International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 Quality Characteristics of Smoked Skipjack (Katsuwonuspelamis) Using Different Liquid Smoke Fronthea Swastawati, Y. S. Darmanto, L. Sya’rani, K. Rahayu Kuswanto, and K. D. Anthony Taylor acceptable and popular fish species to be smoked in Indonesia. Consequently the purpose of this research was to determinate the effects of two liquid smoke flavourings on the quality variables of smoked skipjack. Abstract—The application of liquid smoke to improve quality of smoked skipjack (Katsuwonuspelamis) was studied in this research. Two different liquid smoke i.e. paddy chaff (PLS) and coconut shell liquid smoke (CLS)were applied to smoked fish. Both liquid smoke (PLS and CLS) were determined their chemical compound such as phenol; pH; and Benzo (α) pyrene, while the smoked skipjack were analysed in terms of sensory, microbiological and chemical aspect. The result showed that total phenolic derivatives found in PLS were 25,1%, lower than that of CLS of 26,31%; The pH value of PLS was 3,2; slightly higher than the CLS of 2,5; Benzo (α) pyrene was not detected in both PLS and CLS; but were found in smoked skipjack 9.55 and 8.72 ppm respectively. Sensory values of smoked fish produced by PLS were 7.7 and CLS was 7.8. Moisture content of the PLS smoked fish was 54.02% lower than CLS smoked fish that was 54.34%; Examination of t-test Independent Sample to the moisture content showed no significantly different (P>0.05); TVC on PLS skipjack was 153 cfu/g very significantly higher (P<0.01) than smoked skipjack using CLS that was 76 cfu/g. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. Production of Liquid Smoke Flavouring The PLS and CLS were collected in around Semarang City. They were dried for several hours prior to processing. The pyrolysis process was started with smoke generator controlled heating. The temperature was measured with a thermostat positioned in the centre of the reactor; the maximum temperature reached was 450ºC. The production was stopped when the smoke materials was totally pyrolysed. The liquid smoke resulting from the process was filtered through a paper filter and collected in some bottles. Index Terms—Skipjack, paddy chaff (PLS) and coconut shell (CLS) liquid smoke, quality. B. Smoked Cured Skipjack Processing The experimental of smoked skipjack were prepared in Fish Processing Product Technology Laboratory following the procedure of Indonesian National Standard/SNI 2006. A total of 20 kg of skipjack were used in this experiment, and the fish were collected from Hygienic Fish Market in Semarang. In the processing, the fish were eviscerated, cut, and washed thoroughly, then divided into two groups. One group was subjected to PLS while the other was treated by CLS. The fish were dipped into 3% salt and 5% liquid smoke solution for 15 minutes. Then the cured fish were placed into an oven and cooked at 80ºC for ±3 hours. I. INTRODUCTION Smoking is one of the old food preservation techniques. It is being more popular nowadays by the use of liquid smoke. The utilization of liquid smoke offers some advantages compared to traditional methods. Liquid smokes are easily to applied, the concentration of liquid smoke can be controlled, can result in more uniform products, be less taxing on the environment and many smoke flavourings are also free of harmful compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [1]. Suitable smoke condensates for smoking of particular fish species could be evaluated by sensory value, as well as microbiological, chemical and safety point of view. In related to consumer preferences, it is found that not all consumers like the same kind of products. For example some people require a strong smoke odour and flavour, others want a specific wood or smoke material [2], [3]. Possible materials for use in the production of liquid smoke in Indonesia are paddy chaff and coconut shell, due to their chemical composition [4]. Skipjack is one of the most C. Phenol Analysis Samples were homogenized in destilled water, placed into iodide tubes 0,1 N bromine solutions and 5 ml of concentrated HCl, added and left it for 30 minutes. After that, 5 mL of 20% KI solutions and 3 mL of 5 % Amylop indicator were added, and then titrated with Na-Tiosulfat 0,1 N sodium thiosulphate until the blue colour disappeared [5]. D. Determination of pH 20 mL of liquid smoke samples were put into a beaker glass. Then the pH meter sensor was put into the liquid smoke sample and the pH value was recorded when the reading was constant [6] Manuscript received August 14, 2013; revised November 24, 2013. Fronthea Swastawati, Y. S. Darmanto, and L. Sya’rani are with Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Diponegoro University, Jl. Prof Soedarto, SH, Kampus UNDIP Tembalang, Semarang (e-mail: fronthea_thp@ undip.ac.id). K. Rahayu Kuswanto is with the Department of Food Technology from GadjahMada University (e-mail: [email protected]). K. D. Anthony Taylor is with the Department of Food Science and Chemistry, University of Lincolnshire, UK (e-mail: [email protected]). DOI: 10.7763/IJBBB.2014.V4.318 E. Moisture Analysis Fish samples were dried using an oven for ±24 hours at 1000 50C until the weight of samples remained constant. The percentage of moisture content was calculated based on wet weight and multiplied by 100% [7]. 94 International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 The temperature in the smoke generator was reached 450ºC. At 488ºC the pyrolysis process is fairly complete [9]. The completion of pyrolysis is depending on the smoke sources. PLS produced a higher percentage liquid smoke than CLS, due to the biological characteristics. These liquid smokes are dark brown in colour, and their odour has been described as very aromatic and pleasant smoky with significant floral notes. Study by [9] showed that 100 g of thyme (Thymus vulgariis) L powder plants produced 173 ml of liquid smoke. They alsofound that coconut shell pyrolysis produces 52,8% liquid smoke, 31,7% charcoal and ash and 15,4% of volatile gasses such as: CO2, CO, CH4 and hydrocarbons.20 major carbonyl derivatives from cellulose and hemicellulose thermal degradation were detected in the volatile fraction the liquid smokes (Table II).[10] found that liquid smoke compounds were dominated by: toluene, 2prophenol, methoxybenzena, 1,2-dichlorobenzene; 1,1bicyclohexyl; 2,4-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl) phenol, 1,2benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester, 4-nonylphenol and is oxazole. The chemical compound of liquid are vary based on their specific characteristics, although the major component are usually groups of phenols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, furanes, etc. Major component found in PLS were phenol; 2furanmethanol; 1,2-benzenediol; phenol 2-methoxy; and 2cyclopenten-1-one,2-hydroxy-3-methyl. Meanwhile, CLS were dominated by phenol,2-methoxy; phenol,2,6,dimethoxy; pyrazole,1,4-dimethyl; phenol,4-ethyl-2methoxy; and 1,2-benzenediol,3-methyl. [9] reported that the main components thyme liquid smoke were 2furancarboxaldehyde; 2-furanmethanol; 3-methyl-1,2cyclopentanedione; 1-acetoxy-propan-2-one and 3-methyl2butanone. Which are different from those in PLS and CLSother compounds in smaller concentrations contribute with similar flavour notes, such as: cyclopentanone;2methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one;3-methyl-2cyclopenten-1-one and 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4H-pyan-4-one. F. Benzo (a) Pyrene Analysis 5g of sample was destructed by sodium sulphate and chloroform until homogenious. The sample was then extracted into propylene carbonat and saponificated with NaOH solution. The extract was filtered with calcium chloride, celite and florisil. The filtrate then evaporated to 1 ml using a water bath at 45oC, and passed a glass column (clean up) containing 10% of aluminium oxide in the lower part and 10 g of Na2S04 in the upper partuntil the component was elured. Samples were then fractionated in the column in silica 60 reins column, 70-230 mesh and added by 10% diethylether and evaporated. Finally, the sample was injected into Gas Chromatography to measure benzo () pyrenecontent [8]. G. Microbial Analysis Fish samples were diluted into concentration of 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, and 10-5. Petri dishes containing of diluted samples were then incubated with the opposite position at 35o C for 48 hours. The number of colonies was then calculated by hand tally counter using for the plate amount of 25-250 colonies [7]. H. Sensory Characteristics Sensory characteristics of the fish were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale for: general appearance, colour, odour, flavour, and texture. Seven expert panelists were used to evaluate the fish as described by Indonesian National Standard. I. Statistical Analysis The collected data from two replications was subjected to a t –test to determine the differences between PLS and CLS (independent variable) for each parameter using the SPSS statistical package. Significantly different treatment means were further separated using the Least Significant Differences method and significance was reported at P<0.05 and P<0.01 with means ±deviation standard. B. Phenolic Compounds in Liquid Smoke Total phenol derivatives formed from the thermal degradation of lignin are also present and in general contribute with typical smoky notes. These fraction are important for their attributed antioxidant activity. The total phenolic derivatives found in PLS were 25,1%, lower than that of CLS of 26,31%. 36,0% [9] found that thyme liquid smoke was total phenolic derivatives. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Production of Liquid Smoke Flavouring The data obtained on the production of liquid smoke are presented in Table I. The materials for smoke sources in Indonesia wereselected based on their availability in the area. PLS and CLS can be found easily almost in all provinces. C. pH Value of Liquid Smoke The pH value of PLS was 3,2; slightly higher than than the CLS of 2,5. According to [10], the vapour phase of smoke can be separated into acids and phenols which are strongly acidic in water. Some commercial liquid smoke have the pH value between 3-4 [11]. pH value 4 can inhibit the growth of bacteria and moulds. TABLE I: PRODUCTION OF LIQUID SMOKE Liquid smoke material Parameter PLS CLS Material weight (kg) 2,5 2,5 1,375 1,15 Persentage of liquid smoke (%) 55 46 Charcoal & evaporated component (%) 45 54 Volume of liquid smoke (L) D. Moisture Analysis of Smoked Skipjack No statistically significant (P>0.05) differences were observed in chemical properties in the samples produced by both PLS and CLS. The moisture content of fresh skipjack was 73.73% and immediately reduced caused by smoking process. The moisture content of both PLS (54.0±2.7) and CLS (54.3±0.9) samples were in the range of standard Indonesian smoked fish, which is 60% of maximum. Moisture content Note: PLS = Paddy chaff liquid smoke treatment CLS = Coconut shell liquid smoke treatment 95 International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 in this study had been decreased for about 26.3-26.9% during smoking process. The reduction of moisture content No was also influenced by the presence of salt prior smoking and its concentration. TABLE II: PERCENTAGE OF MAJOR CARBONYL DERIVATIVES IN PADDY CHAFF AND COCONUT SHELL LIQUID SMOKE Carbonyl derivatives PLS CLS 1 1,2-Benzenediol 6.45 6.76 2 1,2-Benzenediol,3-methoxi 1.22 4.81 3 2-Cyclopenten-1-one,2-hidroxy-3-methyl 5.14 3.93 4 2-Cyclopenten-1-one,3-ethyl-2-hydroxi 1.48 - 5 2-Furanmethanol 6.98 3.84 6 2-Furanmethanol,tetrahidro 1.83 - 7 Phenol,2-Methoxi-4-methyl- 1.68 3.45 8 Phenol 7.43 - 9 Phenol,2,6-dimethoxi 2.79 8.99 10 Phenol,2-methoxi 6.29 12.69 11 Phenol,3-methyl - 3.96 12 Phenol,4-ethyl-2-methoxi 2.88 7.17 13 Phenol,2-methyl 1.97 2.71 14 Phenol,4-methyl 3.16 - 15 Phenol,2-Methoxi-3-methyl- - - 16 Phenol,4-ethyl 2.02 - 17 2-Propanone,1-4-hidroxi-3-methoxiphenyl 1.16 - 18 Pyrazole,1,4-dimethil - 8.05 19 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diethyl ester - 1.15 20 1,2-Benzenediol,3-methyl- 1.4 4.78 Note: PLS = Paddy chaff liquid smoke treatment; CLS = Coconut shell liquid smoke treatment 96 International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 TABLE III: SENSORY VALUE OF FRESH SKPIJACK Spesification Value±SD E. Analysis of Benzo (α) Pyrene Several authors have studied the carcinogenic activity of liquid smoke. Although many smoke flavouring are free of harmful compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), but the presence of benzo () pyrene (BP) in smoked fish has becoming a great consideration nowadays. PAH constitute a large class of organic substances containing two or more fused aromatic rings made up of carbons and hydrogen atoms [12]. BP was the first PAHs to be identified as carcinogen, and as a consequence, has been most studied. Benzo (α) pyrene content in the PLS and CLS was not detected. While PLS and CLS smoked skipjack was containing BP of 9.55 and 8.72 ppm respectively. Many researchers reported that the range of BP found in smoked fish is about 1,7 - 53 ppm. Therefore, efforts are needed to decrease the presence of BP in smoked fish. This can be done by research as reputed here of (using various free BP smoke sources) and also by reducing the temperature of pyrolysis < 400°C. Eye 8.00 0.67 Gill 8.00 0.67 Flesh and belly 8.20 0.63 Texture 8.50 0.53 Odour 8.20 0.63 Slime 9.00 0.00 Average 8.32 0.52 Note: SD = deviation standard TABLE IV: EFFECTS OF LIQUID SMOKE ON SENSORY VALUE OF SKIPJACK, ASSESSED ON FIRST DAY OF STORAGE Sensory value±SD Specification PLS CLS F. Microbiological Analysis Microbiological analysis showed that the total number of colony of fresh fish was: 2x104cfu/g. The microorganisms counted on all samples decrease with the application of the smoking process. Very significant (P<0.01) differences were detected between PLS and CLS samples. The average of TVC of smoked skipjack being: 153cfu/g (PLS) and 76 cfu/g (CLS). In the Indonesian National Standard, the upper limited for TPC either for fresh and smoked fish are: 5×105cfu/g. Therefore, from the microbiological point of view the use of paddy chaff and coconut shell liquid smoke are possible alternatives to traditional smoking method. The results proved that liquid smoke reduced the microbiological properties of the final product. According to [13] liquid smoke has given an effect on the growth of the Lb. plantarum. Study by [14] showed that at the beginning (0 day) liquid and traditionally smoked beef tongues samples had similar microbiological result namely 1.08-1.10, 1.55-1.70, 1.00-1.05, 1.09-1.05 and 2.14-2.20 log cfu/g for total staphylococci/micrococci, APC (Total aerobic bacteria), psychotrophs, halophiles and lactic acid bacteria, respectively. According to [13] two components that responsible for the bactericidal effect are phenolic and organic acids the combination of them can effectively control the growth of microorganisms. Appearance 7.6±0.23 8.0±0.00 Odour 7.0±0.00 7.7±0.00 Flavour 7.7±0.00 7.7±0.00 Texure 7.0±0.00 7.0±0.00 Moulds 9.0±0.00 9.0±0.00 Average 7.7±0.05 7.8±0.00 Note: PLS = Paddy chaff liquid smoke treatment CLS = Coconut shell liquid smoke treatment CLS smoked skipjack samples received higher scores in appearance and odourcompared to PLS, while flavour, texture and the present of moulds of both samples are remain the same. The differences were not significant (P>0.05). This is indicates that both treatment were acceptable by the panelists in term of their sensory point of view. Although the CLS samples gave slightly better result than the PLS samples. Both samples were accepted by panelists until 4th days of storage. Smoking has been reported to affect the colour of food [15], [16]. The formation of the smoke colour is believed to originate from an uptake of coloured smoke constituents, oxidation and polymerization of smoke compounds, and reaction of smoke compounds with proteins. Therefore, condensation reactions take place between carbonyls and amines, leading to the appearance of the typical smoke colour [17]. The CLS showed lower odour intensity and lower brightness than the PLS. This indicates that there to be a relationship between liquid smoke composition and the different type of smoke sources used to produce it. [18] indicated that colour development depended mainly on creation between carbonyls, protein, and lipid, while the flavour afforded was largely due to the type and amounts of phenolic compounds present. These compounds also influence the antioxidant effect of the liquid smoke. The effect of liquid smoke on the textural attributes of skipjack showed that CLS was firmless compared to PLS. Although PLS was richer in carbonyls than that of CLS. G. Sensory Value of Fresh Skipjack An analysis of raw material of fish was carried out with the effects of scores of samples given by 7 panellists. The main results are presented in Table III. Raw fish used in this study had the following characteristics of eyes perfectly fresh, convex black pupil, translucent cornea, bright red gills, no bacterial slime, outer slime water white or transparent, bright opalescent sheen, no bleacing. The value was in accordance with SNI standard with the minimum sensory value of 7,0. H. Sensory Value of Smoked Skipjack In general, smoked skipjack treated by PLS received slightly higher sensory scores than CLS treatment (see Table IV). 97 International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 [15] E. Marit and B. R. Anna Maria, ”Quality of Cold Smoked Salmon This is largely caused by the reaction between carbonyls and proteins [17]. Taking only sensory qualities into account, the samples were rejected by the assessing panel when they showed signs of softening, low elasticity, firmness, discolouration and low brightness. All samples were rejected at 4 days of storage. These results differed slightly bit from initial research that with CLS and PLS. The shelf life of smoked skipjack at room temperature was accepted by panelist until 6 days of storage. offered to the General French consumer,” National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Reseach, 2004. [16] O. Martinez, J. Salmeron, M. D.Guillén, and C. Casas, “Sensorial and physicochemical characteristics of salmon (Salmosalar) treated by different smoking process during storage,” Food Science and Technology International, vol. 13, pp. 477, 2007. [17] L. Toth and Potthast, “Chemical aspect of the smoking of meat products,” Advanced in Food Research, vol. 27, pp. 87-158, London: Academic Press. [18] V. Vincent, C. Prost, and T. Serot, “Volatile aldehydes in smoked fish; analysis methods, occurrence and mechanisms of formation,” Food Chemistry, vol. 105, pp. 1536-1556, 2007. Fronthea Swastawati was born on February 23th 1959 in Kebumen, Central Java, Indonesia. She received the BS degree in Fisheries and Marine Science from the University of Diponegoro, Semarang, Indonesia in 1983, the MSc degree in Food Science from the University Humberside, UK in 1993, and the Doctoral degree in Coastal Resources Management from the University of Diponegoro, Semarang, Indonesia in 2008. She is a lecturer of Fisheries and Marine Science at University of Diponegoro, Semarang, Indonesia. She has published more than 20 papers in journals, conference proceedings, and books. Her research interests include Post Harvest Fisheries Technology. Dr. Swastawati is a member of Asia-Pacific Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Society. She received a The Most Excellent Paper Award and Session Chair Participate on International Conference on Biotechnology and Food Science in Bangkok, Thailand April 7-8, 2012. IV. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the two liquid smoke flavourings studied led to desirable changes in the characteristics and safety of skipjack flesh. These changes were similar in both PLS and CLS treatments. Although each liquid smoke had specific chemical compounds both could be used to smoke skipjack and produce a satisfied smoked fish produced. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This project is funded by Directorate General of Higher Education, Indonesian Ministry of National Education. REFERENCES [1] D. E. Pscizola, “Tour highlights production and use of smoke curing process,” Food Technology, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 70-74, 1995. Sunen, B. Fernandez-Galian, and C. Aristimuno, “Antibcterialactivity of smoke wood condensate against Aeromonashydrophila, Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes at low temperature,” Food Microbiology Journal, Spain, 2001. M. Cardinal, J. Cornet, T. Sérot, and R. Baron, “Effects of the smoking process on odour characteristics of smoked herring (Clupeaharengus) and relationships with phenolic compound content,” Food Chemistry, pp. 137-146, 2006. S. Fronthea, E. Susanto, B. Cahyono, and W. A. 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Giulini Chemie, “Tari smoke” Tari Service International, Posatfach Ludwigshafen amRhein Germany, 2003. R. Simon, S. Palme, and E. Anklam, “Validation (in-house and colaborative) of a method based on liquid chromatography for the quantitation of 15 European-priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoke flavourings: HPLC-method validation for 15 EU priority PAH in smoke condensates,” Food Chemistry, 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.10.010. M. Catte, F. Gancel, F. Dzierszinski, and R. Tailliez, “Effects of eater activity, Na Cl, and smoke concentrations on the growth of Lactobacillus plantarumATCC 12315,” International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 52, pp. 105-108, 1999. Z. Gonulalan, A. Kose, and H. Yetim, “Effects of liquid smoke on quality characteristics of Turkish standard smoked beef tongue,” Meat Science, vol. 66, pp. 165-170, 2003. [2] E. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] 98 Y. S. Darmanto was born on October 17th 1951 in Klaten, Central Java Indonesia. He recieves BS degree in fisheries, Faculty of Animal, Diponegoro University in 1978. He received master of science in 1985 in fisheries science and Ph.D degree in 1997 in marine science and engineering from Nagasaki University, Japan. He is currently the university professor of Fisheries by Product at Diponegoro University, Semarang Indonesia and HEAD of Fisheries Processing Product Technology Laboratory Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science Diponegoro University.He applied this knowledge in some research such as The effect of some fish bones collagen in improving food quality; Effect of collagen from different types of fish bone to miofibril protein quality and Physico chemical properties of some dried fish product in Indonesia. He has published more than 30 papers in journals, conference proceedings, and books. Prof. Darmanto is a member of Indonesian Toxicology Society and Indonesian Food Technologist Society. Lachmuddin Sya’rani was born on July 18th 1939 in Bengkulu. He received bachelor degree from National University, Jakarta Indonesia in 1965. Receive Master of Science and Ph.D degree in 1981 and 1983 from Faculty of Science The University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK. He has received professor in the field of Marine Science. Since he retirement from full time employment he has continued to work at the doctoral degree in Coastal Resources Management Diponegoro University, Semarang Indonesia. He has supervised more than 25M.Sc/Ph.D projects to successful completion and published more than 30 papers in refereed journals. He has done many research,some of them Temporal changes on the reef flat of pulau pari complex; The significance reef for archipelago country and solution of them; Coral form and Acropora aspera (DANA) growth in the Java sea on west season. Prof. Sya’rani is a member of Asean Fisheries, Indonesian Oceanographers Society, Indonesian Fisheries Scientist Society and many other organizations both National and International. Kapti Rahayu Kuswanto was born on November 15th 1944 in Tuban, East Java, Indonesia. She received the BS degree in Food Technology from Gadjah Mada University in 1971, receive Diploma in Microbiology and Bioengineering, Osaka University, Japan, 1975. She received Ph.D degree in Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo Japan, 1988. She is currently the university professor of Food International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 2014 Technology and Microbiology at GadjahMadaUniversity, Yogyakarta Indonesia.Her current research interests include food technology and microbiology. She has published more than 30 technical papers in journals, conference proceedings, and books. Prof. Kuswanto received a JSPS for Completion of Ph.D Program at Tokyo University of Agriculture Award. degrees at eight UK Universities. Both his B.Sc and Ph.D were in biochemistry, but when he moved to Grimsby in 1974, he applied this knowledge of biochemistry to food, and in particular to post-harvest fish research. Aspects of pure research included mechanism of blackspot development and quality parameters, biochemical indices and nutritional quality changes in fish during processing and storage. Applied aspects include improved utilisation of waste and assessment and reduction of losses in cured fish processing. He has worked extensively in South East Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand) as well as in Europe, USA, Kenya and China. Prof Anthony Taylor was awarded the Chair of Food Science in 1992, one of the first in what was then Humberside Polytechnic. Since retirment from full-time employment, he has continued to work on a part-time basis at the Holbeach Campus. K..D. Anthony Taylor was a senior academic and head of Food Research Centre. He has supervised more than 35 M.Phil/Ph.D projects to successful completion and published more than 45 papers in refereed journals. He is in the Society of Chemical Industry for which he organized a series of conferences on Fish Processing, and was Chairman of SCI Food Commodities and Ingredients Group. As well as being an External examiner for B.Sc. and M.Sc.s in Food he has examined for research 99
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