‘game plan' in advance, you will have the confidence to
stick to it. Ignore the people who start writing straight away and who normally
make you feel panic stricken. Remember that they may have completely
misinterpreted the question they are writing away so confidently about.
c) Planning your essays
After you have listened for any additional instructions from the invigilators, and
read the instructions on the exam paper, take your time over reading the
questions.
Identify the questions you think you will answer. If you can't decide completely,
start with one you feel sure you want to tackle, and decide amongst the others
when the time comes.
Before you start writing, make a plan. This will:
 Help you design your answer to fit the question.
 Help you to cover all the necessary areas required by the question.
 Give you the opportunity to note down dates or quotations you need to
remember for inclusion later on in your essay.
 Help you to complete the essay in the allocated time.
When you look at your plan, you can divide the areas you need to cover by
the time you have available:
a) For example, if the question asks about the advantages and disadvantages of
theory X, you can decide to spend 5 minutes on your introduction, 10
minutes on the advantages, 10 minutes on the disadvantages, 5 minutes on
the conclusion, and 5 minutes reading over and checking your answer.
b) Structure your answer according to the exact wording of the question,
paying particular attention to key words in the question such as ‘describe',
‘assess', or ‘compare'. Do not be tempted to write everything you know
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about a topic regardless of the question, the examiner will just disregard it,
and you will have wasted valuable time.
c) If you run out of time on a question, go onto the next question. There
are more marks to be earned in the first part of the next answer than in the
final part of the previous answer. For this reason, always answer ALL the
questions.
d) If you do have to leave a question unfinished, try to allow enough time to
come back to it by trimming minutes here and there. You will often find that
your subconscious will have come up with a good conclusion for you while
you were busy with another question!
e) Remember to take a watch or a small clock with you - preferably one without
an audible tick which might distract you or those around you.
You don't need to stick exactly to your time plan, but if you have decided
beforehand that it is a good plan, then you will probably do better if you stick
quite closely to it. The important thing is for you to think through what suits
you to do or not to do immediately before and during an exam. Develop your
own strategies based on your individual preference.
A Time Plan
Here's an example of a time plan that someone might follow in their exam:
Exam length:
Number of essays to write:
Exam starts at:
Time to read the paper &
choose 3 questions:
Planning answer 1:
Planning answer 2:
Planning answer 3:
Writing answer 1:
Writing answer 2:
Writing answer 3:
Time to re-read your answers:
2 hours
3
9.30 am
8 mins
9.38
4 mins
4 mins
4 mins
30 mins
30 mins
30 mins
10 mins
9.42
9.46
9.50
10.20
10.50
11.20
11.30
Understanding Exam Questions
Many people lose marks in exams by misinterpreting the questions.
To help you avoid this:
 take highlighter pens or ordinary pens of different colours into the
exam.
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highlight or underline the key words of the question as it is printed on
you exam paper (practise this on photocopied past papers).
in one colour, mark all the key ‘instruction terms' such as ‘evaluate',
‘discuss', ‘compare and contrast', or ‘describe'.
Also mark any references to how many of anything you are supposed to do, for
example, ‘refer to no more than three case studies'. You should also mark words
like ‘and' and ‘or', which tell you whether you need to look at only one thing out
of a choice. In another colour, mark key words relating to the content of what
you have to do, to make sure you do not miss anything important in the title.
Sometimes a title will be confusing or ambiguous; lecturers try to avoid setting
questions like this for exams, but sometimes they don't realise there is room for
confusion.
It is very important to make sure you understand the question before
you start to plan and write your essay.
Exam Checklist
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Do you know the dates of your exams and which day of the week they
occur?
Do you know the times your exams begin and how long each one lasts?
Do you know where each exam will be held?
Have you sorted out any clashes?
Do you know how you will you get to each exam?
Have you got comfortable clothes to wear that will be warm enough/cool
enough whatever the temperature in the hall?
Have you got a bottle of water?
Have you got ordinary pens (including spares) different coloured pens and
a highlighter pen, pencils, a sharpener and an eraser?
Have you got any specialist equipment you need?
Have you got a game plan of how long you will spend reading the paper,
answering each question, and checking your answers?
Have you visualised yourself taking your first look at the exam paper, and
calming yourself down as you look for the questions you will answer?
Have you seen yourself selecting a question and annotating it with a
highlighter pen and different colours, to make sure you have read and
understood every word?
Can you see yourself pausing, breathing deeply, and calmly starting your
plan?
If appropriate, have you spoken to the Dyslexia and Disabilities Service
about any access arrangements for exams?
Have you seen an ALA for additional support if you need it?
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How to... get advice on your programme of study
If you have a problem of an academic nature you should first talk to your
personal tutor or lecturer(s) or programme convener(s), especially if the
problem is with a particular module/programme.
Your Departmental Officer of Departmental Administrators may be able to advise
you about other members of staff within the university who will be able to
provide advice regarding your programme of study.
How to… use the University’s Library
Services offered by the Library
Library and Learning Services and IT and Media Services are located in the
Library and offer a range of services to support your study.
These include:
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books, journals and reference materials.
on-line access to journals, books, newspapers and reference sources.
on-line resource lists for easy location of materials on your reading lists.
audiovisual collection and viewing facilities.
self-service and return facilities.
library catalogue for information on books and journals (print and
electronic) as well as other materials held by the Library.
moodle support at the moodlebar.
open access 24/7 computer suites.
photocopying and printing.
a variety of study spaces including group, quiet and silent areas, bookable
study rooms and the Wired café.
special collections including the University Archive and Children's
Literature Collection.
staff available to offer help with all of the above.
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Further information is available on the Library web pages.
Get to know the layout of the Library
Try some of the following to help you find your way around the Library:
 take a tour of the Library – sign up for one of the guided tours offered
during the induction period at the beginning of the year.
 find the help desks for information, enquiries, IT and media support.
 visit the moodlebar for moodle support.
 attend one of the training sessions on on-line resource lists offered at the
start of the year.
 use the library catalogue to find wider reading in your subject.
 locate the journals collection and any specialist collections of particular
use to your studies.
Get to know your Subject Librarians
Each Subject Librarian has subject knowledge and responsibility for a group of
particular subject resources. As your programme progresses you will need to
widen the range of resources you use and undertake more in-depth subject
study. They can advise you on:
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finding relevant materials in the Library and on-line.
finding specialist information using research databases.
useful internet resources and other libraries relevant to your subject.
general reference information.
Details of the Librarian for your subject can be found on the Library web pages.
Get to know Media Services
Media Services have the staff expertise and equipment to assist you in
improving the presentation of your assessed work in the following ways:
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print and graphic layout.
visual presentation e.g. slides, graphics, photographic.
audio recording and editing.
supplies for all of the above.
video recording and editing.
audio-visual equipment loan.
Media Services is based on the ground floor of the Library and the entrance is
via the Wired Cafe. There is more information on the Library web pages.
Get to know the computing facilities
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IT Services is the main provider of computing facilities to staff and students at
Roehampton. The IT helpdesk, which is based on the ground floor of the library,
is the focal point for all information about computing at Roehampton. For
opening hours, go the Library web pages.
The University is committed to providing you with the type of computer
equipment and software that is most commonly found in commerce and industry
in order to enable you to acquire relevant basic computer skills.
a) We provide Dell PCs for your use, which are by far the most common type of
computer encountered.
b) These computers are mainly located in and around the Library in order to
maximise the level of accessibility and service to students.
c) Each PC is equipped with a standard set of commercial software products
(normally the market leader) such as a word processor, spreadsheet and
database.
There are full details on what is on offer on the IT Services web pages.
We also offer training (in groups or 1:1) in the use of this standard software, to
equip you with the skills you need to make you more effective in your studies
and employment through the use of information technology. Further information
can be found on the IT Services web pages.
All computers in the Library are equipped with accessible software to enable
students with disabilities to work effectively. Students who need to maintain
specific PC settings, background, font size etc. may do so through use of a
‘roaming profile.'
There are more details on what is available for disabled users on the IT Services
web pages or ask at the IT help desk.
If you require additional adjustments to help you use the computing facilities in
the Library for reasons relating to disability/dyslexia, see ’How to… get additional
study advice and support’.
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How to... use moodle
Who can support me with using moodle?
Learning Services are responsible for managing the University's online learning
environment, moodle.
As part of that role we provide all support for students in using moodle. If you
have questions about moodle or require support please contact us:
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via Virtual Librarian (accessed from the My Tools menu on Student
MyZone).
by telephone at: 020 8392 5006 (or extension 5006 if on campus).
or by visiting the moodlebar in the Green Room, Room 217 of the Library.
Moodle is used by lecturers to present and deliver a wide variety of resources
and activities including module learning and teaching materials and online
learning activities and assessments. It is also used to submit your work to
Turnitin the University's plagiarism detection software.
How do I access moodle?
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It is web based and can therefore be accessed from any computer (on and
off campus).
You will need your University network account username and
password.
Go to the moodle login page http://moodle.roehampton.ac.uk and enter
your username and password.
By the first teaching week, a list of the courses you are enrolled on should
appear once you have logged in - click on a module name to enter the
site.
What resources will I have access to?
In addition to having access to module sites, Learning Services have provided
further online help and support which all students will have access to. You will be
enrolled to the following 3 sites:
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Moodle Student Support Site: users can learn how to use moodle's tools
and facilities.
Library Research Skills: Library Research Skills tutorials which cover a
range of topics to help you get the most out of library resources. You will
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have opportunities to practice and develop some of the skills you will need
to succeed at University.
Academic Skills Development: this site will help you develop the academic
skills needed to study successfully at university, such as, critical thinking,
essay writing and research skills. You can also book a 1-2-1 appointment
with your Departmental Academic Learning Adviser.
Can I access my old courses from last year?
For continuing students, all courses from last academic year are available in
Moodle2012-13. There is a link to the system on the Moodle log in page.
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How to… get additional study advice and support
This section contains details on further support. If you'd like to find out more
about anything that's offered, check out the web and e-mail addresses given
below.
Academic Learning Advisers (ALAs)
ALAs provide support on academic writing and approaching study. For full
information about the academic development sessions and booking an individual
appointment go to the Academic Skills Development site on Moodle.
Maths and Statistics Support
The Academic Learning Adviser for Maths and Statistics provides Maths and
Statistics support across all departments at the University of Roehampton. This
includes advice on the maths/stats aspects of your studies, including how to
design and analyse experiments and surveys, statistical hypothesis testing,
ANOVA, statistical computing, re-arranging equations, mental arithmetic etc.
You can book an appointment by using the automatic booking system in the
Academic Skills Development site on Moodle.
Visit the Academic Skills Development site on Moodle for contact information.
Academic Writing courses by the English Language Unit
There are credit bearing and non-credit bearing courses on academic writing run
by the English Language Unit.
If English is not your first language you can do a course to help you develop
your writing, accuracy and grammar, and understand what lecturers expect from
you at a British University.
For further information about these courses see the English Language Unit
website: http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/English-Language-Courses/
Students with disabilities and dyslexia
Disability Services offers support and information to students who are dyslexic or
have a disability or long-term medical condition. This service is confidential and
free. We are here to advise and support students with matters relating to their
disability and academic studies, whilst they are studying at the University of
Roehampton. Disability Services is independent from academic departments. We
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do, however, strongly advise liaison with academic departments and you will be
invited to complete the necessary disclosure form.
We are able to assist students through:
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Additional Library services.
Access arrangements for examinations.
Liaison with academic departments for any specific adjustments and
arrangements.
Specialist 1:1 tuition for dyslexic students.
Note-taking and other assistance through the Learning Support Assistants
scheme.
We can help students apply to Student Finance England for specialist equipment
and support through the Disabled Students' Allowance.
Once funding has been agreed, we are able to carry out assessments of study
needs in the Roehampton Access Centre, based in Richardson.
If you think that you may be dyslexic, come to a drop-in, details below. If you
would like to talk to us about any other disability, please make an appointment.
Drop-ins are currently available every week during term time in the Richardson
Building and generally run at the following times but check the university
website for any changes.
Tuesdays 4-6pm
Wednesdays 12-2pm
Thursdays 1-3pm.
Students are seen on a 'first come, first served' basis. Outside these times, you
can contact us for information on [email protected] or 020 8392
3636.
Or visit the University of Roehampton website.
IT Training
If you feel that you need to improve your IT skills, go to the university website
to find out about software classes and online tutorials, or ask at the IT Helpdesk
in the Library.
Personal Tutors
The Personal Tutor system ensures that all students have an academic contact
for queries, advice and support, and that they are made aware of the importance
of updating their Student Records, learning from assessment feedback, and
ensuring that they have the correct number of appropriate credits to graduate.
The role of the Personal Tutor is to monitor students’ academic progress and
personal wellbeing by ensuring they receive appropriate and timely advice. Your
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department will assign you a personal tutor who will contact you at the start of
term.
Health & Wellbeing
Stephen Messinger is the Health and Wellbeing Manager for students. He has a
responsibility for Health and Wellbeing Advice, Counselling and the work of the
Student Welfare Officers.
The Health and Wellbeing Manager can be contacted by telephone on 020 8392
3668 or by email health&[email protected]
A Health and Wellbeing drop-in facility is provided on Wednesdays in term time,
between 2pm and 4pm in the Information Centre, Richardson Building, Digby
Stuart College. No appointments are needed for these brief, informal but
confidential, consultations.
Students seeking health and wellbeing advice outside the drop-in facility should
first contact one of the following: their Student Welfare Officer, Personal Tutor,
Academic Support Staff, Chaplain, Student Union Staff, Flat Rep (if they live in
University Accommodation), another relevant member of University Staff or a
doctor, to see if their difficulties can be resolved. If necessary these contacts can
refer students for health and wellbeing advice by email (see email address
above).
Students wishing to talk about the types of support available to them, including
counselling support, should come to the drop-in facility or be referred for an
advisory appointment.
Counselling
Students who are sure that counselling is what they are looking for should
contact the Information Centre Reception or send a request by email (see email
address above).
Student Welfare Officers
There are three Student Welfare Officers who provide pastoral support and
advice to students.
SWOs can:
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Help with personal problems or suggest options for support within the
University - for example the Health and Wellbeing Advice and Counselling
or a Chaplain - or elsewhere.
Provide help and support to students with complex situations or who are
in crisis.
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Help and advise students if they are unhappy about services or individuals
in the University.
Offer support in managing finances.
For help with budgets, you can also contact the Money Doctors who are based in
the Information Centre in the Richardson building.
If you have questions or concerns related to studying, there are several people
who can provide advice: these include Academic Learning Advisers and Personal
Tutors.
Student Welfare Officers work with students according to the department the
student comes from.
Details of the SWO for your area can be found here:
http://www.roehampton.ac.uk/Student-Wellbeing/Student-Welfare/
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How to… improve your employability, find part time
work, and find a future career
Employability and Entrepreneurship offers a range of services and activities
that will help you enhance your career prospects and develop a rewarding career
after graduation.
You can register with Unitemps to access work experience and part time work
opportunities to help you develop the employability skills required in the current
graduate market.
Professional employability advisers can offer you guidance on your future
career options, helping you to audit your skills, reflect on your personal
strengths and focus on your career direction. It’s easy; you can send your query
by RU webtalk, chat on facebook, book an appointment on line or talk to your
departmental employability adviser.
Make sure you visit the online resources on our employability website. This will
help you to write an effective CV, perform well at that interview, discover your
personality style or just find out more about your dream job.
If you are thinking about volunteering on campus, then volunteer with the
RSU or find the right opportunity to help yourself and your local community
through the volunteer brokerage scheme.
Finally, bookmark our events page to highlight the important dates during the
year for employer events, Recruitment Fairs, Employability workshops and much
more.
For further information on employability and entrepreneurship visit us
at: http://studentzone.roehampton.ac.uk/careers/index.html
Employability Transferable Skill Statements
The statements given below show some of the areas of your study that you can
use as evidence, when you are applying for a job. These demonstrate the skills
and attributes that you can offer an employer.
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Research and Synthesis
As part of your preparation for essay writing and meeting assignment criteria
you develop your ability to research and synthesise information. By reading,
investigating and reflecting on divergent ideas from different sources you learn
to explore an argument, identify your own and others’ perspectives, test
conjecture and assess the reliability and value of different points of view to
create a more comprehensive understanding. These skills assure your employer
of your ability and confidence with depth and detail, and provide a basis for
ensuring a creative and quality approach to work.
Analysis and Critical Thinking
Analysis and critical thinking encourage you to apply objectivity to your own
work and that of others. This will cultivate your ability to evaluate ideas and
concepts, question and challenge viewpoints and make judgements on the value
of evidence, investigate contradictions or incompleteness and examine how
ideas are composed or interconnected. You will be able to demonstrate the key
capabilities of refining, reordering, applying logic, prioritising and classifying
information and ideas to achieve clarity and set a course for action. As analysis
and critical thinking are essential in most professional roles, the in- tray style
exercises at employer assessment centres are widely used to test these
attributes in new graduate entrants.
Written Communication
Your ability to use language appropriately to present an argument or point of
view will develop as you write assignments. In writing reports, extended essays,
written accounts and reflections, summaries of documents, and lecture notes
you will become adept at formulating and sustaining logical and consistent
arguments in clear, literate and relevant prose. This is excellent preparation for
gaining the required command of the written word sought by the majority of
employers.
Group working
Working in groups gives you the opportunity to practice and demonstrate good
communication, team working and leadership capabilities. Assigning and
delegating tasks, working to a deadline, negotiating with peers and using your
project management skills develops some of the core competences you can then
use to meet employers expectations.
Planning and delivering presentations
Practising giving presentations in your modules will allow you to develop and
demonstrate skills in communicating to a group. Delivering clear and relevant
information to an audience in an engaging format and appropriate timescale will
enable you to perform similar tasks confidently in a work place context.
Presentations are often part of the graduate recruitment process and it is
increasingly common for employees to be asked to present either to customers,
colleagues or managers as part of normal work activities.
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Team Work
Team work develops your aptitude for establishing co-operative working
relationships with others. As you define, share and delegate responsibilities you
will be able to identify your own team behaviour and approach, compare it with
other team members and assess your contribution to the overall success of the
assigned task. As part of a team you may act as a leader, an initiator of ideas,
as someone who evaluates and recommends changes, or monitors progress to
keep the team on track. If you learn how teams work well and become aware of
your own team strengths, you can represent yourself confidently in competence
based and group selection exercises.
Leadership
Certain aspects of your studies will cultivate your ability to demonstrate leader
ship potential. The willingness to take responsibility, exercise appropriate,
confident decision making, evaluate advice and opinion and use flair and
imagination in motivating and encouraging others can be evidenced by the work
you do. Collaborating with fellow students, contributing to seminars and
critiquing the work of others demonstrate these abilities. There is also scope to
involve yourself in the extracurricular activities the University offers such as
volunteering, and have this recognised through your department.
Time Management
Prioritisation of tasks and working to deadlines are key to success and managing
stress in the work place as well as during your studies. Revising for exams,
balancing demands of essays, seminars, projects and competing activities in
student life are good preparation for the conflicting demands you may
experience at work. Degree level study will emphasise the value of self-reliance,
and organising and planning ahead, all of which will show a recruiter that you
can bridge the gap from university to the working world.
Problem solving and Decision Making
Employers greatly value the ability to analyse and clarify a problem, to consider
the advantages and disadvantages of different options and to select and
implement the best solution. Actively participating in group projects and debate
will strengthen your analytical and decision making skills together with
considering other peoples perspectives. Undertaking research data analysis in
practice based projects as well as critically evaluating theories and practices
enables you to write well-informed, balanced reports and to effectively present
your solutions in the workplace.
Creativity and Innovative Thinking
Creativity and innovation consists of a range of skills and abilities including
problem solving, collaboration, adaptability, analysis and interpretation.
Recognising and analysing problems in project work and contributing creatively
and positively to issues in group tasks will develop your innovative thinking.
Progressing your creative thinking through research projects and being able to
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clearly articulate your creative ideas and solutions in writing and through
presentations will prepare you to contribute effectively to an organisation’s
development and success.
Numeracy and IT skills
An ability to interpret and present statistical and numerical information together
with suggestions for improved application is involved in a wide range of careers.
Through researching and collecting qualitative and quantitative data and learning
to critically evaluate their significance you will strengthen your skills in data
design, handling and analysis. Developing competence in word processing and
file management with the ability to use spreadsheets and databases to present
information in different formats will enable you to produce professional reports
with sound recommendations for future business planning.
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How to… continue to improve your study skills
It is a good idea to invest some time in improving your study skills, and the
University Library holds a number of study skills books that can help you to do
this.
The list below is only a selection and new books are added all the time. Each
book will contain different hints, tips and techniques to help you improve your
work. It may help you to use a number of books to get the best overview.
General Study Skills Guides
Cottrell, S., (2008) The Study Skills Handbook, Palgrave Study Guides,
3rd edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Godwin, J., (2009) Planning Your Essay, Pocket Study Skills, Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Hargreaves, S., (2007) Study Skills for Dyslexic Students, London: Sage.
Palmer, S. and Puri, A., (2006) Coping With Stress At University : A
Survival Guide, London: Sage.
Price, G. and Maier, P., (2007) Effective Study Skills, Harlow: Pearson
Longman.
Rugg, G., Gerrard, S. and Hooper, S., (2008) The Stress-Free Guide to
Studying at University : A Student's Guide Towards a Better Life,
London: Sage
Exam Skills
Tracy, E., (2001) The Student's Guide to Exam Success, Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Presentation Skills
Van Emden, J. and Becker, L. M., (2004) Presentation Skills for Students,
Palgrave Study Guides, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Mature and Part-Time Students
Becker, L. M., (2009) The Mature Student's Handbook, Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Rose, J., (2007) The Mature Student's Guide to Writing, Palgrave Study
Guides, 2nd edition., Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wilson, E. D. and Bedford, D., (2009) Study Skills for Part-Time Students,
Harlow: Prentice Hall.
Grammar, Punctuation and Essay Writing
Copus, J. and Williams, K., (2009) Brilliant Writing Tips for Students,
Pocket Study Skills, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Greetham, B., (2008) How to Write Better Essays, Palgrave Study Guides,
2nd edition ed., Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave.
Peck, J. and Coyle, M. (2005a) The Student's Guide To Writing :
Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling, 2nd edition., Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Peck, J. and Coyle, M. (2005) Write It Right : A Handbook For Students,
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
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