1. business and industrial
2. agriculture and forestry
3. crops and seed

Initial Environmental Examination Amendment
2013 South Sudan Agriculture PERSUAP
(Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safer Use Action Plan)
PROGRAM/ACTIVITY DATA:
Program/Activity Number:
Contract Number:
Order Number:
Country/Region:
Functional Objective:
Program Areas:
Program Activity/Title:
Funding Begin:
Funding End:
LOP Amount:
Food, Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM),
REDH-I-00-05-00005-00
16, Abt. Associates
South Sudan/East Africa
4.0 Economic Growth
4.5 Agriculture and
4.6.2 Private Sector Competitiveness
4.5.2 Agriculture Sector Productivity and
4.6.3 Private Sector Productivity
Food, Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM)
2/18/2010
2/17/2014
$54.2million
Activity Title:
Agreement Number:
Functional Objective
Program Area
Program Element
Program Element
Funding Begin:
Funding End:
LOP Amount:
Seeds for Development (S4D-AGRA)
AID-668-A-11-00003
4.0 Economic Growths
4.5: Agriculture
4.5.1 Agricultural Enabling Environment
4.5.2 Agriculture Sector Productivity Capacity
FY 2011
FY 2013
$5.2mn
Activity Title:
Agreement Number:
Functional Objective
Program Area
Program Element
Program Element
Funding Begin:
Funding End:
LOP Amount:
Seeds for Development (S4D-IFDC)
AID-668-IO-11-00001
4.0 Economic Growth
4.5: Agriculture
4.5.1 Agricultural Enabling Environment
4.5.2 Agriculture Sector Productivity Capacity
FY 2011
FY 2013
$15 million
Program Elements:
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. i
Activity Title:
Agreement Number:
Functional Objective:
Program Areas:
Program Elements:
LOP Amount:
Activity Title:
Agreement Number:
Functional Objective:
Program Areas:
Program Elements:
LOP Amount:
Program Activity/Title:
Agreement Number:
Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (RHEA)
650-A-00-11-00303-00
3.0 Investing in People
3.2 Education
3.2.2.2 Institutional Capacity Development
3.2.2.3 Engaging Higher Education Institutions in Development
3.2.2.4 Professional Development
3.2.2.5 Host Country Strategic Information Capacity (Higher Ed)
10,554,527
Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (JG-MUST)
AID-668-A-11-00001
3.0 Investing in People
3.2 Education
3.2.2.2 Institutional Capacity Development
3.2.2.3 Engaging Higher Education Institutions in Development
3.2.2.4 Professional Development
3.2.2.5 Host Country Strategic Information Capacity (Higher Ed)
9,796,757
Functional Objective:
Program Area:
Program Element:
Funding Begin:
Funding End:
LOP Amount:
Agricultural Credit Expansion in South Sudan (ACESS)
668-DCA-12-001A
668-DCA-12-001B
668-DCA-12-001C
4.0 Economic Growth
4.7 Economic Opportunity
4.7.4 Inclusive Financial Markets
FY 2012
FY 2016
$7,000,000
Program Activity/Title:
Agreement Number:
Functional Objective:
Program Area:
Program Element:
Funding Begin:
Funding End:
LOP Amount:
FARM II (notional)
TBD
4.0 Economic Growth
4.7 Economic Opportunity
4.7.4 Inclusive Financial Markets
FY 2013
FY 2018
$50,000,000 (notional)
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. ii
Prepared By: Draws extensively from a draft 2011 FARM PERSUAP developed by J Litsinger. Additional
technical contributions by Jane Kahata. Integration editing by Mark Stoughton, GEMS/The Cadmus Group.
[email protected].
Current Date: July 11, 2013
Expiration Date: As per the parent IEEs.
Submitted By (Project Point-of-Contact): EMegan Willis
IEE Amendment (Y/N): Y amends the following IEEs:
FARM project IEE (5/07/2010)
S4D, (implemented by AGRA and IFDC, one combined IEE), (10/05/2011
RHEA & ACCESS IEEsand JG-MUST (combined IEE) 09/09/2010
ACESS IEE 5/30/2012
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION RECOMMENDED:
(Place X where applicable)
Categorical Exclusion:
Negative Determination:
Positive Determination:
Deferral:
X
ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS: (Place X where applicable)
CONDITIONS :
X___
SUAP/EMMP : ___X___
PVO/NGO:
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Scope.This Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) covers the activities undertaken
by Food, Agribusiness, and Rural Markets (FARM), Seeds for Development (S4D, implemented by AGRA and
IFDC), Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (RHEA), John Garang Memorial and University of Science
and Technology (JG-MUST), Agriculture Credit Expansion in South Sudan (ACESS), and FARM II (in design). To
achieve their objectives, these programs require effective pest management across more than a dozen target
crops, which in turn will require use of chemical controls in a number of instances. Pest management needs
are detailed in Annex A.
Purpose. In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this PERSUAP:
Establishes the set of pesticides for which support is authorized in USAID/South Sudan Agriculture
Sector activities.
Establishes requirements attendant to support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide
use/support (1) embodies the principles of safer pesticide use and, (2) per USAID policy, is within an
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework.
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.
The set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safer use are established through the first sections of
the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which culminates with an assessment of the 12
pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).
The SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP; Section 6) provides asuccinct, definitive stand-alone statement of
compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. iii
responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this
PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
Aproved pesticides. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the below-listed pesticides (active ingredients) are
permitted for use/support in USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector projects. (Toxicological summaries and
EPA registration status are presented in Table B-1 of Annex B.
Insecticide
Fungicide
acetamiprid (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
azadirachtin (neem oil; also an insecticide)
mancozeb
metalaxyl FOR SEED TREATMENT ONLY
thiram FOR SEED TREATMENT ONLY
sulfur (also an insecticide)
azadirachtin (neem oil; also a fungicide)
Bacillus thuringiensis-Bt
betacyfluthrin
carbaryl
chlorpyrifos (formulations < 10% Active Ingredient
(AI) ONLY)
clothianidin (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
cyphenothrin
dimethoate
Fumigant
None allowed, EXCEPT that aluminum phosphide
fumigation may be contracted from specialized
providers with all necessary training and
equipment.
Herbicide
malathion
fluazifop-p-butyl
glyphosate
isopropylamine salt of glyphosate
imazapyr
pendimethalin
propanil
thiobencarb
pyrimiphos methyl (also pirimiphos methyl) (seed
treatment only)
Bird Repellant
spinosad
methyl anthranilate
imidacloprid (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
indoxacarb*
insecticidal soaps
lambda cyhalothrin (formulations < 10% AI only)
sulfur (also a fungicide)
thiamethoxam (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
Veterinary Applications
Albendazole* (anti-parasitical; not a pesticide but an
orally administered drug)
Note: As imidacloprid and thiram have properties as repellants against birds and mammals that feed
on sown-seed, they should be preferred as seed treatments over the other seed treatment materials
* Anti-parasitical; not a pesticide but an orally administered drug – It will require additional clearance as a phamacitical
Note that: Neonicotinoid pesticides (acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam) are linked
by some studies to honey bee colony collapse disorder in the US and Europe, as one of multiple contributing
factors. Clothianidin is the most highly implicated, followed by imidacloprid. However, the small-scale and
asynchronous uses of neonicotinoids envisioned in South Sudan are judged to present markedly lower risks
to bees than the large-scale, synchronous applications in the US and Europe, where hundreds or thousands of
hectares may be sprayed at one time. They are thus approved for both seed treatment and foliar use under
this PERSUAP. However, this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale
applications are shown to present significant risk of CCD and/or if US EPA registration status changes.
Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. iv
Note also that insecticide active ingredients carbaryl, dimethoate and malathion, as well as herbicide active
ingredients pendimethalin and propanil, are potential (not proven) carcinogens, so additional caution is
indicated for individuals who may use these products regularly.
Mitigation Measures and restrictions attendant to the use of these pesticides can be summarized as follows.
(The PER and the annexes provide substantial resources to support compliance with these requirements.)
A. Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID funds in USAID/South
Sudan agricultural sector activities. These pesticides are enumerated above.
Pesticide “SUPPORT” means procurement, use, recommending for use, or otherwise facilitating the
use of a pesticide.
B. Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based
pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key
information for IPs to develop these plans.)
C. Appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safer pesticide use & pesticide first aid;
D. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use & maintenance of appropriate PPE—as
well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices;
E. Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.
F. Lending to fund the procurement of pesticides will be limited to Borrowers receiving adequate
technical assistance through existing USAID-funded agricultural development projects in South
Sudan (e.g., FARM and S4D projects). See 2.5 Agricultural Credit Expansion in South Sudan (ACESS).
These conditions are detailed in the included mandatory SUAP template for assigning responsibilities and
timelines for implementation of these requirements, and for tracking compliance. Each project subject to this
PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP template to its AOR/COR 30 days before the implementation of the
activity and provide an annual update.
With respect to pesticides, the Safer Use Action Plan satisfies the requirement for an environmental mitigation
and monitoring plan (EMMP). The project EMMP should simply incorporate the SUAP by reference.
See the # Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. v
APPROVAL OF THE RECOMMENDED ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION
(2013 South Sudan PERSUAP:
CLEARANCE:
Mission Director
CONCURRENCE:
Africa Bureau Environmental Officer
Signed: ___/signed/______________ Date: 7/26/2013___
William Brands
Signed:______________________ Date: ___________
Brian Hirsch
ADDITIONAL CLEARANCES:
EG Office Director
Signed:_____/signed/______________ Date: 7/11/2013_____
Tom Rhodes
Mission Environmental Officer
Signed:___/signed/_______________ Date: 07/11/2013_____
Richard Nyarsuk
Regional Environmental Advisor
USAID/East Africa
Signed: ___/signed /_____________ Date: _7/25/2013_____
David Kinyua
Regional Legal Advisor
Signed: _____/signed/______________ Date: 07/15/2013____
Zeinah Salahi
Deputy Mission Director
Signed: ____n/a_______ ______________ Date: _n/a__________
Alex Deprez
Distribution List:
USAID South Sudan MEO, East Africa REA
USAID/South Sudan EG Team A/CORs and Activity Managers, who distribute to IPs
USAID/South Sudan Office of Acquisitions and Assistance
USAID/Southern Sudan Program and Project Development Office
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. vi
(version 4 October 2013)
Table of Contents
Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................................... x
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.1 Purpose and Scope ........................................................................................................................... 12
1.2 Regulatory Requirements, the PERSUAP concept, and Analytical Approach................................... 12
1.3 Development of this PERSUAP ......................................................................................................... 15
2. PROJECTS COVERED BY THIS PERSUAP ................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Food Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM) Sudan ...................................................................... 15
2.2 Seeds for Development Program (S4D) ............................................................................................ 17
2.3 Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (RHEA).......................................................................... 18
2.4 John Garang Memorial University of Science and Technology (JGMUST) ....................................... 18
2.4 Agricultural Credit Expansion in South Sudan (ACESS) ..................................................................... 18
3. ENVIRONMENTAL & AGRICULTURAL CONTEXT ...................................................................................... 19
3.1 Priority geographic places or areas of projects intervention ........................................................... 19
3.2 Country Environmental Profile ......................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Agriculture in South Sudan (Excluding Pest Management) ............................................................. 22
SECTION 4: PER, PART 1: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS, PESTICIDES AVAILABLE, AND MANAGEMENT
CAPACITY..................................................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Identification of Target Crops ........................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Pest Management Needs for Target Crops ...................................................................................... 25
4.3 Traditional pest control practices;
Current State of IPM Awareness & Practice ..................... 25
4.4 Current pesticide use/availability ..................................................................................................... 26
4.5 Available PPE and Application Equipment........................................................................................ 29
4.6 Pesticide Knowledge and Awareness. .............................................................................................. 29
4.7 Agro-dealer Safer Use Awareness & Extension to Customers ......................................................... 29
4.9 List of Candidate Pesticides .............................................................................................................. 30
SECTION 5: PER, PART 2: THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS ................................................................................. 32
Factor A: US EPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides .......................................................... 32
Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides .............................................................................................. 34
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. vii
Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use is, or could be, Part of an IPM Program.......... 35
Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of Application and
Safety Equipment ................................................................................................................................... 35
Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, Either Human or Environmental, Associated
with the Proposed Use, and Measures Available to Minimize Such Hazards ........................................ 36
Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticides for the Proposed Use ........................................... 37
Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide use with Target and Non-Target Ecosystems......... 38
Factor H: The Conditions Under which the Pesticide is to be Used, Including Climate, Flora, Fauna,
Geography, Hydrology, and Soils............................................................................................................ 39
Factor I: The Availability and Effectiveness of other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods .... 40
Factor J: The Requesting Country's Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use and
Disposal of the Requested Pesticide ...................................................................................................... 40
Factor K: The Provisions Made for Training of Users and Applicators ................................................... 41
Factor L: The Provisions Made for Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of the Pesticides ................. 42
SECTION 6: SAFER USE ACTION PLAN ......................................................................................................... 42
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 42
6.2 Allowed Pesticides ............................................................................................................................ 42
6.3 Summary of Compliance Requirements ........................................................................................... 43
Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker.......................................................................... 45
7. LITERATURE CITED .................................................................................................................................. 50
ANNEX A: PESTS & DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS & AVAILABLE & RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS
.................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Maize ...................................................................................................................................................... 51
Sorghum.................................................................................................................................................. 58
Cassava ................................................................................................................................................... 63
Groundnut .............................................................................................................................................. 65
Finger Millet (Eleucine coracana) ........................................................................................................... 68
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) Family: Fabaceae ...................................................................................... 71
Onions (Allium cepa) .............................................................................................................................. 75
Tomatoes (Lycopersic onesculentum) ................................................................................................... 78
Dry Beans (Common Beans) Phaseolus vulgaris .................................................................................... 83
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) ............................................................................................................ 85
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), and Kales Var. capitata ............................................................................ 89
Sesame/Simsim (Sesamum indicum ) Order/Family: Pedaliaceae ......................................................... 92
Upland Rice (Nerica) ............................................................................................................................... 95
Stored grain & seed ................................................................................................................................ 97
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. viii
Annex B: PESTICIDE PROFILES: TOXICOLOGY, USES, PROTECTIVE MEASURES ......................................... 99
B.1 Orientation: Pesticide toxicity and risk............................................................................................. 99
B.2 Summary Toxicology Profiles of Pesticides Assessed by this PERSUAP. .......................................... 99
B.3 Insecticide Profiles .......................................................................................................................... 103
B.4 Fungicide Profiles ........................................................................................................................... 113
B.5 Herbicide Profiles ........................................................................................................................... 116
B.6 Bird Repellant Profiles .................................................................................................................... 120
ANNEX C: MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF PESTICIDE SAFER USE TRAINING .............................................. 121
C.1 Integrated Pest Management......................................................................................................... 121
C.2 Protective clothing and equipment ................................................................................................ 122
C.3 Proper Spray Technique: Protecting against herbicide spray drift ................................................ 123
C.4 Pesticide Transport ......................................................................................................................... 124
C.5 First aid ........................................................................................................................................... 124
C.6 Pesticide storage ............................................................................................................................ 125
C.7 Proper pesticide container disposal ............................................................................................... 126
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. ix
Acronyms
ACDI/VOCA
NGO partner in FARM
ACESS Agriculture Credit Expansion in Southern Sudan
AAH
Action Africa Help NGO partner in FARM
AI(s)
active ingredient(s)
BDS
Business Development Services
B.t.
Bacillus thuringiensis microbial insecticide/fungicide
C
centigrade
CCD
Colony Collapse Disorder
CFR
Code of US Federal Regulations
CFSAM
Crop and Food Supply Assessment Missions
CIMMYT
International maize and wheat research center in Mexico
CNRES
College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies
CPA
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
CUS
Catholic University of Sudan
DCA
Development Credit Authority
DRC
Democratic Republic of the Congo
EMMP
Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency US
EC
Emulsifiable Concentrate (pesticide formulation)
FAES
Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
FAO
Food Agriculture Organisation
FARM
Farming Agribusiness and Rural Markets (USAID project in S. Sudan)
FBO
farmer business organization
Feddan
there are 1.05 acres per feddan (a measurement of farm area)
GMO
genetically modified organism
GOSS
Government of South Sudan
GAP
Good agricultural practices
GMO
genetically modified organism
GUP
General Use Pesticides
ICIPE
International Center for the study of Insect Physiology and Ecology in Kenya
IIE
Initial Environmental Examination
IITA
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Nigeria
IPM
Integrated Pest Management
IR
Intermediate Result
JGMUST
John Garang Memorial University of Science and Technology
KARI
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. x
LC50
Lethal concentration that realizes 50% fatality
LD50
Lethal Dosage that realizes 50% fatality
LOC
Level of Concern
M
million
MAF
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Sudan
MCL, MRL
Maximum Contaminant Level, Maximum Residue Limits
M&E
Monitoring and Evaluation
MEO
Mission Environmental Officer USAID
MSDS
material safety data sheet (information on pesticide toxicity and safety)
NARO
National Agricultural Research Organization Uganda
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NOEL
No Observable Effect Level
PERSUAP
Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan
pH
degree of acidity or alkalinity
PAN
Pesticides Action Network
PPE
Personal Protective Equipment
POP
persistent organic pollutant
RED
Registrtaion Eligibility Decision
REI
Restricted-Entry Interval
RHEA
Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture
RQ
Risk Quotient
RSS
Republic of South Sudan
RUP
Restricted Use Product
S4D
Seeds for Development
SDG
Sudanese pound monetary unit (2.8 SDG = $1)
SME
Small and Medium Enterprises
TOT
Training of Trainers
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
USEPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
UJ
University of Juba
UV
ultra violet (short wave length light)
WFP
World Food Program
WHO
World Health Organization
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. xi
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and Scope
In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this 2013 South Sudan Agricultural
Portfolio Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP):
Establishes the set of pesticides for which support is authorized on USAID/South Sudan Agriculture
Sector activities.
Establishes requirements attendant to support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide
use/support (1) embodies the principles of safer pesticide use and, (2) per USAID policy, is within an
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework.
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.
The set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safer use are established through the first sections of
the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which culminates with an assessment of the 12
pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).
The SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP, Section 6) provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance
requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning
responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this
PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
1.2 Regulatory Requirements, the PERSUAP concept, and Analytical Approach
Regulatory Requirements Attendant to USAID-funded Support for Pesticides.
All USAID- funded activities are subject to pre-implementation environmental review, starting with a
screening process that determines the level of environmental scrutiny that is required. Activities considered
as having moderate or unknown risks are subjected to an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE). USAID’s
pre-implementation environmental review procedures are defined by 22 CFR 216, a US federal regulation.
Pesticides are any agent used to kill or control any pest, including insects, rodents or birds, unwanted plants
(weeds), fungi, or microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Though often misunderstood to refer only to
insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides, micro- biocides, rodenticides and
various other substances used to control pests. Pesticides are by design poisons, and their use entails a
degree of risk to humans, birds, fish, bees, and other living things, as well as to the environment.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 12
If USAID funds are to be used to procure, directly fund
or support the use of pesticides, 22 CFR 216.3(b)
requires that 12 factors be analyzed as the basis for
approving the use of any pesticides, and as the basis
for establishing the requirements attendant to that use
to control risks to human health and the environment.
(see box)1
It is important to note that USAID defines pesticide
“use” broadly to include direct or indirect use including
the handling, transport, storage, mixing, loading,
application and disposal of pesticides and their
containers, as well as recommending pesticides for use
via extension or other agricultural assistance.
USAID Policy: Integrated Pest Management
In addition, since the early 1990s USAID has been
committed to the philosophy and practice of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as official policy.
There is not a single standard international definition
for IPM, but there is wide agreement on its basic
elements. Under IPM:
THE 12 PESTICIDE ANALYSIS FACTORS
Factor A. USEPA registration status of the proposed
pesticides
Factor B. Basis for selection of pesticides
Factor C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide use
is part of an IPM program
Factor D. Proposed method or methods of
application, including the availability of application
and safety equipment
Factor E. Any acute and long-term toxicological
hazards, either human or environmental, associated
with the proposed use, and measures available to
minimize such hazards
Factor F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide for
the proposed use
Factor G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide
use with target and non-target ecosystems
Factor H. Conditions under which the pesticide is to
be used, including climate, geography, hydrology,
and soils
Factor I. Availability of other pesticides or nonchemical control methods
Factor J. Host country’s ability to regulate or control
the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the
requested pesticide
“First line” defenses against pest damage are a
combination of techniques such as biological
Factor K. Provision for training of users and
control, habitat manipulation, modification of
applicator
cultural practices, and use of resistant
Factor L. Provision made for monitoring the use and
varieties.
effectiveness of each pesticide
Pesticides are used only after monitoring
indicates they are needed according to
established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism.
Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health,
beneficial and non-target organisms, and the environment.
IPM is strongly promoted as part of Regulation 216.3 Factor C.
1
Specifically, Reg. 216.3(b)(1)(i) stipulates: “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or
both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the IEE for the
project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits
of the planned pesticide use to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact.
Factors to be considered in such an evaluation shall include, but not be limited to the following” (see box)
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 13
The PERSUAP
USAID Africa Bureau has adopted the PERSUAP, which formally constitutes an amendment to a project’s IEE,
to address the requirements of 22 CFR 216.3(b) with particular emphasis on assuring that pesticide use
occurs within an IPM framework.
A PERSUAP consists of two core parts, a “PER” and a “SUAP.” The PER first characterizes pest management
needs for the subject USAID projects, and pesticides availability, pesticides awareness among potential
beneficiaries, and the critical local context. This information then provides input to the assessment of the 12
pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b). The PER thereby establishes the
set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safer use.
The SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (Section 6) provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance
requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning
responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements
Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
USAID/South Sudan Agriculture Sector Pest Management Needs
USAID/South Sudan agricultural sector projects include a number of activities that require effective
management of pests to achieve their objectives. Pests include weeds, arthropods and vertebrates, diseases,
nematodes, and snails that cause damage to agricultural field crops, vegetables, and stored products.
This need for effective pest management is not limited to the period of performance of the project, but is
rather a continuing need for the long-term, sustainable improvements in agricultural productivity USAID
projects seek to achieve.
Typical pests of USAID project target crops are extensively documented in Annex B. This annex makes clear
that while non-chemical controls have a critical role to play, achieving USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector
program objecives will require pesticide use/support.
To better enable USAID/South Sudan agricultural projects to address this need, this PERSUAP, upon approval,
will authorize a set of carefully screened pesticides for USAID support within an IPM framework.
Local, context-specific analysis
The assessment of “pesticide and pest management local context” that begins the PER is a key feature of the
PERSUAP approach. Why is it needed? This provides essential input to the 12-factor analysis. The purpose of
the 12-factor analysis is to select appropriate pesticides and safer use measures. This requires taking into
consideration the context in which the products will be used, the particular elements of the program, and the
different capacities of the partners and stakeholders involved.
A PERSUAP is typically based on existing policies, procedures, and laws of the host country, with an overlay of
US standards and laws. In the case of South Sudan there currently are no existing policies and laws pertaining
to pesticide import, transport, sale, use, storage, and disposal. Therefore the pesticide laws of Uganda and
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 14
Kenya are used in the stead of local requirements. A draft Crop Protection policy has been developed for RSS
through the FARM project and is currently going through RSS approval procedures..
1.3 Development of this PERSUAP
This PERSUAP is the product of two development stages.
Stage 1: Draft FARM PERSUAP. The first stage included two efforts; the first by Abt Associates as
implementers of the FARM project which initiated the analysis and led to a draft, FARM-specific PERSUAP. In
February 2011 a Consultant was working on an Environmental Review of a land clearing exercise and was
asked to review the PERSUAP and add information from the field tours that were taken to the three states
where extension workers from those states were interviewed. Visits were made to 25 farmer organizations
and some key farmers were interviewed regarding pest control practices in each location. These experiences
provided more field information leading to a revised FARM PERSUAP. This document was never formally
approved, but remained in draft.
In addition, a separate seed treatment PERSUAP was developed to support FARM Sudan’s efforts to provide
certified sorghum, and groundnut seed treated with a fungicide and insecticide to FBOs. This PERSUAP was
valid for only one year.
Stage 2: Expansion and update of the draft FARM PERSUAP resulting in the current document. The current
document is based on the 2011 FARM PERSUAP draft, expanded to cover the South Sudan Agriculture Sector
portfolio beyond FARM (including seed treatment), updated to reflect changes in pesticide availability and
use in South Sudan over the past 2-3 years, and reorganized to improve usability.
Field work to support the update was conducted by Jane Kahata under USAID’s Global Environmental
Management Support Project (GEMS). For the update, Ms. Kahata visited pesticide shops in areas targeted
by South Sudan agricultural sector activities to record any new pesticides found since 2011 and analyzed five
new crops not covered in 2011.,
Ms. Kahata received technical guidance from Harry Bottenberg of USAID/South Sudan and Dr. Alan
Schroeder, a pesticides and IPM expert. Following these analyses, Dr Schroeder reviewed the draft and
provided feedback and corrections. Further integration editing was undertaken by GEMS home office staff.
2. PROJECTS COVERED BY THIS PERSUAP
This PERSUAP covers the following active agricultural projects in South Sudan: FARM, Seeds for Development
(S4D), Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (RHEA), and Agricultural Credit Expansion in South Sudan.
Each is described briefly below.
2.1 Food Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM)
FARM is a 5-year program funded by USAID and implemented by Abt Associates and its partners: ACDI/VOCA,
Action Africa Help International (AAH), Sheladia and Associates, and RSM Consulting. The program is
designed to rapidly increase agricultural productivity in selected commodities, increase trade, and improve
the capacity of producers, private sector and public sector actors in South Sudan to develop commercial
smallholder agriculture. The FARM program will also foster economic growth to reduce poverty and food
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 15
insecurity by improving the competitiveness of staple food value chains in which large numbers of
smallholders participate.
The project will invest in market access and/or vertical coordination and smallholder productivity, and in
interventions that address the constraints faced by selected value chains and the private sector. The FARM
program will initially focus on the three states of West, Central, and East Equatoria - areas of great
agricultural potential, but where conflict has destroyed much of the agricultural production capacity. FARM
Sudan has a satellite office in each of these three states in addition to its headquarters in Juba. One of the
first activities was to distribute better quality seed to show the higher yield potential with better
management. Aside from certified seed, the target of 900 acres in the first crop of the 2011 season was to
treat the seed with insecticide for soil and sown-seed pests as well as a fungicide against soil borne diseases.
Seed treatment is the most efficient use of pesticides as the quantities are much less than if they were
sprayed on the crop. This is particularly true of the fungicides which are systemic and enter the vascular
system of the plant.
FARM primarily addresses agricultural sector productivity and value chain development to support GOSS’s
principal goal of increasing food security. FARM Sudan is divided into three interrelated components:
agricultural productivity, agricultural trade, and capacity building. It is designed to have an immediate impact
on the livelihoods of farmers in the targeted zone of intervention while also building the foundation for
sustainable economic growth through the agriculture sector. GOSS is therefore a key counterpart in the
implementation of this project and FARM will work with GOSS at every level; from its extension workers
within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) at the national, state, county, and payam levels.
As FARM is currently USAID’s most comprehensive agricultural program in South Sudan, it is in a position to
provide leadership, guidance, and coordination for the development of the agriculture sector, including
management of pesticides, while working with other implementing partners of USAID and other donors.
During the first phase of the five-year project, FARM focuses on four staple crops: maize, sorghum,
groundnuts, and cassava. This PERSUAP covers pesticide use as applicable to these crops in the field and
storage, as well as pesticides designed for additional field crops and vegetables that comprise areas of
current and future expansion of the FARM program, such as upland rice and common beans.
The program will invest in interventions that address constraints faced by selected value chains and the
private sector through three intermediate results (IR) and associated goals, provided below:
IR. 1: Increase Agricultural Productivity in Selected Commodities in Target Areas
IR 1.1: Increase adoption of improved technologies (storage, practices, breeding/varieties, natural resources management)
IR 1.2: Improve public and private service provision that supports agricultural production
IR 1.3: Improve producer organizations business and management skills
IR. 2: Increase Trade in Selected Commodities in Target Areas
IR 2.1: Increase smallholders access to market services (storage, finance, transport, information)
IR 2.2: Improve and maintain “critical points” on high priority feeder roads
IR 2.3: Strengthen the private sector, including SMEs, to deliver services to support marketing and finance.
IR 3: Improve Capacity to Support Market-led Agriculture
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 16
IR 3.1: Improve business and management skills of the private sector, including SMEs
IR 3.2: Improve the capacity of the public sector to develop the enabling environment (policy, legislation, regulatory
framework) and M&E to support agriculture
IR 3.3: Strengthen public sector service delivery
2.2 Seeds for Development Program (S4D)
S4D-AGRA
The goal of S4D-AGRA is to establish a viable seed sector in South Sudan by investing in seed company
development and improving public sector crop breeding and varietal release capacity. S4D-AGRA will
strengthen breeding programs in maize, rice, cassava and cowpea at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
(MAF) and will work with at least two private companies to commercially produce certified maize seed. Four
maize hybrids, two open pollinated maize varieties, and five open pollinated sorghum varieties have already
been released. In addition, the project will work with the Food, Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM) and
S4D-International Fertilizer Development Center projects to establish demonstration plots of new hybrid
maize seed varieties along with fertilizer utilization. The project will train four MSc level students in plant
breeding, develop breeding and release programs for up to eight food security crops and improve
infrastructure at MAF research facilities.
Development of Agent and Agro-dealer Networks and Crop Demonstrations being implemented by the
IFDC
Agricultural inputs markets in South Sudan are not developed, but wider availability and informed use of such
inputs are essential to increased agricultural productivity. To help improve input supply and informed use,
S4D, as implemented by IFDC:
Supports the Establishment of a Network of Agro – dealers: This activity will be geared towards
enhancement of supply and delivery of inputs to the farmers. Actions under this will include
identification of agents at the village level and agro dealers; surveys and studies to establish what
inputs are needed, provision of training on product knowledge and safe use, TOT, provision of
Business Development Services (BDS), demonstrations, field days and other methods of information
dissemination.
While USAID will not provide pesticides per se to the farmers under S4D, it will help make them more
readily available through the agro dealer shops. The farmers have limited knowledge about
pesticides and one role of the program is to enhance product knowledge including safe use of
pesticides.
Includes a voucher system for inputs supplied to farmers. To increase and facilitate use of inputs,
farmers will be provided with vouchers that can be exchanged for inputs (superior seeds and
fertilizers) through accredited agents and agro dealers. Field days and establishment of
demonstration farms will be undertaken in support of this activity.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 17
2.3 Rebuilding Higher Education in Agriculture (RHEA)
RHEA focuses on increasing food security by improving the quality of advanced agricultural training at the
following: the College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (CNRES) at the University of Juba (UJ)
and the Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (FAES) at the Catholic University of Sudan-Wau
(CUS).
Geographically, RHEA will be implemented primarily in the Central Equatoria, Western Bhar el Ghazal and
Jonglei states, where the campuses of UJ and CUS are located, respectively.
Activities in the program likely to support pesticide use are covered under intermediate results 2 and 3:
IR 2: “Generate knowledge through relevant and quality research to address the unique agricultural
and natural resource management needs of Southern Sudan” and
IR3: “Create a quality university-based outreach program that addresses the unique food security
and long -term agricultural and natural resource management needs of the Southern Sudan.”
2.4 John Garang Memorial University of Science and Technology (JGMUST)
USAID is supporting John Garang Memorial University of Science and Technology (JG-MUST) in a long-term
consortium that deploys Texas A & M University and Iowa State University expertise to assist JG-MUST with a
comprehensive development and regional agriculture/natural resource management outreach program. This
development partnership supports JG-MUST as a platform to train future leaders in South Sudan and act as an
example of community service and development outreach. The consortium will establish a local presence to
provide long and short-term technical assistance to JG-MUST, State Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock, and
agriculturalists. This includes curriculum, university capacity and strategic development; state level agricultural
strategy development; researching improved agriculture methods; and local community capacity development.
Classrooms, equipment, and laboratories will be constructed and upgraded on the main campus, and
productive facilities for demonstrating improved methods of production of poultry, dairy, vegetables, grains and
fish will be constructed of an 80 acre demonstration/training farm. Finally, development projects to improve
agricultural livelihoods and capacity of farmers, herders, fishermen and youth to engage in productive
agriculture and natural resource management in Jonglei state will be implemented through a dedicated fund.
The JG-MUST consortium will administer the development grants (up to a total of $1 million annually) for state
rural development projects to improve agricultural productivity and natural resource management, selected by
a joint steering committee including university, ministry, Jonglei state government, and community
representatives.
2.5 Agricultural Credit Expansion in South Sudan (ACESS)
This program will provide new Development Credit Authority (DCA) partial loan guarantee financing of
individuals and non-sovereign enterprises operating in, or supporting the agricultural sector or engaging in
agricultural-linked activities in Eastern Equatoria, Central Equatoria, Western Equatoria, and Jonglei states of
South Sudan (collectively, the "Borrowers").
Lenders will not issue DCA-backed loans that support the procurement of pesticides loans until such
time that a complete and current governing PERSUAP is duly reviewed and approved by USAID. (This
PERSUAP, upon approval, satisfies this requirement).
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 18
The financing of pesticides under the DCA Agreement must be consistent with the approved pesticides
and safer use actions in the USAID South Sudan Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan
(PERSUAP) for the Agriculture Sector.
Lending to fund the procurement of pesticides will be limited to Borrowers receiving adequate
technical assistance through existing USAID-funded agricultural development projects in South
Sudan (e.g., FARM and S4D projects).
Pesticide Guidelines derived from the PERSUAP will be produced by a designated USAID-funded
agricultural development projects in South Sudan.
Lenders will advise Borrowers of the requirements of the governing PERSUAP or derivative Pesticide
Guidelines.
Lenders will provide cognizant USAID project staff with the name and contact information of
Borrowers to facilitate delivery of pesticide-related technical assistance and monitoring and
evaluation. This technical assistance must address the environmental and technical soundness of
funded activities.
The above agreed-to DCA ACESS IEE language vis-a-vis the PERSUAP resulted from many discussions and
conference calls with the Washington (DC) DCA office, BEO, Mission EG staff and the MEO in
2012. The PERSUAP's approval was a condition precedent to the ability to consider loans that might involve
pesticide procurement or related uses for agricultural production. The reason for the caution is wellfounded, statutorily, and in development practice.
The ACESS IEE is available at http://gemini.info.usaid.gov/egat/envcomp/repository/doc/38462.doc)
3. ENVIRONMENTAL & AGRICULTURAL CONTEXT
3.1 Priority geographic places or areas of projects intervention
The FARM Sudan intervention area will primarily be focused in South Sudan’s Greenbelt, which is an area
roughly the size of North Carolina and lies within Western Equatoria, Central Equatoria, and Eastern
Equatoria (Figure 1). This is the most fertile and potentially productive zone in South Sudan for rainfed
agriculture with a reasonably reliable rainfall with average annual precipitation of 1,350–1,600 mm (53–63
inches). In this belt, rain falls from April through October and allows two cropping seasons. Most of the
vegetation is deciduous woodland forest and savannah mixture, interspersed with meadows, watercourses,
rock outcrops, and cleared farms.
This belt is characterized both by low market access and low population pressure on the land. The main
economic activity is farming (mainly subsistence), with a wide variety of crops including sorghum, maize,
millet, cassava, groundnuts, rice, sweet potatoes, bananas, oranges, pineapple, sesame, tobacco, sugarcane,
soybeans, and vegetables (tomato, cabbage, lettuce, eggplant, onions, carrots, curcurbits).
Some of the fruits and vegetables are insect-pollinated; wild honeybees are important to these crops. Wild
bees are commonly kept by farmers who make apiaries out of hollowed-out logs to hang in trees. There can
be two harvests of honey annually.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 19
RHEA, JGMUST, S4D; and ACESS intervention areas extend to Jonglei and Western Bahr el Ghazal states.
Jonglei is characterized by extensive wetlands that include the Sudd region on the White Nile. The Sudd is
rich in natural resources including wildlife and fisheries. According to the 2006 Livelihoods Profile, South
Sudan’s climate is predominantly sub-humid. The region is characterized by a long wet season which runs
from May to November in Jonglei, Upper Nile, and Bahr el Ghazal states, which receive between 700 and
1,300 mm of rainfall annually. Temperatures in South Sudan are typically above 25°C and can rise above
35°C, particularly during the dry season, which lasts from January to April. The hot, dry conditions trigger
seasonal human and livestock migration to more permanent water sources (the toic), which serve as dry
season grazing pasture, and for some ethnic groups, such as the Dinka, they also serve as fishing grounds.
During the dry periods, resource use conflicts do arise.
Western Bahr el Ghazal lies within the Iron stone plateau and is predominantly agricultural with a small
portion lying in the flood plains where cattle is the main livelihood activity.
Fig 1 Map of South Sudan’s Livehoods Zones and Project Area
3.2 Country Environmental Profile
Geography, Topography & Ecological Zones.
S.Sudan has an estimated population of about 8 million people and includes stretches of tropical and
equatorial forests, wetlands, savannah and mountains. Terrain generally and gradually rises from plains in the
north and center to southern highlands along the border with Uganda and Kenya
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 20
Vegetation in the South is characterized by Sudanian woodlands, with lowland forest patches along the
border with the Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Central African Republic and
the Imatong Mountains in the extreme south, which sustain mountain forests.
The White Nile, which flows North out of the highlands and drains much of the country, supports agriculture
and extensive wild animal populations; The White Nile feeds the Sudd, a large wetland/floodplain of more
than 100,000 sq km (15% of total national land area) that dominates the center of the country and which
sustains agricultural and extensive wildlife populations.
See figure 2 & 3, below, for more information and orientation.
Figure 2: Southern Sudan Physiographic Zones
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 21
Figure 3: States of South Sudan
(colors indicate historical Sudanese provinces)
Climate
According to the 2006 Livelihoods Profile, South Sudan’s climate is
predominantly sub-humid. Rainfall is favorable in the southwest, with
Western Equatoria and highland parts of Eastern Equatoria receiving 1,200
to 2,200 mm of rainfall annually. The lowland areas of Eastern Equatoria,
Jonglei, Upper Nile, and Bahr el Ghazal receive between 700 and 1,300 mm
of rainfall annually. The southeastern tip of Eastern Equatoria receives the
least rainfall, about 200 mm annually and is not cultivated.
Temperatures in South Sudan are typically above 25°C and can rise above
35°C, particularly during the dry season, which lasts from January to April.
The hot, dry conditions trigger seasonal human and livestock migration to
more permanent water sources (“ toic”), which serve as dry season grazing
pasture. For some ethnic groups, such as the Dinka, they also serve as
fishing grounds.
3.3 Agriculture in South Sudan
(Excluding Pest Management)
Overview
Cultivated area in South Sudan has historically ranged between a minimum
of one percent and a maximum of two percent of the total area (i.e. 640
Leading Crops in East and West
Equatoria States,
Source: 2005 survey
farmers by IITA
of
226
By crop area:
cassava 21%,
groundnut 14%,
sweet potato 14%,
sorghum 9%,
maize 8%,
sesame 8%,
rice 6%,
finger millet 5%,
cowpea 3%,
common beans 2%.
Most
important
commercial
crops, by farmer raning:
Eastern Equatoria
sesame 19%,
cassava 17%,
maize 7%,
sweet potato 7%.
W Equatoria
maize 30%,
cassava 29%,
rice 16%, and
groundnuts 14%.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 22
000 – 1 300 000 ha)2. According to FAO-WFP (Crop and Food Supply Assessment Missions-CFSAM 19962007), about 950,000 ha are currently cultivated under cereals (sorghum followed by millet and maize),
yielding less than 1 metric ton per hectare. Agricultural potential is high with about 90 percent of its total
area considered suitable for agriculture, 50 percent of which is prime agricultural land. Soil and climate
conditions allow for a wide variety of food and cash crops. The soil was formed from vegetation of a covering
forest and overlies infertile lateritic bedrock. It is generally gray or black 30 cm to > 1.5 m thick and is a
lateritic, sandy or clay loam.
Agricultural production is, for the most part, based on small, hand-cultivated units, often farmed by womenheaded households. Following the loss of large numbers of draught animals during the civil war, FAO and
NGO-based extension programs such as Norwegian People’s Aid have made, and continue to make, efforts to
introduce or re-introduce animal traction by oxen on a small-scale in Central Equatoria, Western Equatoria,
Lakes, and Bahr el Ghazal. However, despite the interest professed by farmers, the 2008 CFSAM concluded
that the policy of providing ploughs and oxen free of charge was flawed because farmers tended to sell their
oxen for slaughter after two or three years of work.
Only in the Upper Nile districts of Renk, Melut and Wadakona, and to a limited extent in Malakal and Bentiu
(Unity State), is tractor-farming conducted at a level that could be compared with the commercial farms of
South Kordofan and Blue Nile States. An additional variable which interferes with widespread animal traction
programs is that many of the tribal cultures in this region are opposed to using cattle as beasts of burden.
Tractors are becoming more common and farmers can rent them by the hour at affordable rates.
Smallholder farming systems in South Sudan encompass a wide range of sorghum landraces, with minor
crops of maize (often grown close to homesteads for green consumption), bulrush millet, finger millet and
upland rice according to location. Cassava is widely grown, especially in the center and south but also in the
north-west, depending on access to planting material. In the north of South Sudan especially, but also
elsewhere, in particular in areas of sandy soil and in years when the rains arrive late, groundnuts make an
important contribution to household diet, and, as a cash crop, can contribute to household income. Okra,
cowpea, green grams, bambara nuts, sesame, pumpkin and tobacco are also widely grown. In the south and
central areas, and in parts of Western Bahr el Ghazal, cassava is the most important contributor to the
household food economy, providing at least half of the carbohydrate ration; in parts of Central and Western
Equatoria, sweet potato, yam, coffee, mango and papaya are also common.
In addition, there is an increasing demand for vegetables especially in the urban centers and towns which has
triggered production of vegetables by small scale farmers, particularly in the green belt. Most of the farmers
currently using pesticides within the greenbelt are those involved in vegetable farming. The primary
vegetables being grown are tomatoes, cabbage, kale, eggplant, onions and okra. USAID/South Sudan is
supporting the development of agro dealers and ensuring that agro dealers are informed about the
appropriate pesticides to use when cultivating the above-mentioned vegetables.
2
1 hectare (ha) is approximately 2.47 US acres.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 23
Inputs – Traditional sector
Seeds: Most farmers use seed retained from their previous year’s harvest, and this is infrequently
supplemented by purchases from the market or gifts from relatives or friends. As in previous years, FAO,
GOSS and some NGOs are providing a certain amount of seed, principally to returnees and to those farmers
classified as vulnerable. Amounts however are extremely small compared with the amount required by the
farming community, and many farmers complain of seed shortages. The seed system mainly operated by
GOSS has been mainly inactive over the years. Thus the amount of certified seed available to farmers has
been negligible.
However, in a rapid assessment conducted in April 2012 covering five agro-dealer shops, a range of treated
seeds was stocked and these included maize, ground nuts, sorghum, sesame, cow peas and beans; while one
shop had Basmati rice ordered by a customer. The five shops had also stocked a variety of vegetable seeds
such as kales, spinach, carrots, cucumber, onions, tomatoes, eggplants, okra, green pepper, pumpkin, water
melon and cabbage. These are an indication that the farmers are becoming more open to using improved
seeds as well the broadening of the range of crops grown.
Inorganic fertilizers: These are available on a very limited scale due to the fact that most farmers prefer to
use farmyard manure for their small plots of vegetables.
FAO has, for several years, distributed hand-tools to returnees and to a small number of those farmers
classified as vulnerable. However, some of the returnees from Uganda and Kenya are engaged in farming as a
business and apply the experience and knowledge they learned from these countries to the use of agro
inputs in their farming operations. These farmers are growing small plots of vegetables and some shops are
supplying them with seeds, insecticides, fungicides, and weedicides.
SECTION 4: PER, PART 1: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS,
PESTICIDES AVAILABLE, AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
This section provides key information that serves as critical input to the 12-factor analysis (per 22 CFR
216.3(b)) undertaken in section 5. This includes the list of target crops covered and their pest management
needs, and candidate pesticides to be assessed.
Just as critically, it includes critical information regarding local context (e.g. knowledge and awareness of
pesticide safer use principles) that are critical to decisions regarding which pesticides can be safely used in
the South Sudanese context.
4.1 Identification of Target Crops
The scope of USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector programming dictates that essentially all leading crops in
South Sudan are or may be the target of project interventions. These constitute (1) the crops enumerated by
the 2005 IITA survey (see section 3.3)—with the exception of sweet potato, for which there are no current
support plans—and (2) additional crops identified as important during April 2012 interviews with
Agrobusinesses in Juba, Yei, and Kajo Keji: pigeon peas, tomatoes, cabbage/kale, onion, and okra.
The crops addressed by this PERSUAP are thus as follows:
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 24
Cabbage
Okra
Cassava
Onions
Dry beans
Pigeon peas
Groundnut
Sesame
Kale
Sorghum
Maize
Tomatoes
Millet
Upland Rice
4.2 Pest Management Needs for Target Crops
Pest management needs for each target crop—as well as those for seed and grain storage-- were catalogued
via field interviews as well as desk research.
The results are documented in the crop-specific Pest Management Needs and Suggested Control Methods
tables of Annex A.
As documented therein, effective pest management is critical to achieving agricultural productivity objectives
for each crop, and while non-chemical control methods have a critical role to play, there is a need for
complementary chemical controls in many instances.
4.3 Traditional pest control practices;
Current State of IPM Awareness & Practice
Due to the protracted war in South Sudan, formal Sudanese government efforts to promote IPM across
Sudan (which then included South Sudan) made little or no impact in the south, where only traditional crop
and animal protection measures were practiced.
However, also due to the war, small-scale farmer usage of pesticides has until recently been virtually nonexistent, and these traditional crop and animal protection measures do embody core IPM practices, e.g;
Non-chemical controls: Use of cultural practices such as using grass mulch to divert termites from
the crop (the digested mulch also improves soil quality); scaring away mammal and bird pests
(although monkeys are typically herded into nets and then killed); active harvest (collection) of
certain insect pests such as termites, locusts, and the green katydid for food; and the use of
indigenous crops and animals that are the least susceptible to pests,
Use of (traditional) botanical pesticides; e.g. :
o Neem leaves are put in stored grain.
o A neem spray material is made of neem plus bar soap and mixed with dried chillies that have
been crushed and pounded and left to soak for a day. The spray material is strained and
then applied mostly to vegetables.
o Termites, which attack older crops rather than seedlings, are controlled using a homemade
concoction made from ½ tin water + hand soap + 1kg local tobacco leaves ground up. The
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 25
o
mixture is left to soak overnight and then boiled the next day for 30 min. It is poured into an
opened termite mound to kill the queen.
Kinu seeds are used to control maize weevils, which are important pests of stored maize.
The seeds, which are as small as sesame seeds, are mixed with the maize.
4.4 Current pesticide use/availability
Use of pesticides in South Sudan is on a limited scale and most of the agro dealers shops are quite new
having been established about 2 years ago. The shops stock a variety of pesticides (fungicides, insecticides &
herbicides), veterinary products, and farm inputs which include certified seeds, fertilizers and farm
implements.
In an April 2012 survey of five agro dealer shops located in Juba, Yei, Morobo Kajo Keji, all five shops
reviewed tended to stock the same type of pesticides—primarily pyrethroid plant protection products due to
their short field persistence and affordable pricing. Pyrethroids are also broad spectrum and can be used on
many insect pests. Mancozeb was stocked in all the five shops since its can be used on a broad spectrum of
fungal diseases.
Interviews with the sales agents/agro dealers revealed that South Sudanese farmers were gradually picking
up the use of pesticides. It was also reported that some of their clients came from a radius of 30 km, with
some customers in Juba coming from as far as Malakal, Upper Nile State. There is every reason to believe this
trend will continue, as more farmers take up permanent agriculture over the current slash and burn system
and agricultural markets and market access strengthen.
The table below inventories the pesticides actually in use in USAID target intervention areas, and the
reported uses to which they are put. Note that many of the pesticides in use are rejected by this PERSUAP;
likewise the uses to which these pesticides are being put are not necessarily the specific pesticide uses
recommended, by this PERSUAP. This information is derived from the above-referenced survey of 5 agro
dealer shops located in Juba, Yei, Morobo Kajo Keji survey in April 2012.
Table 1: Pesticides Currently Used in USAID Project Implementation Areas
NOTE: For clarity, pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP via the forthcoming 12-factor analysis are so marked. Such pesticides are
rejected for one of the following reasons: they are not registered by EPA, are Restricted Use Pesticides, are Class I acute
toxicity, or are Class II toxicity.
Trade Name & other Details
Active ingredient
EPA
Reported use/Indicated use on label
Class.
Actellic 50 EC
pirimiphos-methyl
II, III
Used on stored grain product insect pests of
maize, rice, wheat, and grain sorghum.
Albafaz
albendazole 10% W/V
Drench (orally administered drug) for worms in
(an oral drug, not a pesticide)
cattle, sheep, goats and camel
Ambush Insecticide
cypermethrin 5% EC
II, III
Used on a wide range of pests such as aphids,
white flies, caterpillars on cotton, vegetables,
The use of cypermethrin is
cereals and also on vectors such as ticks,
rejected by this PERSUAP
mosquitoes, lice etc
Ant Killer - Manufacturer,
24% chlopyrifos
II
Broad spectrum with contact and vapour but
Murphy E.A
mainly stocked for control of termites
Bulldock 0.05 GR
beta cyflulthrin 0.5g/Kg
II
Used to control maize stalk borer. Scouting for
the pests weekly 2-7 weeks after emergence
Contra Z Termiticide
chlorphyrifos 50% and
II
Used for subterranean termite control in (pre
cypermethrin 5%
& post construction activities)
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 26
NOTE: For clarity, pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP via the forthcoming 12-factor analysis are so marked. Such pesticides are
rejected for one of the following reasons: they are not registered by EPA, are Restricted Use Pesticides, are Class I acute
toxicity, or are Class II toxicity.
Trade Name & other Details
Active ingredient
EPA
Reported use/Indicated use on label
Class.
CYPER LACER 5% EC Insecticide
Manufacturer _ Isagro (Asia)
Agrochemicals , Distributor
Nsanja family Store Ltd
DEGESCH Quickphos –
Manufacturer United Phosphorus
LTD, INDIA??
DERA Blue Cross (Malathion
Dusts ) Manufacturer – DERA
Chemical Industries
Dithane M-45 WP
Dow Agro science
Doom Insecticide
The use of cypermethrin is
rejected by this PERSUAP
cypermethrin tech - 5.44 %
WW
The use of cypermethrin is
rejected by this PERSUAP
aluminum phosphide,
560g/Kilo
The use of aluminum
phosphide is rejected by this
PERSUAP except when
fumigation services are
contracted from specialized
providers with all necessary
training and equipment
malathion 2% dust (contains 20
gms of Malathion/Kilo of
formulation
mancozeb 750g/Kg
II, III
I
Broad spectrum for a variety of pests in
different crops such as cotton sucking insects
and bollworms, vegetable – caterpillars,
beetles, sucking insects, maize cereals, soya
beans. Coffee – bud worms, leaf minor
Used on a wide range of stored products for
control of eggs/larvae, pupae, and adult of a
wide range of pests such as Angoumous grain
moth, been weevil, Lesser grain borer, maize
weevil, stored product mites.
III
Used for safe storage of grains
III
A preventive spray program of diseases in
I
Used on agricultural and horticultural pests
II, III
Used on pests in a variety of crops: Cotton,
Coffee, lettuce, tomatoes, soya beans,
potatoes, celery, cabbage, deciduous fruits
Broad spectrum insecticide on all types of crops
but stocked for the maize stalk borer.
Insecticide/termiticide used for crops,
livestock, termites. Application is best at
source of the problem, also used in public
control operations for pests. It is toxic to bees
and fish.
Broad spectrum acaricide and insecticide for
ticks, tse tse fly, lice, mites, fleas, flies used on
pigs poultry and sheep, goats, cattle
Dudu Cypher EC
100% EC dichlorvos/DDVP W/V
The use of dicholoros is
rejected by this PERSUAP
cypermethrin 5% EC
DURSBAN
The use of cypermethrin is
rejected by this PERSUAP
chlorpyrifos 480g/l
II
DURSBAN 480g/L m/m
Distributed by Bokoola
Chemicals) Uganda
chlorpyrifos 480g/l
II
Ectomin 100 EC
Registrant Norvatis South Africa
cypermethrin 80%
II, III
The use of cypermethrin is
rejected by this PERSUAP
chlorpyrifos
II
Used on buildings, prefabricated /timber
houses, and treatment of termite nests in
lawns, gardens, and sugar cane. It is a special
formulation, which is long lasting when applied
in the soil and readily breaks down in the open
air and sunlight.
Early post emergence herbicide for grasses,
sedges, broad leaf weeds in rice fields
III
Used for control of bedbugs
Gladiator 4TC
Manufacturer - Dow Agro
Chemicals, Kingslynn, UK
HASUNIL 600 EC Reg. No PCPB
0255, manufactured by Hangzhou
Agrochemical Industries, china
KAYAZINON EC Distributed by
DERA
thiobencarb 400 mg/l
and propanil 200g/l
diazinon 600g/l
The use of diazinon is rejected
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 27
NOTE: For clarity, pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP via the forthcoming 12-factor analysis are so marked. Such pesticides are
rejected for one of the following reasons: they are not registered by EPA, are Restricted Use Pesticides, are Class I acute
toxicity, or are Class II toxicity.
Trade Name & other Details
Active ingredient
EPA
Reported use/Indicated use on label
Class.
by this PERSUAP
Lamdex super Distributed by
lambda-cyhalothrin – 15g/l
III
Used on a wide range of insect pests such as
BALTON Uganda Ltd, Reg. in
chlorpyrifos 300g/L
cutworms, thrips, aphids, white flies,
Uganda as
caterpillars in vegetables, irish potatoes, rice
Ugc/2006/000561/In/R
Lava® Insecticide, Distributed by
dichlorvos/DDVP 100% EC
I
Diamond Black moth, at times use not very
Nsanja Agrochemicals Ltd,
specific – (told this in second shop in Juba) but
Uganda
The use of dichloros is
label indicates wide use of the product such as
rejected by this PERSUAP
for cutworms, leaf rollers, pyrille, hairy
caterpillars, cabbage looper & red pumpkin
beetle. It is highly toxic to bees.
MALATAF 57EC
malathion 57% W/V
III
Used on a wide range of crops for control of
Distributed by Nsanja Family
(mimimum)
aphids, mites, scales, borers, worms, thrips,
Store LTD
leaf minor, beetles etc
Manufacturer, RALLIS INDIA LTD
NOROTRAZ 12.5% Manufacturer,
amitraz 12.5% W/V
II
Acaricide (ticks, lice, and mange in livestock,
NORBROOK Kenya
The use of amitraz is rejected
sheep & goats
by this PERSUAP
OSHOTHANE Manufacturer –
mancozeb 80% W.P (active
III
Inorganic fungicide used on many crops for
INOFIL Chemicals Co, India Reg. in ingredients:
early and late blight in tomatoes and Irish
Uganda as
Manganese – 16%
potatoes, dry rot in , cucurbits, beans, peas,
Zinc – 2%
onions, mangoes (needs rain or irrigation once
Ethylene Bisdilhiocarbomate –
applied for it to be effective for fungus in the
62%)
soil) rusts and Downey mildews in cruciferae.
Inert ingredients 20%
Oshothion Manufactured by
50% W/V malathion
III
Contact organophosphate that is broad
HALLIS LTD?? And \distributed by
spectrum for insect pests such as aphids, thrips
ESCO Chemical Industries in
in vegetables and flowers. Moderately to
Kenya??
highly toxic to fish
PYRINEX 48 EC Distributed by
chlorpyrifos 480g/L
II
Broad Spectrum insecticide on white flies,
BALTON Uganda Ltd, Reg. in
aphids, termiticide
Uganda as
Ugc/2006/000561/In/R
Rindomil Gold 40g + 640g/Kg WP
mancozeb and metalaxyl
III
A systemic fungicide of the Oomycyte fungi
(normally stocked but out of
used on fruits, potatoes and vegetables for
stock as of review trip). Syngenta
early and late blight.. Also good for control of
Crop protection
soil borne diseases
ROCKET Insecticide
profenofos 40%
?
Indicated use on label is on the cotton
cypermethrin 4%
bollworm but it is stocked for use on maize
(most probably on the maize stem borer).
The use of profenofos and
Pesticide stocked on request by some farmers
cypermethrin is rejected by
who had prior knowledge of its use on maize.
this PERSUAP
Sevin WP 850g/kg
carbaryl 85%m/m
II
Used in control of domestic pests
STOP – Vermin Powder 0.5%
cyphenothrin based
II
Crawling insects such as cockroaches and ants
(dustable powder)
SUPA CYPER Insecticide EC
cypermethrin 5% EC
II, III
Used on a broad range of insect pests
Sypertix 10% EC Manufacturer,
NOORBROOK , England,
Distributed by NOORBROK Kenya
The use of cypermethrin is
rejected by this PERSUAP
alpha-cyermethrin 10% W/V EC
II, III
Acaricide for veterinary use on ticks.
The use of alpha-cypermethrin
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 28
NOTE: For clarity, pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP via the forthcoming 12-factor analysis are so marked. Such pesticides are
rejected for one of the following reasons: they are not registered by EPA, are Restricted Use Pesticides, are Class I acute
toxicity, or are Class II toxicity.
Trade Name & other Details
Active ingredient
EPA
Reported use/Indicated use on label
Class.
LTD. Reg. No. PCPB (CR) 0765
is rejected by this PERSUAP
TANGFOR 40 EC
40% W/V dimethoate
II
For crops – cotton, chillies, groundnuts,
NSANJA Chemicals LTD
Mustard, wheat, vegetables (potatoes, brinjals,
Manufacturer - RALLIS INDIA LTD
Okra, cabbage, onions, fruits (bananas, citrus,
Mango)
Weedal 480 SL
isopropylamine salt of
III
Systemic non selective herbicide used on a
Manufacturer: Hangzhou
glyphosate 480g/l
wide range of annual, biennial, perennial broad
Agrochemicals (U) Ltd
leafed weeds, grasses, sedges in Babycorn
fields
Willosate 360 SC
glyphosate 360g/Litre
III
Systemic & contact herbicide used in fields
Manufacturer
WILLWOOD LTD, HONGKONG,
distributed by Agriscope
4.5 Available PPE and Application Equipment
Each of the shops stocked some Personal Protective Equipment (PPE such as gumboots, gloves, dust masks
and overalls. Dust masks cost between 6 – 15 SSP; gloves between 15 – 25 SSP; gumboots between 35 – 45
SSP, and overalls at 50 SSP. A complete PPE kit sells for 190 SSP in one of the shops. Another shop includes a
raincoat (water proof) as part of the PPE.
All of the shops stock sprayers, the most common being 1 and 2 liter hand sprayers. The knapsack sprayer
labeled “CPC” is the most common, but the manufacturers name is not indicated. Other sprayers in stock are
labeled as “GP 15”, but again the manufacturer’s name is not indicated. Both of the knapsack sprayers have
pressure control regulators for shallow and flood jet sprays and a double filter system. Other available
sprayers are 5, 6, 8, 15, 16, or 20 litres. Spare parts for the nozzles are also stocked, and in Morobo Agrovet,
parts for the spray gun are also stocked. Prices of sprayers in Morobo are: 2 litres at 30 RSSP (smaller
sprayers have a single adjustable nozzle; 1 litre at 15 RSSP; 5 litres at 80 RSSP and 20 litres at 170 RSSP (this
has two nozzle types, fine and broad).
4.6 Pesticide Knowledge and Awareness.
Surveyed agro-dealers (April 2012) reported that farmer pesticide knowledge and awareness is limited, with
most being first time pesticide users. This is consistent with brief farmer interviews conducted in 2011. No
farmer interviewed had any training in pesticide use. No farmer interviewed used any special clothing or
equipment to protect themselves while applying pesticides. Partly empty pesticide bottles were stored on
the floor of homes without regard to the dangers of children getting into them. Farmers were not aware of
proper disposal methods for empty pesticide containers.
4.7 Agro-dealer Safer Use Awareness & Extension to Customers
Given very low levels of farmer pesticide awareness/training, the agro dealer shops therefore serve as the
first opportunity for farmers and customers to learn about pesticides and the hazards associated with them.
All the shops visited (April 2012) had adopted the practice of providing a brief introductory session to each of
their customers which covers general risks and hazards associated with pesticides, followed by the safe use
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 29
and storage of the pesticides. Customers are encouraged to provide feedback as to whether or not the
pesticides were effective for the purpose they had been procured.
(A case was reported of a miscommunication at purchase that led to farmer buying the incorrect product to
spray on vegetables, and which all withered due to use of the wrong dosage. )
Generally, the agro dealers visited have fairly strong product knowledge and relevant training (one has a BSc
in Horticulture, one is trained in veterinary medicine and two are agriculturalists at diploma level). The agro
dealers train their sales agents and are a point of reference in case of any queries. All the sales agents have at
least completed secondary education and have/or are undertaking several short courses including the one
being offered by IFDC/AGMARK.
The products are not repacked at the shop and the only product reported to be repackaged were the
Quickphos tablets in one shop. The agro dealers are also sensitive about expiration dates and they always
ensure that products they stock are not about to expire. These shops aside, however, there will certainly be a
temptation for other dealers to repackage pesticides.
However, two of the products in two shops were found to be about to expire, while one agro dealer reported
to have handled an expired pesticide (Mancozeb) which they buried, but far from human settlements. The
labels provided clear instructions for storage, use, handling, and disposal as well as the product’s shelf life,
which in most cases was two to three years from date of manufacture. The practice for all of the agro dealers
is to buy limited quantities of the pesticides preferred by their farmer clients.
The agro dealers recognize the low awareness levels among their customers on matters pertaining to
pesticides and pesticide use. They therefore create awareness on pesticides use to each customer before
selling the products. Most of the agro dealers reported doing some field follow up activities to enhance
knowledge and awareness, but of course this is limited due resource constraints. In Kajo Keji, they hold
community dialogues with the farmers to enhance awareness.
All the 5 shops have awareness creation materials (posters) about various pesticides which include:
Safe disposal of insecticide containers
Safe purchase of pesticides
Guidelines of emergency measures in case of pesticide poisoning
Pesticide pictograms (warnings and advice)
Hazards Classification (WHO).
4.9 List of Candidate Pesticides
A final key input to the PER analysis is the full list of CANDIDATE PESTICIDES analyzed for this PERSUAP (i.e.
the pesticides being evaluated for suitability of procurement, use or support with USAID funding). Candidate
pesticides consist of :
1. The pesticide active ingredients identified as available in the target intervention regions by the April
2012 survey of 5 agro-dealers
2. Pesticides previously endorsed for use by the draft FARM PERSUAP, which must now be re-evaluated
to verify registration status and continued suitability.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 30
The resulting candidate list is as follows. NOTE that the list of pesticides recommended for approval under
this PERSUAPis a subset of this list, consisting of the candidate pesticides NOT eliminated by the PER analysis
that follows. The approved pesticides are presented in Section 6, the Safer Use Action Plan:
Insecticide
Fungicide
Acetamiprid
alpha cypermethrin
amitraz
azadirachtin (also a fungicide)
Bacillus thuringiensis-Bt
beta cyfluthrin
carbaryl
chlorpyrifos
clothianidin
cypermethrin
cyphenothrin
diazinon
dichlorvos
dimethoate
imidacloprid
indoxacarb
insecticidal soaps
lambda cyhalothrin
Malathion
pirimiphos methyl (also pyrimiphos methyl)
profenofos
spinosad
sulfur (also a fungicide)
thiamethoxam
azadirachtin (also an insecticide)
mancozeb
metalaxyl
sulfur (also an insecticide)
thiram
Fumigant
aluminum phosphide
Herbicide
diuron
fluazifop-p-butyl
glyphosate
imazapyr
pendimethalin
propanil
thiobencarb
Bird Repellant
methyl anthranilate
Veterinary Applications
albendazole
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 31
SECTION 5:
PER, PART 2: THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS
This section takes as key inputs the information compiled in Section 4 and undertakes the analysis of the 12
factors required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) to assess the candidate pesticides for use/support with USAID funds, and
to determine the specific conditions attendant to their use.
Factor A: US EPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides
USAID programs are limited to procuring, using and/or supporting the use of pesticides containing active
ingredients products registered by the United States EPA for the same or similar uses. Emphasis is placed on
“similar use” because a few of the crops and their pest species found overseas are not present in the US.
Therefore, pesticides may not be registered for the “exact” use anticipated by the USAID project.
Moreover, EPA designates some products as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs). EPA classifies a particular
pesticide as restricted if it determines that the pesticide may be hazardous to human health or to the
environment even when used according to the label. In the US, the pesticides and active ingredients that are
labeled RUPs can only be sold to and used by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision,
and only for those purposes covered by the applicator's certification (such as for row crops, or tree crops, or
structural pests, etc.)
22 CFR 216 requires a full environmental assessment before use of an RUP can be supported with USAID
funds, except for RUPs so designated solely for reason of user hazard. RUPs designated solely for reason of
user hazard can be authorized for procurement or use with USAID funding on the basis of a user hazard
analysis in the IEE (PERSUAP). In this case, the recipient government must be made aware of the hazard, and
a mitigation action will be made and implemented with additional technical assistance.
However, the analysis of pesticide knowledge and awareness in South Sudan (see section 2.4) clearly
indicates that it would NOT be appropriate to authorize USAID funds to support user-hazard RUPs in South
Sudan; see discussion under Factor B “Basis for Selection.”
In addition to US EPA registration, pesticides procured or supported with USAID funds must be legal
(registered) in the host country. In the case of South Sudan, a pesticide registration system is not yet in place.
As described under Factor B, Uganda/Kenya registration status is used instead.
Table B-1 (Annex B) provides the EPA registration status of all candidate pesticides, including whether a
pesticides is restricted-use (RUP). Under this Factor A analysis, any pesticides that are NOT EPA-registered are
disallowed, as indicated by the strikethroughs to the candidate list below. RUP pesticides are also disallowed;
this may be indicated by strikethrough of an active ingredient, meaning that all formulations are disallowed,
or where status is indicated by a restriction.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 32
Candidate pesticides list showing pesticides rejected
due to US EPA Registration or RUP Status
Insecticide
Fungicide
acetamiprid*
alpha cypermethrin
amitraz
azadirachtin*
Bacillus thuringiensis-Bt*
beta cyfluthrin
carbaryl
chlorpyrifos
(formulations over 10% may be RUP)
clothianidin*
cypermethrin
cyphenothrin
diazinon/ Kayazinon 600g/L
dichlorvos/DDVP
dimethoate
imidacloprid*
indoxacarb*
insecticidal soaps*
lambda cyhalothrin
(formulations over 10% Active Ingredient (AI) may be
RUP)
malathion
pirimiphos methyl* (also pyrimiphos methyl)
profenofos
propanil
spinosad*
sulfur*
thiamethoxam*
azadirachtin*
mancozeb*
metalaxyl*
sulfur*
thiram*
Fumigant
aluminum phosphide* (except if contracted from
specialized 3rd-party providers with all necessary
training and equipment.)
Herbicide
diuron*
fluazifop-p-butyl*
glyphosate
•
isopropylamine salt of glyphosate
imazapyr*
pendimethalin*
thiobencarb*
Bird Repellant
methyl anthranilate*
Veterinary Applications
Albendazole (an oral drug, not a pesticide)
*endorsed for use in the predecessor draft FARM PERSUAP
Commentary: All of the pesticides endorsed for use in the predecessor draft FARM PERSUAP remain EPAregistered. Of the additional active ingredients identified during the April 2012 visits and interviews
conducted identified in local agro-input shops, two—alpha-cypermethrin and cypermethrin—do not meet
the requirements of Factor A. EPA has never registered products containing alpha-cypermethrin, and
currently registers cypermethrin for household and industrial uses, but not for agricultural uses.
In addition, formulations of chlorpyrifos and lambda cyhalotrin over 10% Active Ingredient (AI) may be RUP.
Any endorsement of these AIs must thus be limited to formulations less than 10% AI.
Additional analyses reveals that all formulations of aluminum phosphide are RUP, and are highly toxic Class I
fumigant pesticides. EPA labels all similar pesticides containing 600g/L formulations of diazinon as RUP.
Therefore this PERSUAP rejects the use or support of both aluminum phosphide and diazinon. The sole
exception is that aluminum phosphide fumigation can be contracted from specialist 3rd-party providers who
possess all necessary training and specialist equipment.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 33
Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides
As noted, the candidate pesticide list (section 4.9; table above) contains pesticides from 2 distinct sources:
Pesticides endorsed by the predecessor draft FARM persuap (marked by asterisk (*) in table above)
Additional Pesticides (active ingredients) identified as being available and in active use in the USAID
intervention areas, based on April 2012 visits to 5 agro-input dealers.
To this candidate list, the following criteria are applied to develop a final list of approved pesticides. These
criteria are applied over the remaining factors of this PER analysis.
EPA Registration Status (discussed under Factor A, above). Pesticides must have active registration in the US
for the same or similar crops and pests.
Toxicity/Safety. Pesticide selection must be appropriate to the South Sudanese context. Currently, this
context is characterized by:
Absence of effective pesticide regulation and enforcement;
Scarcity of affordable, comfortable PPE; It must be assumed that farmers in South Sudan will wear
only the most basic of protective clothing and equipment
Limited implementation of good plant health, soil health, and water management practices;
Little or no understanding of IPM theory or principles;
Inability to read or comprehend pesticide labels and safety warnings due to illiteracy;
Inability to properly identify pests, their population levels, and economic thresholds;
Inadequate knowledge about pesticides and their dangers;
Porous national borders likely to encourage illegal entry and trade in pesticides
Because of the limited knowledge about the hazards of pesticide use, little availability of personal protective
equipment, and absence of government oversight capability, only general use pesticide formulated products
can be endorsed for use. Further, class III and IV pesticides are preferred; extra scrutiny is placed on class II
products, which are endorsed only in the following limited circumstances:
1. The classification is for irritation rather than toxicity per se (eg, azadirachtin, insecticidal soap)
2. The classification is for products with higher concentrations of the AI, so if available
products/formulations are known to be lower concentration, or lower concentrations formulations
are mandated, they will fall into class III. (AIs in this category include, e.g. chlorpyrifos and lambda
cyholothrin). These same products are classified in toxicity class III by WHO.
3. When the mode of use (e.g. restriction to seed treatment) limits adverse human or ecotoxicological effects.
Excluded are all EPA Toxicity Class I (extremely toxic) and most Class II (highly toxic) products, as are all EPA
RUPs, AIs that are internationally-classified as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) or as Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) chemicals by the Rotterdam Convention, and known carcinogens.
Need. The pesticide must serve as a known pest management need for target FARM crops/activities.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 34
Efficacy in local circumstances. Pesticides must be shown to be effective for crops/seeds under
climates/conditions similar to those found in USAID/South Sudan intervention areas
Availability; Registration in Kenya or Uganda. Pesticides must be available in South Sudan, Kenya and/or
Uganda, and registered in Kenya or Uganda. As noted under Factor A, pesticides procured or supported with
USAID funds must be legal (registered) in the host country—however, in the case of South Sudan, a pesticide
registration system is not yet in place. Neighboring Uganda and Kenya, however, have reasonably effective
pesticide institutions and processes which, prior to registration, require mandatory field research in
conditions generally similar to those found in South Sudan to evaluate and ascertain efficacy rates on pests,
as well as the toxicity of samples to human health and the environment. Registration in one of these 2
countries is thus used as a proxy for South Sudan registration.
Each pesticide endorsed for use under the draft FARM PERSUAP was re-evalated against these criteria over
the course of the 12-factor analysis presented in this PER.
Factor C: Extent to Which the
Proposed Pesticide Use is Part of an IPM Program
Direct pesticide use and direct extension activities tby USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector projects will be
governed by IPM-based crop- and pest-specific pest management plans (PMPs). The crop-by-crop pest and
control measures tables in Annex A are intended to serve a drafts of these plans, which will be refined by
agriculture sector implementing partners.
The current state of IPM awareness (section 4.3) and farmer education does not support the more
sophisticated forms of IPM. Pest management plans will necessarily be at a level of technical complexity
appropriate to the local context, but will embody core IPM principles: emphasis on use of non-chemical
controls (building on existing practices, see section 4.3), with need-based, targeted use of relative-leasttoxicity pesticides.
Support for formal agricultural education will fully incorporate IPM as the basis for effective pest
management.
Implementing Partners will often have far less than full control over the actions of beneficiaries in the field. In
these situations, IPs will promote and support PMP-based pest management to the greatest practicable
extent.
Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the
Availability of Application and Safety Equipment
Key points for analysis under this factor are:
Crop protection products will be predominantly applied by hand-held or knapsack sprayer. Note that
most sprayers currently available for sale are of poor quality, prone to leaks and with poor dosage
control.
Water sources are in many areas limited and care must be taken to prevent contamination of water
points and potable water containers.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 35
Some PPE is available in Pesticide shops, but this is limited and certainly not adequate for highertoxicity pesticides.
All of these points reinforce the importance of restricting pesticide procurement/use/support by
USAID/South Sudan agricultural projects to low-toxicity the EPA class III and IV product, with very limited
exceptions for class II.
In further consequence:
Whenever USAID/South Sudan agricultural projects provide, support or recommend pesticides for
use, they will ensure that appropriate personal protective equipment is available and, to the degree
possible, require its use.
Projects that are directly using, procuring or supplying pesticides will also assure that quality
application equipment is available and local capacity for its maintenance.
Appropriate PPE will be dependent on the specific pesticide and method of planting, but in most cases will
consist of broad-brimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, long pants, gloves, and full-coverage shoes and, in many
cases, goggles.
Note that even when seeds are procured pre-treated, it will still be necessary for farmers to handle pesticidetreated seed during transfer operations and planting. Appropriate training and strong polystyrene gloves will
be provided to mitigate health and environmental risks. Training shall specifically cover:
Covering all sown seeds with soil.
Not touching eyes, lips or skin or eating or smoking while in the act of sowing the treated seed.
After sowing, washing gloves and hands from a pail of water brought to the field for this purpose
Upon reaching home, changing out of their clothes which should be washed separately from the
normal laundry. If broadcast onto the soil, rather than placed in furrows and covered with soil, would
constitute a significant hazard to birds and other wild animals that may feed on the treated seed.
Therefore all the seeds must be covered during sowing.
If IPs directly undertake or support beneficiaries undertake seed treatment, seed treatment drums must be
provided, careful training given in appropriate technique, and the treated seeds must be color-dyed.
Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, Either Human or
Environmental, Associated with the Proposed Use, and Measures Available to
Minimize Such Hazards
Table B-1 in Annex B summarizes the toxicological profile of the full candidate pesticide list. Extended
pesticide-by-pesticide discussion of toxicology is also provided in this annex, along with measures to mitigate
any identified toxicological hazards, such as training of applicators, use of protective clothing, and proper
storage.
For situations in which they have direct control over pesticide use, IPs will be required to implement/observe
core risk mitigation measures s identified in the summary section of each extended pesticide profiles. In
situations in which their control is less complete, IPs will be required to take all practicable measures to
support and promote implementation of these measures.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 36
This toxicological information in Annex B (supplemented by additional information in the Annex B pesticide
profiles allows screening of the candidate pesticides against additional criteria enumerated under Factor B.
Beyond the candidate pesticides already eliminated due to EPA registration/RUP status, the following
pesticides are eliminated by this additional toxicology screening:
amitraz (WHO class III but PAN bad chemical actor; reproductive/developmental toxin; skin
absorption possible)
dicholoros/DDVP (EPA class I & II acute toxicity)
profenos (EPA class I & II acute toxicity)
diuron (known carcinogen)
In addition, this screening results in restrictions on a set of AIs:
chlorpyrifos & lambda cyhalothrin are limited to formulations of less than 10% AI (higher
concentrations are often RUP)
metalaxyl & thiram are restricted to SEED TREATMENT ONLY
neonicatinoids acetamiprid; clothianidin; imidacloprid and thiamethoxam may not be used during
crop flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees and are subject other use restrictions.)
Note that the toxicity profiles in Annex B also provide a key reference for development of crop- and pestspecific pest management plans.
Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticides for the Proposed Use
Pest management needs are documented on a crop-by-crop basis in Annex A. For each crop, the tables in
Annex A identify pest-specific suggested chemical controls (pesticides.) Three different sources of data have
been used to specify these proposed uses; while none is perfect individually, together they offer a high
degree of assurance that the pesticides will be effective for their proposed use:
The proposed pesticide uses are consistent with their EPA registrations; in each case, US EPA has
registered these pesticides for use on the same or similar crops and against the same or similar
pests. Such registration requires that the effectiveness of the pesticides be demonstrated.
Admittedly, this demonstration of effectiveness is witn the US agro-environmnetal context.
All pesticides endorsed for use by the 2011 FARM PERSUAP are also registered for use on the same
or similar pests in Kenya and/or Uganda. Such registration is made only after extensive research
undertaken by the agricultural research institutes in those countries, including Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute (KARI), National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) of Uganda, the
International Center for Insect Physiology and Entomology (ICIPE). Kenyan and Ugandan registration
is, however, likewise not a perfect indicator of effectiveness, in these registration processes each
pesticide is tested in the field over three seasons, but only on one crop. The identity of the crop is
not recorded.
Finally, each of the recommended uses has been cross-checked against information provided by
pesticide label, and registration and label information was supplemented from published literature
or recommendations available from other countries as well as from the Internet.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 37
In general, development of resistance is a key threat to pesticide effectiveness. As documented in 4.4, due to
the long standing conflict, farmers in South Sudan have not used pesticides in recent decades. As a result,
resistance is not expected to be an issue initially. But the introduction of pesticides and continuous use over
time enhances the probability that resistance will develop, particularly in vegetable culture. The use of
pesticides within an IPM framework, as required by this PERSUAP, is a key measure to prevent resistance
development.
Monitoring is required, however, to confirm that the pesticides being recommended will perform as
expected in South Sudan. Evaluation of pesticide efficacy (and of pest management plans more generally) is a
required part of demonstration plot management; monitoring for and reporting of resistance development is
a required element of SUAP compliance reporting.
Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide use with Target and NonTarget Ecosystems
For each candidate pesticide, Table B-1 in annex B provides toxicology information for a range of non-target
organisms: mammals (for which human toxicity results are proxies), birds, fish, aquatic invertebrates,
beneficial arthropods, honeybees, earthworms, mollusks, crusteacea, and phytoplankton. (The US EPA
registration process requires that toxicity of a pesticide against each of these classes of organisms be
assessed by a standardized test.) Additional information is provided in the pesticide profiles that follow the
table.
In addition to its toxicity to the class of non-target organism in question, the persistence of a pesticide in the
environment and its mobility (e.g. potential to enter groundwater) strongly affect how significant adverse
effects on non-target organisms may be. Annex B also provides this persistence and mobility information.
Taken together, this information makes clear that some of the pesticides recommended for approval under
this PERSUAP are highly toxic or very highly toxic to and do represent threats to:
Aquatic organisms.
Birds
Bees.
The individual pesticide profiles in Annex B specify basic precautions and limitations on use that, if observed,
should reasonably minimize threats to acquatic organisms and birds.
Regarding threats to bees, honeybees are important pollinators of a number of crops, and as such play a key
role in agricultural productivity. Bees cannot only be poisoned on contact with contaminated crops, but also
can carry contaminated pollen and nectar to the hive, potentially killing off the whole colony.
Risk is reduced by spraying crops pollinated by bees in the early evening when bees are in their hives and
warning beekeepers of spray events so that they may protect/relocate hives.
However, this does not address the suspected role of neonicotinoid insecticides (acetamiprid, clothianidin,
imidacloprid and thiamethoxam) as contributing causal agents of honeybee colony collapse disorder (CCD) in
Europe and N. America. Although acute toxicity of neonicotinoids to bees is not necessarily high,
neonicotinoids are systemic (taken up by the plant) and appear in nectar and pollen, and it is via this route
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 38
that a chronic toxicity mechanism may operate. Clothianidin is the most highly implicated, followed by
imidacloprid.
However, the small-scale and asynchronous uses of neonicotinoids envisioned in South Sudan are judged to
present markedly lower risks to bee colonies than the large-scale, synchronous applications in the US and
Europe, where hundreds or thousands of hectares may be sprayed at one time. And because of their low
toxicity to humans, broad-spectrum uses, and low toxicity to non-insect targets, they have many other
desirable attributes. They are thus approved forboth seed treatment and foliar use under this PERSUAP.
However, this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale applications are
shown to present significant risk of CCD and/or if their US EPA registration status changes.
Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts; spraying must take place in the early evening
when bees are in their hives, and notice given to local beekeeperso that hives may be moved/protected.
They may not be used on honey-bee pollinate crops when these crops are flowering.
All of the seed treatment pesticides, including the neonicotinoids, are safer in the environment when
covered by soil. Therefore, proper planting techniques must be emphasized and monitored.
Factor H: The Conditions Under which the Pesticide is to be Used, Including
Climate, Flora, Fauna, Geography, Hydrology, and Soils
The Greenbelt region is well watered; the Blue Nile crosses the Greenbelt region in Central Equatoria.
Farmers report that ground water table is only 3-10 m from the soil surface in many places. Thus the use of
pesticides in the three states presents a potential for contamination of important surface and groundwater
sources; this is the most significant risk of pesticide use arising from the environmental context. Such
contamination may arise from:
Application
Improper disposal of pesticide containers and rinseate from washing-up. (Empty pesticide containers
were seen strewn in around crop fields planted to vegetables in several occasions during the field
visits. Farmers have not been taught to puncture and bury their containers rather than just throw
them away.)
Spills during transport. (Road accidents are not uncommon, with the trip from Uganda and Kenya
taking about a day and crossing a number of rivers and streams.)
Improper disposal of outdated pesticides.
When USAID projects are purchasing pesticides on the local market, the risk of spills during import transport
cannot be controlled. However, the following measures should minimize the risk of surface and groundwater
contamination: (1) pesticide-specific use (application) restrictions is enumerated in the pesticide profiles of
Annex B; (2) required use of safer transport practices when IPs themselves are transporting pesticides, and
(3) training in and enforcement of proper clean-up and container disposal practices.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 39
Factor I: The Availability and Effectiveness of other Pesticides or
Non-Chemical Control Methods
As noted, the”pests and control methods” tables presented in Annex A for each target crop serve as rough
drafts for the crop- and pest-specific pest management plans to be developed by implementing partners.
In these tables, many non-pesticidal remedies are recommended as control measures; indeed for some crop
pests, only non-chemical controls are recommended. However, as also established, effective pest
management across the target crops, particularly at larger and more intensive production scales, is likely to
require some chemical controls. As noted, pesticide use/support will be governed by crop- and pest-specific
pest management plans. A major purpose of these plans is precisely to assure a well-considered mix of nonchemical and chemical controls.
Per the Annex A tables, pesticides are likely to play a relatively minor role in control of the following:
Diseases of the common food crops. These will mainly will be controlled by use of resistant crop
varieties. Many such varieties are available and seed for these should soon be made available to
farmers not only through the seed distribution of FARM Sudan but also by the emergent agro-input
dealer sector.
Vertebrate pests. These dominate the list of farmers’ pest problems, but chemical control options
are limited to the use of (1) seed treatments with repellant properties (thiram and imidacloprid) for
sown-seed vertebrate pests and (2) methyl anthranilate spray for birds. Farmers also will be
encouraged to construct fences to keep out wandering livestock.
Stored product losses. At 20-40%, these losses are currently high, but can be significantly reduced
adoption of non-chemical IPM control practices: First farmers need to harvest their crops on time to
keep field infestation rates low. They then need to properly sun-dry the grain to kill insect pests such
as weevils that infested the grain in the field. Farmers then can store their grain in well-sealed silos
that FARM Sudan is featuring. This may be all that is necessary for short term storage. Note that no
fumigants are approved under this PERSUAP.
The candidate list of pesticides for this PERSUAP includes ALL pesticides available in Juba-area agricultural
input shops in April 2012. There are in a number of cases pesticides that are theoretically more effective
against target pests, but these are either not available locally, or fail the toxicological/safety screens
enumerated under previous analysis factors.
Factor J: The Requesting Country's Ability to Regulate or Control the
Distribution, Storage, Use and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide
In South Sudan, the pesticide regulatory framework and institutions are only now being established. The
government does not yet have a list of approved pesticides, or a list of reputable and registered pesticide
manufacturers as well as local registered retail importers and purveyors of pesticides.
The capacity of GOSS to provide the necessary legal framework for the regulation of pesticides is changing,
albeit slowly, and numerous efforts are underway to provide institutional strengthening, policy formulation
and enforcement, including in the management of pesticides.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 40
The MAF in South Sudan has primary responsibility for the regulation and enforcement of pesticide
procurement, distribution, storage, use, and eventual disposal. The FARM project developed the Dec 2011
Plant Protection Policy now under consideration by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. However, this
does not go beyond high-level policy statements, including a commitment to IPM and to effective regulation
of pesticides.
Current institutional weaknesses require exclusion of higher-toxicity pesticides, reliance on Uganda and
Kenya registration as a surrogate for a functioning South Sudan registration system, and for particular
vigilance in assuring safer use measures.
Factor K: The Provisions Made for Training of Users and Applicators
While the pesticides put forward for approval by this PERSUAP are generally of relatively low toxicity, the
pesticide toxicology profiles presented in Annex B clearly shows that use presents some human health and
environmental risks. This, combined with the overall extremely poor awareness of pesticide risks and safer
use principles among beneficiary population (see section 4.5), means that an aggressive program of pesticide
safer use training is essential for:
Project staff who will apply or handle pesticides, or serve as extension agents
Beneficiary farmers who will use/apply pesticides
Those being trained as extension agents
Beneficiary agro-input dealers
Key training topics must include, as appropriate, the following:
Definition of Pesticides
Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons
Concepts of Active Ingredients vs formulated products
Classes of Pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective against only certain classe
of organism.
Concept of proper application rates and the concept of pesticide resistance and techniques for
avoiding it.
Concept that pesticides have specific organisms against which they are effective
Survey of the core elements of Safer Pesticide Use: IPM, Safer Purchase, Transport, Storage, Mixing,
Application, Reentry and pre-harvest Intervals, Clean-up & Disposal, including specific treatment of
PPE
Pesticide First Aid & Spill Response
Interpretation of Pesticide Labels --- particularly to understand PPE requirements and other
precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs, and expiration dates
Proper sprayer operation and maintenance.
Each project will develop a training plan meeting its needs, however:
The training plan must cover the categories of individuals enumerated above
Training curricula must cover all relevant key topics outlined above and discussed in more detail in
Annex C.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 41
Training must reach all relevant individuals within 6 MONTHS of the effective date of this PERSUAP
Brief refresher training must be provided at least annually.
Projects are encouraged to consider a training-of-trainers approach.
Factor L: The Provisions Made for Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of the
Pesticides
Implementing partners will be required to report initially and every 6 months thereafter on compliance with
the conditions established by this PERSUAP; the Safer Use Action Plan (next section) constitutes a tracking
reporting form that dictates the content of such reporting.
As part of this reporting, implementing partners directly supporting farm-level pesticide use or extension will
be required to report on instances observed of pesticide resistance. USAID M&E field visits will examine
pesticide compliance.
SECTION 6: SAFER USE ACTION PLAN
6.1 Introduction
This Safer Use Action Plan is the definitive statement of IP pesticide compliance requirements and is
synthesized from the PER analysis:
Section 6.2, immediately below, enumerates allowed pesticides.
Section 6.3 summarizes the safer use conditions attendant to use/support of these pesticides.
These conditions are then detailed in the attached mandatory template for assigning responsibilities
and timelines for implementation of these requirements, and for tracking compliance.
Each project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP template to its AOR/COR by January 17,
2014 and provide an annual update.
With respect to pesticides, the Safer Use Action Plan satisfies the requirement for an environmental mitigation
and monitoring plan (EMMP). The project EMMP should simply incorporate the SUAP by reference.
6.2 Allowed Pesticides
Synthesizing across the PER analysis only the below-listed pesticides (active ingredients) of the larger
candidate list are recommended for approval. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, these pesticides and ONLY
these pesticides are allowed for use/support in USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector projects.
Insecticide
Fungicide
acetamiprid (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
azadirachtin (neem oil; also an insecticide)
mancozeb
metalaxyl FOR SEED TREATMENT ONLY
thiram FOR SEED TREATMENT ONLY
sulfur (also an insecticide)
azadirachtin (neem oil; also a fungicide)
Bacillus thuringiensis-Bt
betacyfluthrin
carbaryl
Fumigant
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 42
chlorpyrifos (formulations < 10% AI ONLY)
clothianidin (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
cyphenothrin
None allowed, EXCEPT aluminum phosphide
fumigation may be contracted from specialized
providers with all necessary training and
equipment.
Herbicide
dimethoate
malathion
fluazifop-p-butyl
glyphosate
•
isopropylamine salt of glyphosate
imazapyr
pendimethalin
propanil
thiobencarb
pyrimiphos methyl (also pirimiphos methyl) (seed
treatment only.)
Bird Repellant
spinosad
methyl anthranilate
imidacloprid (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
indoxacarb*
insecticidal soaps
lambda cyhalothrin (formulations < 10% AI only)
sulfur (also a fungicide)
thiamethoxam (but may not be used during crop
flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees.)
Veterinary Applications
Albendazole (anti-parasitical; not a pesticide but an
orally administered drug)
Note: As imidacloprid and thiram have properties as repellants against birds and mammals that feed
on sown-seed, they should be preferred as seed treatments over the other seed treatment materials
Such use/support is allowed only in compliance with the safer use conditions summarized in the the following
section and detailed in the “Safer Use Action Plan and Compliance Tracker” that comprises the last section of
this chapter.
6.3 Summary of Compliance Requirements
Mitigation Measures and restrictions specified in the PER can be summarized as follows:
A. Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID funds in USAID/South
Sudan agricultural sector activities. These pesticides are enumerated in section 4.2, above.
Pesticide “SUPPORT” means procurement, use, recommending for use, or otherwise facilitating the
use of a pesticide.
B. Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based
pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key
information for IPs to develop these plans.)
C. Appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safer pesticide use & pesticide first aid;
D. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use & maintenance of appropriate PPE—as
well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices;
E. Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.
The PER and the annexes provide substantial resources to support compliance with these requirements, as
detailed in the table below.
IPM/Safer Use Requirement
Key Resources Provided
Pesticide recommendations and use
ANNEX A: sets out crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest chemical and non-chemical management
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 43
must be governed by a set of cropand pest-specific IPM-based pest
management plans.
(IPs are responsible for developing
these plans.)
Appropriate project staff &
beneficiaries must be trained in
safer pesticide use & pesticide first
aid;
methods recommended by this PERSUAP. The pests and control methods table for each
crop is intended to serve as a rough draft for a crop-specific pest management plan.
ANNEX B provides toxicology information for each approved active ingredient,
including human acute toxicities and chronic health issues, water pollution potential, as
well as potential ecotoxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee
pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms. This information is summarized in
table B-1, and extended profiles of most pesticides, including specified safer use
requirements follow.
ANNEX C. Mandatory Elements of Pestide Safer Use Training provides significant
discussion of safer use training elements.
ANNEX B Describes appropriate protective equipment on a pesticide-by-pesticide basis.
To the greatest degree practicable,
projects must require use &
maintenance of appropriate PPE—
as well as safe pesticide purchase,
handling, and disposal practices
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 44
[Insert Project Name]
Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan &
Compliance Tracker*
Must be submitted to AOR/COR by January 17, 2014 and annually updated thereafter.
BASIC INFORMATION
SUBMISSION DATES:
Prime
Contractor
Initial
submission
Project
Annual Update
#1
Pesticide
Compliance
Lead & Contact
Information
Annual Update
#2
:
Annual Update
#3
Summary of
Pest
Management
Needs on
Project
Note: Pesticide “support” = use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the
application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; enable the application or purchase of
pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, etc.
Required
Compliance
(Mitigation)
Measure
Initial
Compliance
Status (if
known,
indicate)
not
so
Actions planned to
achieve & maintain
compliance
(w/
deadlines
responsible party)
Status
of
compliance actions
&
SUPPORT ONLY THE PESTICIDES AUTHORIZED BY THE 2013 USAID/SOUTH SUDAN
AG SECTOR PERSUAP
Immediately
Inventory
Pesticides
being supported and
ensure NO SUPPORT
for Class I chemicals.
(insert extra
needed)
rows
if
Distribute copies of the
list of allowed AIs with
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 45
matching
commercial
product names to all
project field extension
staff & advise regarding
the January 17, 2014
deadline for compliance
(below)
As soon as possible but not later than Janauary 17, 2014
Assure that USAIDfunded pesticide support
is limited to ONLY
PESTICIDES
APPROVED
BY
PERSUAP.
Continue
verification
throughout life-of-project
Pesticide technical assistance and use must be governed by a set of locally adapted,
crop-and-pest specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated
use restrictions.
By February 1, 2014
Starting
from
the
information in PERSUAP
Annex A and drawing on
PERSUAP Annex B,
adopt/develop crop- and
pest-specific IPM-based
pest management plans
(PMPs).
For chemical controls,
PMPs must include the
use restrictions specified
in the Annex B pesticide
profiles. (E.g. no use
near surface waters.)
Note:
sharing/collaboration
among
projects
is
encouraged.
Translate PMPs into
crop-specific
field
reference guides or
posters for farmers to
anticipate and manage
pests.
By 1 February 2014
Provide first-time training
to appropriate project
staff, partners and
beneficiaries in PMPs;
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 46
Provide
refresher
training annually.
From Date of Initial Training
Require and enforce
PMP implementation in
situations where the
project has direct control
over pesticide use
Require and enforce that
field extension under
direct project control be
PMP-based.
Where project control
over
extension
or
agricultural practice on
the ground is less than
complete, promote and
support to PMPs to the
greatest
practicable
extent.
Ongoing over Life of Project (LOP)
Modify PMPs over LOP
based
on
groundtruthing/field experience.
Appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safer pesticide use &
pesticide first aid.
Develop a Training Plan
for
Pesticide
Safe
Practices and IPM for
project
staff
and
beneficiaries, including
at least annual refresher
training.*
Develop or source
curricula conforming to
required
training
elements specified in
Annex C.
Implement training plan,
providing
first-time
training to all relevant
staff and beneficiaries
within 6 months.
To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use & maintenance of
appropriate PPE – as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storageand disposal
practices.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 47
If carbamate or
organophosphate-class
pesticides are used
extensively, follow
procedures for baseline
testing for
cholinesterase inhibition,
and establish a periodic
cholinesterase
monitoring schedule
when necessary.
implement/observe core
risk mitigation measures
(PPE and other
precautions) identified in
the summary section of
each extended pesticide
profile.
Where control is less
complete, take all
practicable measures to
support and promote
implementation of these
measures.
whenever
providing,
supporting
or
recommending
pesticides for use,
assure that appropriate
personal
protective
equipment is available
and, to the degree
possible, require its use.
whenever directly using,
procuring or supplying
pesticides, assure that
quality
application
equipment is available
and local capacity for its
available
and
maintained.
To the greatest degree
practicalble,
enforce
good disposal and
clean-up practice
For directly supported
pesticide stores, assure
that
FAO
Best
Management Practices
are met. (See Annex C).
For directly supported
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 48
pesticide
transport,
assure that minimum
practices specified in
Annex C are met.
Projects must be systematic in their pesticide related record-keeping and monitoring.
pesticide efficacy in
demonstration
plots
must be evaluated
any
evidence
of
pesticide
resistance
development must be
tracked and reported.
Flow-down requirements
Prime contractors must
write
pesticide
compliance
requirements as set out
above into each each
grant or sub-contract
that will involve support
for pesticide use.
* This table is not conclusive and the IP will have to include more specific mitigation measures, e.g bee
colony impact trackers, etc
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 49
7. LITERATURE CITED
Abt Associates. 2011. South Sudan Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) for Seed
Treatment Only. Food, Agribusiness and Rural Markets (FARM) Program, USAID/Sudan, Juba, Southern
Sudan.
Dabrowsky Z.T. 1997. Integrated pest management in vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan: a
participatory approach. ICIPE Science Press, October 1997, 245 p.
Kanampiu F.K., Kabambe V,Massawe C, JasiL,Friesen D., Ransom JK, Gressel J. 2003. Multi-site, multi-season
field tests demonstrate that herbicide seed-coatingherbicide-resistance maize controls Strigaspp. and
increases yields in several African countries. Crop Protection 22: 697–706.
Litsinger, J.A., Libetario, E.M., Barrion, A.T., and Apostol, R.P. 2009. Comparison of insect pest complexes in
different Philippine dryland rice environments: population densities, yield loss, and management.
International Journal of Pest Management 55:129-149.
Ntawuruhunga P, Legg J, Okidi J,Okao-Okuja G, Tadu G, Remington T. 2007. Southern Sudan, Equatoria
Region, Cassava Baseline Survey Technical Report IITA.
Page WW, Busolo-Bulafu CM, van der Merwe PJA, Chancellor TCB. 2002. Groundnut Manual for UGANDA:
Recommended groundnut production practices for smallholder farmers in Uganda. Chatham UK: Natural
Resources Institute, 17 p.
Push-pull technology, see www.push-pull.net
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 50
ANNEX A:
PESTS & DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS &
AVAILABLE & RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS
This annex details the primary pests of all target crops on a crop-by-crop basis, available non-chemical
control methods, and recommended chemical controls, where these are necessary.
As such, this Annex contains both information compiled as INPUT to the PER analysis (pests of target crops),
and OUTPUTS of that analysis (available non-chemical controls, recommended chemical controls.)
The pest-control method matrices provided for each target crop are intended to serve as the basis for the
crop and pest-specific management plans required by the SUAP.
The pest lists were generated from interviews conducted with FARM extension staff in Equatoria, interviews
with agro dealer shops in Juba, Yei, and Morobo Kajo Keji, and consideration of the most common pests
impacting major food crops in Uganda and Kenya (where more detailed research has been conducted).
All USAID/South Sudan agriculture sector target crops are profiled in this annex. Per section 3 of the
PERSUAP, these are:
Maize
Sorghum
Cassava
Upland Rice
Groundnut
Finger Millet
Pigeon Peas
Onions
Tomatoes
Dry Beans
Okra
Cabbage
Sesame
Stored Grain; Seed Treatment
Maize
Maize is a popular crop for both human consumption and as a cash crop. Maize is not used as livestock feed.
There are no hybrid maize varieties grown due to a lack of seed suppliers. Most farmers prefer open
pollinated varieties that mature in 110-120 days as they want to grow maize in both wet seasons (but not in
the same field).
White colored kernel varieties are preferred and maize is eaten in a number of ways. It can be ground to
make flour and made into a paste, which, by adding it to boiling water, makes a kind of porridge that is eaten
for lunch and dinner. The flour is often mixed with cassava flour. If the kernels are ground when they are wet
maize is made into a cake and boiled. Whole kernels are cooked with beans in a type of soup. Roasted ears of
maize are also popular.
If the land is prepared by tractor then there is a greater likelihood of it being grown as a monocrop. But if the
field is prepared by hand hoe then the crop will more likely be intercropped with groundnut, beans, or
cassava. If it is the first crop, then the second crop will be rotated with a legume or non-cereal.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 51
Crop rotation is a well-known method by farmers to lessen pest pressure. FARM Sudan is providing certified
seed and training on modern cultivation practices which farmers can employ in their slash and burn
agricultural system. Burning trees and grass provides nutrients to crops to give maize the strength to tolerate
pest injury such as stem borers. The fertility, however, will decline over the double cropping system which is
normally perpetuated on a field for three years before abandonment and clearing of new land from the
forest or other fallowed land.
Delayed weed removal is a primary cause of maize yield loss in smallholder agriculture. Herbicides can save
labor and time to increase the net benefits to farmers and often are less expensive than hiring local labor. But
herbicides are not common in South Sudan, thus weeding is by hand.
(In Uganda the Weed Wipe applicator is available for post-planting weed control which does not involve
spraying. Glyphosate is mixed with water and placed in the end of the handle and gravity takes the solution
down to a mop like sponge at the bottom. The farmer walks quickly and wipes the herbicide directly onto
weeds with the applicator. Pendimethalin can also be tested for this technique.)
A key pest in some areas is striga, a parasitic plant that attacks cereals retarding plant growth, resulting in
stunted and withered plants. However no farmer interviewed mentioned this pest as it must be overlooked,
or if farmers are lucky, it may not be present. Herbicide applications against striga are expensive, and become
ineffective since the crop is already damaged before the purple striga flower emerges.
If striga proves to be important farmers could potentially use a new control method. IR maize or its
commercial name, StrigAway maize, comprises two main elements – an herbicide- resistant maize seed and
imazapyr, a systemic herbicide. The IR maize is not a GMO as it was developed using standard breeding
methods. The herbicide-resistant maize seed is coated with low doses (30g) of the herbicide. As the
StrigAway maize germinates, it absorbs some of the herbicide used in coating it. The germinating maize
stimulates striga to germinate and as it attaches to the maize root, it is killed before it can cause any damage.
Herbicide that is not absorbed by the maize plant diffuses into the soil and kills striga seeds that have not
germinated. Imazapyr is included in this PERSUAP.
Aside from weeds, yields of maize in the Equatoria states are reduced by damage caused by vertebrate pests
inhabiting the forest such as monkeys, grass cutter rat, birds, and squirrels which feast on either or both the
sown-seed and the mature cobs. These vertebrate pests eat sown-seeds buried in the soil (rats, birds) and
young plants (cows). As a control measure children dig rats from the ground or burn fields to flush them out,
as rats are a delicacy. Reasons for vertebrate pest attacks farmers’ crops were discussed in Litsinger et al.
(2009), which also shows the benefit of seed treatment for upland crops.
Domestic animals can be kept out of the fields if farmers build fences using logs and stumps that can be
recovered during land clearing operations. Rather than burning them, which is the current practice, farmers
should pile them around field perimeters as permanent fences. It was found that both thiram and
imidacloprid as seed treatments have anti-feedant properties to birds and other vertebrates that would dig
up sown-seed to eat. Thus these materials have dual purposes. Other pests of young seedlings are termites
and crickets which can be controlled by seed treatment insecticide. The role of termites as early season pests
has yet to be confirmed. Farmers present conflicting stories. A cultural control method is to seed at higher
rates (over-seeding).
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 52
Maize is constantly threatened by the potential outbreak of a wide array of foliar diseases. For optimal maize
yields, attention must first be placed on selecting a variety that is most resistant and tolerant to the major
diseases prevalent in South Sudan. Fortunately there is excellent collaboration with CIMMYT in bringing in
new germplasm to East Africa and new varieties are being developed continuously. Several maize diseases
were important in the 1980s (maize streak virus and grey leaf spot), which have now been minimized by
resistant varieties. The Longe 1 variety that will be imported is tolerant to maize streak virus. The virus is
vectored by a leafhopper, but intercropping tempers the disease incidence. Grey leaf spot is spread by
infected plant residue thus crop rotation is important. Several other minor leaf diseases also occur.
Stemborers are another significant pest of maize.
Early planting is a mechanism to escape stalk borers.
In Uganda, a project to introduce larval (Cotesiaflavipes) and pupal (Xanthopimpla stemmata)
parasitoids against stalk borers has produced good results against Chilopartellus, the main species
there. Minimal insecticide usage, as well as selective materials, conserves beneficial arthropods for
natural insect pest control.
A non-pesticide method has been developed at ICIPE in Kenya for the control of stalk borers of cereal
crops call ‘push-pull’ (http://www.push-pull.net). The technique involves intercropping silverleaf
desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum) a fodder legume, with maize, napier (Pennisetumpurpureum),
and Sudan (Sorghum sudanense) grass to provide both immediate and long-term benefits. Aromas
produced by Desmodium repel (push) pests like the maize stemborer while scents produced by the
grasses attract (pull) the stemborer moths and encourage them to lay eggs in the grass instead of in
the maize. Napier grass produces a gummy substance that traps the stemborer larvae so, once they
hatch, only a few survive to adulthood, thus reducing their numbers.
In addition several parasitoids benefit by the absence of pesticide usage. The key species are the
larval parasitoid Cotesiases amiae and the pupal parasitoid Dentichasmias busseolae of cereal
stemborers. Desmodium roots produce chemicals that stimulate germination of striga seeds, but
then prevent them from attaching successfully to maize roots. Striga eventually dies and the number
of seeds in the soil is also reduced. Besides being a good ground cover, Desmodium is a nitrogenfixing legume that improves soil fertility.
Termites attack older crops probably more than seedlings in the ground although this has not been fully
determined. Termites are more important in dry seasons in dryland areas and can be controlled by
encouraging ant nesting (Lepisiotaspp. and Myrmicaria spp.) with fish bone meal. Farmers also mix a
concoction of dried chili, cow urine, neem, and wood ash to apply to the mounds. Farmers have also found
that excavation of the tops of mounds significantly disturbs termites.
Another homemade concoction told to us in KajoKeiji is made from ½ tin water + hand soap + 1kg local
tobacco leaves ground up. The mixture is left to soak overnight and then boiled the next day for 30 min. It is
poured into an opened termite mound to kill the queen. However most farmers do not want to apply
pesticides to the mounds as they feel that termites are on the whole more beneficial than a pest due to their
role in soil fertility.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 53
Mulch made from dried grasses from field clearing can be saved and not burned and used as a mulch on the
newly planted maize fields. Most farmers believe that the mulch will act as a trap crop to divert the termites
from the maize, although there is not full consensus on this idea which needs to be tested more by farmers.
The benefit is that the termites break down the mulch adding to the organic matter content of the field.
Another benefit of course is that the dried grass is not burned which tempers global warming. A large land
snail was noted in farmers’ fields and the farmers said that they defoliate young plants. Farmers control them
by hand collection and they can feed them to chickens.
Two species of orthopterans attack maize in mass migrations. A katydid Ruspolianitidula attacks in swarms in
most years around Nov-Dec. Locusts come in Oct-Nov from the east or west. Farmers also eat the katydid
and locust so they are not keen to use insecticide against these pests and the average person can eat a halfkilo of insects per day. They catch them at night when they are resting on foliage. Average yield is 750
kg/feddan or 1.85 t/ha, but can be twice as high with better management.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 54
Pests & Diseases of Maize and Control Measures
Pest
Available Control Measures
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
Grass and broad leaf weeds (preemergent control)
Grass and broad leaf weeds (postemergent control)
Perennial weeds
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, pre-emergent spray if previous crop was weedy
Diuron
Pendimethalin
Diuron
Pendimethalin
Glyphosate salt
Purple witchweed (Striga spp.)
Couch grass or Bermuda grass
(Cynodon dactylon)
Sown-seed pests
(crickets, rats, birds)
Termites
Pseudacanthotermes
Macrotermes, Microtermes
Odontotermes
Soil insect pests
(millipedes, white grubs)
Cows, goats
Cutworms/ armyworms
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, post-emergent spray if previous crop was weedy
Pre-plant or pre-emergent spray or post plant weed wipe
Weed regularly
Rotate maize with trap crops. Eg. sunflower, pulses and cotton stimulate the germination of
striga seeds, but also inhibit post-germination growth of the weed
Intercrop maize with Desmodium or other legumes (Desmodium progressively reduces the
number of striga seeds in the soil “push and pull technology”)
Use resistant/tolerant varieties
Spray herbicide after the above methods have not yielded good results.
Introduce shade producing cover crops, within a crop rotational system.
Spray herbicide
Harrow with a tooth harrow during the dry season in order to uproot the rhizomes and
letting them dry completely on top of the soil
Over seeding, insecticide seed treatment
Deep plowing
dig out queen,
applying a mulch of dried grass after planting as a ‘trap crop’,
Seed treatment with pesticide
Smoking termite nests
Flooding of termite nests
Use of bio pesticides e.g. Neem seed oil, powdered tobacco
Use of entomo pathogenic fungus e.g. metarrhizium, anisopliae
Plough field to destroy the termites' nest, runways, and tunnels and to expose them to
predators, such as ants, birds, chicken, etc.
Practice crop rotation to reduce the build-up of termites.
Remove plant residues and other debris especially moist and decaying woods.
Avoid leaving the crop in the field after harvest on stooks, stacks or windrows
Deep plowing, seed treatment
Construct fences, scare them away
Early planting, deep plowing, apply insecticide poisoned bait when larvae first seen in economic
numbers
Imazapyr
Glyphosate
Glyphosate
Imidachlorprid
Clothianidin
Thiamethoxam
Thiram as vertebrate
repellant
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Home-made concoctions
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Clothianidin
Thiamethoxam
Indoxacarb
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Spinosad
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 55
Pest
Available Control Measures
Land snail
Aphids/ thrips
Hand picking
Rainfall as physical control, early planting can avoid population buildup, fertility management to
ensure tolerance, apply insecticide when 25% of plants (in silk or heads)
Leafhopper vector of maize leaf
streak Cicadulina
Katydid (green grasshopper)
Ruspolianitidula
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Locust Schistocercagregaria
Leaf beetles
African armyworm
Spodopteraexempta
Stalk borers/ Stalkborer
Chilo partellus
Chilopartellus, Sesamiacalamistis
Eldanasaccharina
Busseola fusca
Earworm
Heliocoverpaarmigera
Damping off, seedling blight
Rhizoctonia
Maize streak virus
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
People collect them for food
Early planting to avoid swarm months
Burn vegetation where they rest
Conserve natural enemies (larvae of blister beetles, ants, parasitic flies, assassin bugs,
predatory wasps, birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, and fungi.
Domesticated poultry (e.g. chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and ducks) and wild birds
are good for keeping grasshopper populations in check.
Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch. This is reported to reduce
grasshopper numbers since they prefer laying eggs on bare soil.
Dig or cultivate the land before planting to expose the eggs to predators and to the sun.
Spray biopesticides. (www.iita.org)
FAO locust early warning forecasting, people collect them for food
Fertility management,
scout field edges, apply if incidence of damage exceeds 30% plants
Insecticide when necessary
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Spinosad
Neem, sulfur, insecticidal
soap
Spinosad, Insecticidal
soaps, Azadirachtin
Indoxacarb
Spinosad
Indoxocarb
Spinosad
Indoxacarb
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Early planting, fertility management, insecticide at first sign of feeding injury, spot treat
infected plant and its neighbors only (not the whole field), intercropping (use of ‘push-pull’
technology)
Conserve natural enemies eg. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants.
Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and stubble and prevent carry-over
populations.
Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stemborers (e.g. cassava and grain
legumes).
Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as desmodium and plant an attractive trap
plant.“Push and pull technology” www.icipe.org
Spray with neem product
Spinosad
Indoxacarb
Early planting
None
Certified seed, crop residue thoroughly decomposed, fungicide seed treatment
Thiram
Metalaxyl
Use of tolerant, resistant varieties.
None
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 56
Pest
Available Control Measures
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
Plant early in the season.
Eradicate grass weeds.
Control vectors that transmit the disease.
Intercrop
Use fungicide
Grey leaf spot (Cercospora zeaemaydis)
Northern leaf blight
Exserohilumturcicum
Common rust (Puccinia sorghi) .
Leaf blight Stenocarpellamacrospora
Downy mildew
Perenoschleros-porasorghi
Grass cutter rat
Pigs, cows
Weaver birds
Monkeys, squirrels, rats
Use resistant
Practise field sanitation. It helps in reducing the inoculum (infection) source.
Mancozeb
Resistant/ tolerant variety
None
Use of resistant varieties.
Deep plough crop residue.
Destroy the weed Oxalis sp. (an alternate host).
Spray fungicide
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Mancozeb
Sulphur
Hunt them for food
Build fences, scare away
Scare away
None
None
Bird repellant methyl
anthranilatte
None
Scare away monkeys, trap monkeys in drives into nets, rats hunted as food
None
None
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 57
Sorghum
Sorghum is another major cereal staple crop in South Sudan. It is grown as a food crop and is the main
ingredient of a number of common dishes in the local diet. It is ground into flour and added to boiling water
to make porridge. Its flour is often mixed with cassava flour in the porridge that is eaten for lunch and dinner.
Sorghum flour is also made into ‘chapatis’ which is a breakfast food. Farmers told us that sorghum makes
people feel fuller than when they eat maize.
Sorghum is often intercropped with groundnuts. In Equatoria the widely used local varieties of sorghum are
long maturing and low yielding, but are more resistant to pests and diseases. There are a large number of
local varieties. There are several tall white varieties that are very long maturing (eg. Lei and Laponga).
Marsika is a drought tolerant variety and is sown in Apr-May and harvested in Jan. Mayo is a red variety and
planted May-June and harvested in Jan.
Both of these long maturing varieties escape the problem of the rainy season which causes sorghum heads to
sprout fungal diseases if not properly dried. The cluster of seeds in the panicle often is tight which
encourages fungal growth. For this reason sorghum is grown more in the second rainy season because of the
difficulty of drying the crop and is rarely intercropped.
Pest problems are less than occur with maize. Weeds, however, are very important as they appear in all the
fields at the same time and farmers do not have enough time to tend all fields at once. Several herbicides are
listed which can be tried by farmers who want to save labor weeding as well as the weed-wipe method
developed in Uganda using glyphosate.
The traditional farmer practice is hand weeding using hoes, but farmers should use Striga-free planting
material and clean tools, crop rotation, intercropping, organic matter usage with mulch spread after sowing,
and improved fallows and push-pull system.
The most common diseases are loose kernel smut and anthracnose which can be controlled by resistant
varieties or by a fungicide such as mancozeb.
Termites and crickets attack newly sown seeds and can be controlled with seed treatments. The land snail
also is a defoliator and can be controlled by hand collection.
As with maize, vertebrate pests attack the crop after sowing, during crop growth, as well as after grain forms.
Rats remove sown-seed and may be repelled with imidicloprid or thiram which have repellant properties.
Domestic goats and cows push over plants and consume them in the field. These pests are difficult to control
particularly as extensive areas of the farmers’ cultivated land are away from the households and cannot be
monitored readily. Farmers need to build fences to keep them out.
Toward maturity farmers complain of rats, wild pigs, monkeys, and baboons that feed on developing ears.
The only recourse for farmers is to scare them away by placing guards in the fields during grain development.
Birds such as the weaver bird swarm into fields and eat mature grain. They come during two periods during
the day: 1) at 6AM-mid day and 2) from 2PM to dusk. Farmers try to scare them away but to do so need to
sleep in the field. Farmers build watch towers to be able to see the birds coming. The repellant methyl
anthranilate (Bird Shield) can be tried.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 58
Sorghum is more resistant to stalk borer than maize thus control is not needed. Termites eat older plants and
katydids and migratory locusts eat sorghum plants. Their control is similar to that mentioned with maize.
Seed of Seredo variety of sorghum will be distributed to farmers. It is an early maturing, drought resistant
and bird resistant variety that has resistance to some diseases as well. The expected average yield of
sorghum is estimated at 500-650 kg/feddan or 1.23-1.60 t/ha, but could be much more with better
management.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 59
Pests & Diseases of Sorghum & Control Methods
Pest
Availabe Control Measures
Weeds
Crop rotation, thorough land preparation, hand weeding, inter-row cultivation, herbicide
Purple witchweed (Striga
hermonthica)
Use clean tools
Push-pull intercrop Celosia argentia, Desmodium, or Sudan grass
Vigorous uprooting before it produces seeds (ww.icipe.org)
Intercrop sorghum with fast spreading legumes which deprives the weed of sunlight and
exude chemical substances that reduce striga growth
Thorough land preparation
Spray herbicide
Rats
Early planting, synchronous harvesting, seed treatment
Sown-seed pests (termites, crickets)
Over-seeding, seed treatment
Shootfly
Atherigonasoccata
African armyworm (Spodoptera
exempta,)
Early planting, increase seeding rate, inorganic fertilizer
Locust Schistocercagregaria
Swarms occur in some years -- FAO locust early warning forecasting,
people collect them for food
Grasshoppers other than locusts
FAO locust early warning forecasting, people collect them for food
Katydid (green grasshopper)
Ruspolianitidula
Stalk borers
ChilopartellusSesamiacalamistis
Eldanasaccharina
Busseolafusca
Spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus)
People collect them for food, early planting to avoid swarm months, burn vegetation where they rest
The sorghum aphid (Melanaphis
saccari) and the maize aphid
(Rhopalosiphum maidis)
Snail
Goats, cows
Downy mildew, Peronosclerosporasorghi
Imidicloprid & thiram
have repellant properties
Imidiclorprid
Clothianidin
Thiamethoxam
None
Indoxacarb
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Spinosad
Monitor regularly field margins
Spray Bt or botanicals such as neem and pyrethrum extracts
Conserve and encourage natural enemies.
Insecticide
Early planting, fertility management, insecticide at first sign of feeding injury, spot treat infected
plant and its neighbors only (not the whole field), intercropping (use of ‘push-pull’ technology)
Early planting to ensure maximum pest escape.
Use resistant varieties.
Habitat management. Intercropping sorghum with pulses (cowpeas, groundnuts)
Sanitation (destruction of crop residues, volunteer plants and alternative hosts).
Conserve natural enemies, early planting
Hand picking
Scare them away, build fences
Resistant/ tolerant variety, fungicide
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
Glyphosate salt
Diuron
Pendimethalin
Glyphosate salt
Spinosad
Indoxacarb
Spinosad
Indoxacarb
Spinosad
Acetamiprid
None
None
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Spinosad
Neem
sulfur
insecticidal soap
None
None
Mancozeb
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 60
Pest
Availabe Control Measures
Crazy top downy mildew
(Sclerophthora macrospora)
Plant resistant varieties.
Remove diseased plants from the field.
Rotate with non-cereals.
Avoid excess soil moisture in the field
Resistant/ tolerant variety, fungicide
Leaf blight Exserohilumturcicum
(Helminthosporium turcicum)
Leaf spot Cercosporasorghi
Anthracnose
Colletotrichumgraminicola
Rust (Puccinia purpurea)
Charcoal rot (Macrophomina
phaseolina)
Loose kernel smut
Sphacelothecacruenta
Ergot
Clavicepsfusiformis
Claviceps sorghi
Head smut
Ustilagosorghi
Sporisorium reilianum)
The sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis
sorghicola)
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
Mancozeb
Mancozeb
Resistant/ tolerant variety, fungicide, Use certified disease-free seeds, spray fungicide
Resistant/ tolerant variety, Use resistant hybrids
Rotate with non-cereals preferably with pulses.
Good management of crop residues.
Use resistant varieties.
Rotate with non-cereals.
Control weeds.
Avoid moisture stress.
Manage properly crop residue.
Rotate crop with non-cereals. Legumes are also susceptible to the disease.
Avoid excessive plant populations.
Balance nitrogen and potassium fertility levels.
Grow drought-tolerant, lodging-resistant hybrids
Plant Certified disease-free seeds.
Fungicide
Plant resistant varieties/ tolerant variety.
Rotation with non-cereals.
Practise good field sanitation eg. Control weeds.
Mancozeb
Mancozeb
Copper hydroxide
Seed treatment
fungicides containing
metalaxyl
Mancozeb
Thiram
Early planting
Soak seed in 5% salt as ergot infected seeds will float
Fungicide seed treatment
Plant resistant varieties.
Remove affected panicles.
Avoid planting seeds from infected panicles.
Rotate with non-cereals preferably with pulses.
Practise good field sanitation
Resistant/ tolerant variety, fungicide
Plant resistant hybrids to avoid losses.
Use certified disease-free seed.
Rotate with non-cereals
Metalaxyl
Mancozeb
None
Rats, wild pigs, monkeys, baboons
Fallowing and close season. Reduces the carryover and build-up of midge populations from
one season to the next
Use tolerant or resistant varieties
Crop rotations. Rotate with cotton, groundnuts, sunflowers or sugarcane.
Mixed cropping especially with leguminous crops
Scare them away, fencing the farm, trapping them
Birds
Family labor at the time of grain filling stay in field to scare off birds, bird repellant
Methyl anthranilate
repellant (Bird Shield)(3
applications 5 days
apart)
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 61
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 62
Cassava
Usage of cassava, based on a 2005 IITA survey of 226 farmers in W and E Equatoria states, was 38% for food,
30% sale, brewing 29%, animal feed 2%, firewood <1%. Many of the varieties are endemic. The most
important attributes of a cassava variety were ranked from highest to lowest: early maturity, high yield,
sweetness, tuber size, cooking quality, flour quality, field storage, brewing, palatable leaves, drought
resistance, pest/disease resistance, aroma, weed suppression, and good sprouting quality.
The biggest constraints in both states where the IITA survey took place according to farmers were insect and
mite pests followed by drought, weeds, diseases, shortage of planting material, and lack of labor. The most
important pests were porcupines 24%, mole rats 21%, termites 10%, and wild pigs 6%. Less mentioned were
grasshoppers, millipedes, bush rats, monkeys, and domestic animals.
Only 24% of E Equatoria farmers could recognize any diseases with 68% naming cassava mosaic, root rots
17%, and fungal diseases 4%. Half of the farmers stated that diseases were important constraints.
Only 15% of farmers could name a disease control method. For disease it was crop rotation, rogueing, timely
weeding, and field clearing. More farmers (45%) could name control measures for pests: traps, nets, physical
scaring, hunting, field clearing, fencing, digging, fire/smoke.
Green cassava mite and cassava mealybug were recorded in low densities by the survey team as well as its
main predatory mite of green cassava mite. The last outbreak occurred in 2009 but TME14 (which is being
distributed) is resistant and no bio-control campaign of liberating predatory mites has been attempted to
date. Local varieties are susceptible.
Several pest epidemics have affected cassava in the past 25 years. First the green mite came and then
mealybug in the 1990s followed by African cassava mosaic virus which developed into a local strain. East
African cassava mosaic virus is transmitted by a whitefly. From field observation in 2005 in South Sudan, the
most common disease was mosaic in 64% of fields and 16% whitefly infection. From DNA extracts from
leaves, 98% of plants tested positive for African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) 56% the most common
followed by East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV) 44%, and EACMV-Uganda 42% also found in various
mixtures.
These results indicate that cassava mosaic virus, whether in single or mixed infections, reduces root yield and
numbers of tuberous roots produced and that losses are substantially increased following mixed infection.
Whitefly adults collected from within the pandemic area were infective, whereas those collected ahead of
the pandemic were not. The transmission rate of African cassava mosaic virus from plants with dual
infections was significantly less than that of East African cassava mosaic virus-Uganda, which may explain the
latter's predominance within the pandemic. They have resistant varieties to mosaic such as TME14 which is
early maturing, good taste and good flour.
Vertebrate pests predominate: domestic cows and goats eat the leaves and push down stalks. Rats,
porcupines, and pigs eat the underground tubers. Fencing can contain the domestic animals but the wild
animals will be hard to control as they come at night and can climb. Average yield is 3-3.5 t/feddan (7.4-8.6
t/ha) but in a good crop farmers can get up to 10 t/feddan (24.6 t/ha).
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 63
Pests & Diseases of Cassava and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Weeds
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, herbicide
Recommended
Pesticides, when needed
Glyphosate salt
Nematodes
Crop rotation
None
None economical
Dig up nest and kill queen
None
None
Typhlodromusaripo predator
None
Epidinocarsislopezi parasitoid
None
Meloidogynearenaria, M. hapla, M.
incognita M. javanica
Millipedes
Termite
Macrotermes
Green mite
Mononychellustanajoa
Mealybug
Phenacoccusmanihoti
Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci,
Aleurodicus dispersus
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Conserve natural enemies. (Parasitic wasps, Encarsia formosa, Encarsia haitiensis
(Neuenschwander, 1998; James, et al, 2000).
Use disease-free cuttings.
Use resistant/tolerant.
African Cassava Mosaic Disease
(ACMD).
Cercospora leaf spot
Cassava bacterial blight
(Xanthomonas campestris pv.
manihotis)
Tolerant/ resistant variety
Use clean planting material.
Disinfect tools for cutting planting materials regularly.
Intercrop cassava with maize or melon.
Practise crop rotation and fallowing. Rotation or fallowing should last at least 1 rainy
season.
Remove and burn all infected plant debris and weeds.
Cassava brown streak virus disease
(Potyvirus - Potyviridae)
None
None
None
None
None ( viral disease
seems to have no
chemical control )
Use diseased-free cuttings.
Use tolerant/resistant varieties
Remove diseased plants from the field.
Brown leaf spot (Cercosporidium
henningsii)
Though the disease is widespread in most cassava growing countries, it is not an economically
important disease problem and it does not warrant any intervention. www./icipe.org © A.A.Seif,
icipe
Bacterial wilt
Xanthomonascampestris
Anthracnose
Colletotrichumgloesporioides f sp.
Manihotis, Glomerella manihotis
Rogueing
Cows and goats
Scare them away, fences
None
Grass cutter rat, porcupine, pigs
Scare them away
None
None
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Though the disease is widespread in most cassava growing countries, it is not an
economically important disease problem and it does not warrant any intervention. ©
www.iita.org
None
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 64
Groundnut
Groundnut is a staple in South Sudan, and is usually eaten as a sauce or paste with greens and matooke. It is
a source of lipids and protein in the diet as well as being a cash crop. Sometimes it is intercropped with
cassava. An important cash crop in the Greenbelt, it is sown in both wet seasons usually rotated with a
cereal.
Weeds are an important pest group and are normally removed by hand labor. Herbicides when they become
available will probably be cheaper and quicker than hand removal methods.
Sown-seed is damaged by crickets or removed by monkeys, squirrels, fox, and rats. Thiram and imidacloprid
as seed treatments have repellant properties against such vertebrate pests. The seed treatment insecticides
will also control crickets, which damage newly sown seed and developing seedlings.
Generally, pests are more important on the second crop. Squirrels, baboon, monkeys, fox, and rats dig out
mature pods and there are no good control measures as they come at night. Leaf miner, too, is more
important in the second wet season. As learned in Uganda, high use of insecticides leads to greater leafminer
infestations as parasitoids are killed off. Some five species of millipedes feed on the pods underground for
which there is no control.
Damping off is controlled by thiram or metataxyl fungicide seed treatments or farmers rogue out infected
seedlings.
Rosette is the most important disease followed by Cercospora leaf spot which occurs after flowering. Rosette
can be controlled by planting resistant varieties such as Igola 2 and Serenut 4. Resistant varieties were
introduced from 1974.
General control methods also are intercropping and early planting for diseases, and applying ash for insect
control.
Average yield is 400-500 kg/feddan (1.0-1.2 t/ha), which is low.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 65
Pests of Groundnuts and Control Measures
Pest
Available Control Measure
Weeds
Hand removal, thorough land preparation, herbicide
Damping-off diseases (Pythium sp,
Rhizoctonia solani)
Scerotiumrolfsii
Crop rotation
fungicide seed treatment
Allow enough time between manure application and planting of groundnut.
Deep ploughing or hand hoe tillage exposes soil pests to desiccation and to predators.
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Thiram
Metataxyl
Over-seeding, seed treatment, repellant
Bacterial wilt
Ralstonia solacearum
Sown-seed pests (crickets,
monkeys, rats)
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Fluazifop-p-butyl
Glyphosate salt
None
Verticillium wilt V. dahliae
Cercospora leaf spot
Cercosporaarachidicola
Cercosporidiumpersonatum
Rust Pucciniaarachidis
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Tolerant variety, fungicide
Imidiclorprid
Clothianidin
Thiamethoxam
Thiram, as vertebrate pest
repellant
None
Mancozeb
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Mancozeb
Pod rot Pythiummyriotylum,
Fusariumsolani
Fungicide seed treatment
Thiram
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Metalaxyl
None
None
Dry rot Macrosphominaphaseolina
Peanut clump virus (PCV)
Peanut mottle virus (PMV)
Rosette virus disease
Early planting, close spacing, high plant density,rogueing,
Resistant/ tolerant variety
Resistant variety
Early planting (allows plants to start flowering before aphids appear.)
Dense/ close spacing (This planting provides a barrier to aphids penetrating in from
field edges, discourages population build-up of aphids and reduces incidence of
"rosette" disease.
Conserve natural enemies.eg Ladybird beetles.
Use neem seed or leaf extracts
Practise crop rotation
Plant tolerant or resistent varieties.
None
Termites
Microtermes spp, Odontotermes
spp, Macrotermes spp ,
Microtermes spp.
Remove residues of previous cereal crops
Harvest ground nut promptly after maturity.
Destruction of mounds and removal of queen termites
Clothianidin
Thiamethoxam
Thrips
M. sjostedti
Thripspalmi
Caliothripsindicus
Frankliniellaschultzi
Insecticide
Conserve natural enemies. eg predatory thrips, lacewings and predatory bugs.
Spray the crop with botanicals, (e.g. garlic, rotenone, neem, pyrethrum, etc.).
Plough and harrow before transplanting. This reduces thrips attacks by killing pupae in
the soil.
Sulfur
Neem
Spinosad
Insecticidal soap
The groundnut leafminer
Aproanema modicella
Insecticide
Use tolerant/resistant varieties.
Neem
Sulfur
Cowpea aphid
Aphis craccivora
Sulfur
Neem
Spinosad
Insecticidal soap
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 66
Pest
Available Control Measure
Plant during the first short rains when normally the miner population is low.
Avoid drought stress by irrigating or early sowing so as to avoid periods when drought is
likely.
Millipedes
5 species
Monkeys, baboon, squirrels, fox,
rats
Practice good sanitation.
Prepare land properly.
Select sites away from forest (breeding sites for millipedes).
Cover exposed pods.
Close cracks in the soil. (www.ecoport.org)
Drive monkeys into nets
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Spinosad
Insecticidal soap
None
None
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 67
Finger Millet (Eleucine coracana)
The term “millet” is applied to various grass crops whose seeds are harvested for human food or animal feed.
Finger millet belongs to the family poaceae and subfamily chloridoideae. Millets are generally suited to less
fertile soils and poorer growing conditions, such as intense heat and low rainfall. In addition, they require
shorter growing seasons. As a group, millets are used for both forage and grain and when used as grain, they
are considered a cereal. Millets are highly adaptable to the stressful semi-arid environments.
Finger millet can be ground and cooked into cakes, puddings or porridge. The grain is also made into a
fermented drink (or beer) in many parts of Africa while the straw from finger millet is used as animal fodder.
It contains the amino acid methionine, which is lacking in the diets of hundreds of millions of the poor who
live on starchy staples such as cassava, plantain, polished rice, or maize meal.
Finger millet is an important crop in South Sudan and a traditional food security crop. It can tolerate drought
in the early stages of growth but after the first month it requires good moisture supply. It is commonly grown
in areas receiving 900mm of rainfall annually. It grows well from an altitude of about 2400m. It requires free
draining soils.
Millet is often intercropped with legumes such as groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), cowpeas (Vigna sinensis),
and pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan).
Finger millet is not as susceptible to pests and diseases as many other millets. However, crop damage by
insect pests and diseases reduces its yields. Effective pest and disease control can increase production a great
deal. Selection of healthy seeds, free from bird and insect damage and diseases, is important to produce
vigorous seedlings that could fare well in case of attack by pests or diseases.
Weed Management. Weed control is difficult in finger millet fields because it is hard to distinguish seedlings
of grassy weeds from finger millet during the early stages, and is only more readily identifiable during the
flowering period.
Some of the methods that can be used to manage weeds is by close spacing and higher seed rate, as well as
planting of fast growing cultivars all aimed at denying weeds the opportunity to establish.
Physical weeding should be done twice, first time 2-3 weeks after emergence and second weeding about two
weeks later.
The recommended herbicides for the control of annual grass and broadleaved weeds in finger millet are
glyphosate salt and pendimethalin.
Pest and Diseases. MilletPest and diseases can lead to a total crop failure if not managed in good time. The
most important pests and diseases include: blast, downy mildew, Fusarium wilt, grasshoppers, long smut,
mealybugs, millet head miner, purple witchweed, shootfly and stemborers. Finger millet is known to stay for
quite long after harvest before it is attacked by storage pests.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 68
Pests and Diseases in Finger Millet and Control Methods
Pest
The African armyworm
(Spodoptera exempta)
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Monitor regularly
Spray Bt or botanicals such as neem and pyrethrum extracts. Spray when
caterpillars are small.
Conserve and encourage natural enemies.eg birds
Avoid usage of non selective/ broad spectrum insecticide
Bacillus thuringiensis
Aphids (Aphis gossypii,
Myzuspersicae)
Early Planting.
Conserve natural enemies.
Stem borer (Coniesta
ignefusalis)
Sow early, soon after first rains. Delayed planting tends to increase the incidence
of stem borer larvae.
Spray with insecticide at first sign of feeding injury
Spot treat infected plant and its neighbors only.
Intercropping (use of ‘push-pull’ technology)www.icipe.org
Plant resistant varieties
African boll worm
Plant resistant varieties such Serena and Seredo
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soap
Dimethoate
The millet head miner
(Heliocheilus albipunctella)
Plough deeply to expose residual larval populations and pupae to natural enemies
and desiccation.
Conserve natural enemies.
Efforts in artificial augmentation (rearing and releases) of an effective parasitic
wasp.
Imidacloprid
Dimethoate
The shoot fly (Atherigona
soccata)
Conserve natural enemies.
Collect and destroy crop residues after harvest to reduce carry-over from one
season to the other.
Use shoot-fly resistant varieties.
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and several species of spiders are
important predators on eggs.
Grasshoppers
Zonocerus spp, Oedaleus
senegalensis, Kraussaria
angulifera, Hieroglyphus
daganensis, Diabolocantatops
axillaris, Homorocoryphus
niditulus.
Early warning
Conserve natural enemies. Important natural enemies include ants, larvae of
blister beetles, parasitic flies, assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds, lizards, snakes,
frogs, fungi and robber flies.
Domesticated poultry (e.g. chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and ducks) and
wild birds are good for keeping grasshopper populations in check.
Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch. This is reported to reduce
grasshopper numbers since they prefer laying eggs on bare soil.
Early uniform planting of the similar maturity varieties
Bird scaring using devices such as cassette tapes, aluminum foils
Avoid isolated fields
Plant resistant variety due to tannin content such as Serena and Seredo
Plant resistant/ tolerant varieties.
Uproot and destroy the diseased plant soon after detecting disease in the field.
Keep the field clean.
Spray fungicide.
Practice crop rotation with pulses.
Birds
Crazy top downy mildew
(Sclerospora graminicola)
Azadirachtin
malathion,
dimethoate,
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Beta-cyfluthrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Imidacloprid
No chemical control
recommended
Mancozeb
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 69
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Ergot (Claviceps spp.)
Plant resistant varieties
Remove affected panicles.
Avoid planting seeds from infected panicles.
Rotate with non-cereals preferably with pulses.
Practice good field sanitation.
Long smut (Tolyposporium
penicillariae)
Head Blast (Pyricularia grisea)
Storage pests: The lesser grain
borer (Rhyzopertha dominica)
and the khapra beetle
(Trogoderma granarium)
Weeds
Plant resistant varieties.
Use certified seeds.
Plant resistant varieties.
Rotate with non-cereals.
Practice good field sanitation
Plant resistant varieties
Practice good field sanitation.
Spray fungicide
Keep finger millet in a sealed storage
Hang finger millet heads over kitchen fires.
Store millet on the head (glumes on the in-threshed head act as protective
devices)
Mix seeds with inert substances such as sand and wood ash. Stored finger millet is
resistant to insect pests due to its small size.
Close spacing and higher seed rate, as well as planting of fast growing cultivars all aimed at
denying weeds the opportunity to establish.
Mancozeb
Mancozeb
Metalaxyl
Pirimiphos methyl
glyphosate salt and
pendimethalin
Physical weeding should be done twice, first time 2-3 weeks after emergence and second
weeding about two weeks later.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 70
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) Family: Fabaceae
Pigeon pea is an important grain legume crop produced in the Indian sub-continent, Central America,
southern and eastern Africa. The dry grain is an important local pulse and export commodity in several
African countries (Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda) (Minja, et al, 1999).
Pigeon pea is a perennial shrub that is commonly grown as an annual crop. It has very slow initial
development (up to 2 months after planting). With a deep tap root, pigeon peas are able to take up nutrients
and water from lower subsoil layers. Therefore, in crop mixes they hardly compete with the companion
crops.
This crop grows and yields well under conditions of low rainfall and poor soil. Pigeon pea is well balanced
nutritionally and an excellent source of protein. It is eaten as a vegetable (immature pods or green pea) or as
dried grain (cooked and eaten as dhal, dry split cotyledons). The crop has many other uses: the wood is used
as fuel, and the leaves and husks provide livestock feed.
Pigeon pea is often grown as a shade crop, cover crop or windbreak. After establishment, pigeon pea
improves the soil by its extensive root system. The bacterium Rhizobium that lives on the roots of the pigeon
pea is able to fix nitrogen and thus to improve soil fertility. Fallen leaves are used as mulch. Optimum
temperatures for pigeon pea cultivation range from 18 to 38°C.
Where average temperatures are above 29°c, soil moisture and fertility need to be adequate. The optimum
rainfall amount is 600-1000 mm/year. Pigeon peas are sensitive to high salinity levels and water logging. It
flowers well where rainfall is 1500 to 2000 mm. On deep, well-structured soil it will grow where rainfall is 250
to 370 mm.
Propagation is by seed: Pigeon pea varieties differ not only in form of seeds, colour and taste, but also in
growth habit, time of flowering and susceptibility towards pests and diseases. Pigeon pea thrives best in
seedbeds prepared by deep ploughing and cultivations to reduce weeds.
Most typically, seeds should be sown at a rateof 20-25 kg per ha (8-10 kg per acre) in rows with spacing of 3050 cm x 75-150 cm and 10cm deep. However, optimal spacing varies significantly and depends on variety, soil
type and production system. In dry areas, and especially in coarse-textured, infertile soils, farmers use wide
spacing between plants to limit competition.
In intercropping, the crop performs well with 2 rows of cereals (e.g. sorghum, millets), cotton or groundnut.
After harvest of the intercrop, long-duration pigeon pea continues to grow and protects the soil.
Pigeon pea is regarded as a good plant for restoration of fertility and is used in a rotation with crops such as
maize-groundnut-tobacco-pigeon pea for three to four years in Uganda. One of the advantages of pigeon pea
is the increased growth of the grass interplanted with it. However, due to its high demand, there is a
tendency to move away from traditional intercropping to monocropping.
Weed control. Early weed control by hoeing and hand‐weeding is recommended. The first weeding should be
done before emergence and second weeding after crop emergence.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 71
Pests and Diseases. The most important pests for pigeon peas are insects feeding on pigeon pea pods and
seeds. Surveys in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda (Minja et al., 1999) have shown that the most
important pests of pigeon pea pods and seeds in the region includes pod sucking bugs, pod and seed boring
caterpillars and pod flies. A number of caterpillars that feed on foliage of other legumes and grain legumes
also attack pigeon peas, but they are usually not important.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 72
Pests and Diseases in Pigeon Peas and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Leaf hoppers or Jassids (Jacobiasca
lybica)
Use of neem kernel extract against aphids should be enough to control jassids at the
same time.
Spray pesticides
Red spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Use resistant cultivars
Use natural enemies
The pod fly (Melanagromyza
chalcosoma)
Avoid growing a mixture of cultivars of differing duration in one area because this will
provide pods over a long period and allow several generations of the pod fly to
develop.
Neem has given control of a related pod fly (M. obtusa) on pigeon pea.
Thrips (Megalurothrips spp. and
Frankliniella schultzei)
Conserve natural enemies. (pirate bugs)
Monitor the crop regularly( scouting for pests identification)
Early detection is particularly important at the onset of flowering.
Practice spot spray the crop with botanicals. (e.g. garlic, rotenone, neem, pyrethrum
and a mixture of garlic and pepper etc.)
Aphids (Aphis craccivora)
Conserve natural enemies.
Early planting to allow plants to grow strong before aphids appear.
Spray with pesticides as soon as the aphids are seen in the field.
Spiny brown bug (Clavigralla
tomentosicollis); giant coreid bugs
(Anoplocnemis spp), Riptortus bugs
(Riptortus spp) and green stink bugs
(Nezara viridula). The spiny brown bug
is one of the most important pests of
pigeon peas in Eastern Africa
Pod borers (The African bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera), the legume pod
borer (Maruca vitrata = testulalis) the
lima bean pod borer (Etiella zinckenella)
are major pests of pigeon peas in East
Africa)
Pod sucking bugs
Handpick and destroy immature bugs and collect adults with insect nets and destroy
them.
Use natural enemies (egg parasitoids, assassin bugs, ants and birds).
Spray with aromatic plants (e.g. gums, lantana, khaki weed etc.)
Use Neem-based pesticides which reportedly reduce feeding by green shield bugs.
Apply biopesticides such as Bt or neem products.
Scout the crop regularly to detect eggs and young caterpillars before they enter the
pods and control them.
Conserve natural enemies. (Ants, parasitic wasps and pirate bugs).
Use bird perches placed just above the crop canopy for birds to perch on as they
observe, pick and feed on pod borers.
Handpick immature bugs and destroy them.
Collect adults with insect nets and destroy them.
Conserve natural enemies such as egg parasitoids, assassin bugs, ants and birds.
Spray with aromatic plants (e.g. gums, lantana, khaki weed etc.) has been suggested
to repel bugs.
Neem-based pesticides reportedly reduce feeding by green shield bugs.
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Beta-cyfluthrin,
Lambda-cyhalothrin
NOTE: Infestation rarely so
severe as to warrant
chemical control.
Azadirachtin/Neem, ,
Spinosad
Azadirachtin
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Spinosad
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin/Neem, Betacyfluthrin,
Chlorophyrifos
Dimethoate, Malathion
Use neem based pesticides
Azadirachtin
Beta-cyfluthrin
Insecticidal soaps and Bt
Insecticidal soaps
Bt
Neem based products
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 73
Pod weevil
Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium udum)
Neem products have worked in them (attack the green seeds while still in the pods)
Use varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt.
Crop rotation with cereals.
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Plant in fields with no previous record of Fusarium wilt.
Uproot wilted plants and burn plant residues after harvesting.
Plant resistant/ tolerant variety
Spray fungicide
Plant in fields away from perennial varieties, which could be a source of inoculums
(infection).
Use neem products
Mancozeb
Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora
dreschsleri f.sp. cajani)
Plant resistant/ tolerant variety
Spray fungicide
Plant in fields with no previous record of blight.
Avoid fields prone to waterlogging.
Use wide inter-row spacing.
Mancozeb
Metalaxyl
Powdery mildew Sphaerotheca
fuliginea, Leveillula taurica, Erysiphe
cichoracearum)
Resistant/ tolerant variety.
Spray fungicide
Plant in fields away from perennial pigeon peas.
Sulphur
Rust (Uredo cajani)
Plant resistant varieties
Avoid planting of pigeon peas close to bean fields.
Use good spacing.
Cercospora leaf spot (Mycovellosiella
cajani)
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
incognita, M. javanica)
Weeds
Crop rotation with cereals
Plant resistant varieties
Plant in fields with no previous record of nematode infestation.
Amend soil with neem extracts.
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, herbicide
Mancozeb
Metalaxyl
Mancozeb
Metalaxyl
Azadirachtin
Glyphosate salt,
Pendimethalin
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 74
Onions (Allium cepa)
Onion is a biennial vegetable grown in temperate zones as an annual crop. In the tropics the varieties that do
well are in effect annuals as they can produce seed within the first year of growing. Optimum temperatures
for plant development are between 13 and 24°C, although the range for seedling growth is narrow, between
20o c and 25°C. High temperatures favour bulbing and curing.
In the tropics only short day or day neutral onion varieties will form bulbs. These thrive in warm to hot
climates of 15-30°C. If the temperature greatly exceeds that required for bulbing, maturity is hastened and
bulbs do not grow to maximum size, consequently lowering the yields.
They are grown on fertile, well-drained and non-crusting soils at a preferred optimum pH range of between
6.0 to 6.8, although alkaline soils are also suitable. Onions can be direct drilled and thinned, or planted in
seedbeds and the seedlings transplanted or grown in seedling trays and the plugs planted out.
At the bulbing stage, they need a substantial amount of water, but excessive moisture must be avoided
during the growing season as this encourages pests and diseases. Application of fresh manure to the crops
should also be avoided as this causes the plants to develop thick necks and too much leaf at the expense of
bulb formation.
Onion is propagated by seed. Proper seed selection is recommended to minimise problems of splits and
doubles. In the tropics, the seed is usually sown in a nursery under a mulch cover. After the seed emerges,
the mulch is removed. About 6-8 weeks after sowing, when the seedling has a base as thick as a pencil and is
approximately 15 cm tall, the seedlings are transplanted to the field.
In most commercial areas, beds 0.9 to 1.0 m wide are common, and 2 to 6 rows are seeded or planted on the
bed. If two rows, they may be two-line (twin) rows with plants staggered to achieve proper spacing and high
population density. The ultimate yield of onion is determined by the number of leaves that are formed prior
to bulbing. Over-fertilisation, uneven watering, and temperature fluctuations also influence bulb formation.
Onions are rich in nutrients such as calcium, iron and vitamin B among others. They are used for salads
(bunching onion or sliced full-grown bulbs), pickling (e.g. silverskin onions), cooking (such as in soups) and
frying (for example, with meat). Onions are particularly suited to smallholder farming in most countries.
Harvesting takes place 90-150 days after sowing. Onions are ready for harvest when the leaves collapse.
Alternatively the leaves can be bent over and left to dry for 10-12 days. The crop is pulled out by hand and
kept for some days in the field with the bulbs covered by the leaves (windrowing). The leaves are then cut off
and the mature bulbs are bagged or packed in crates if they are to be stored.
Freshly harvested onions are dormant and will not sprout for a variable period of time (this depends on the
variety). Storage will extend the dormant period. Sprouting will increase in storage temperatures above
4.4°C. It will decrease again as temperatures exceed 25°C. Onions production is adversely affected by pests
and diseases.
Weed Management: For weed control, prepare the beds for planting, allow weeds to emerge and spray
them with glyphosate. Allow 7 to 10 days for the weeds to die before planting with minimal soil disturbance.
Mulching after planting will conserve moisture, suppress weeds and reduce the incidence of some diseases.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 75
Pests and Diseases. A variety of diseases and disorders affect onions. Most of the diseases are caused by
fungi or bacteria, whereas disorders may be caused by adverse weather, soil conditions and nutritional
imbalances. The most important onion pests and diseases include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, botrytis,
leaf blight, bowny mildew, leafminers, onion fly, onion rust , purple blotch , thrips, fusarium and
white bulb rot.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 76
Pests and Diseases in Onions and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Thrips (Thrips tabaci)
Thrips infestations are more severe during the dry season, therefore keep plants
well irrigated.
Maintain field sanitation.
Remove heavily affected plants.
Leaf miners (Liriomyza spp.)
Conserve natural enemies.
Spray the crop with neem products.
Use parasitic wasps (Diglyphus isaea).
Destroy all infested leaves and other plant material after harvest.
Destroy pupae before planting a new crop - ploughing and hoeing can help reduce
leaf mining flies by exposing pupae, which then would be killed by predators or by
desiccation.
Where new stock is obtained as seedlings rather than seed, check carefully and
destroy infested plants before planting to prevent introduction of pests including
leaf miners.
Avoid planting successive onion crops. Practice rotation with crops not related to
onions.
Avoid planting in soils that are high in un decomposed organic matter.
Keep onion fields well separated.
Remove and destroy infested plants by burning them.
Onion fly (Delia antiqua)
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Spinosad, neem extracts can
be used but need to be used
for phytotoxicity before use);
garlic bulbs preferably early
morning.
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Carbaryl
Malathion
Diseases
Onion rust (Puccinia porri)
Crop rotation.
Clear weeding.
Improve soil drainage.
Excessive nitrogen can lead to development of disease
Clear away and destroy any diseased plant debris.
Do not compost diseased plants.
Mancozeb
Fusarium basal rot (Fusarium
oxysporium f.sp. cepae
Use varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt
Nitrate fertilizers tend to reduce disease severity as compared to ammonium
fertilizers.
Crop rotation with cereals (3-5 year).
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Plant in fields with no previous record of wilt.
Uproot wilted plants, burn plant residues after harvesting.
Mancozeb
White bulb rot (Sclerotium cepivorum)
Plant tolerant and resistant varieties.
Practice long crop rotation (8-10 years) with cereals.
Use healthy seeds.
Destroy wild onions and leeks.
Manure from animals fed on diseased plant material should not be used on onion
fields.
Plant resistant/ tolerant variety.
Spray fungicide in case of serious infestation.
Harvest crop promptly.
Avoid exposure to rain between harvest time and storage.
Mancozeb
metalaxyl,
Thiabendazole
Good hygiene.
Proper spacing
Use fungicides
Mancozeb
Anthracnose (Onion smudge)
(Colletotrichum circinans)
Gray mound
mancozeb
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 77
Downy mildew (Peronospora destructor)
Use healthy seeds
Use resistant varieties
Crop Rotation
Wider spacing of plants
Preventative treatments with rock powder
Purple blotch (Alternaria porri)
Increased spacing between plants
Seed treatment
Crop rotation
Removal of crop debris
Mancozeb
Metaxyl
Mancozeb, metalaxyl
Botrytis
Remove and destroy all infected parts as soon as they appear.
Mancozeb
Weeds
Cultural practices eg. Mulching, weeding, spray chemicals
Glyphosate
Tomatoes (Lycopersic onesculentum)
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), belongs to the family Solanaceae. Tomatoes are fairly adaptable, but grow well in warm conditions
with optimum temperatures of 15°C -25 °C. High humidity and temperatures reduce fruit set and yields. Very low temperatures delay
colour formation and ripening and temperatures above 30°C inhibit fruit set, lycopene development and flavour.
Tomatoes thrive best in low-medium rainfall with supplementary irrigation during the off-season. Wet conditions increase disease
attacks and affect fruit ripening. Tomatoes grow well in a wide range of soil types, which are high in organic matter, well-drained and a
pH range of 5 - 7.5.
Pests and Diseases. The major constraints to tomato productionare pests and diseases. Pests and disease infestation can occur at every
stage of the crop (nursery, transplantation, field, fruiting, harvesting and after harvest) and proper management is required for each
stage.
Major diseases are bacterial wilt, early and late blight, tomato spotted wilt virus, leaf spot and powdery mildew, insect pests and other
arthropods (spider mites, thrips, white flies, African bollworm), nematodes, blossom end-rot and poor crop management especially lack
of crop rotation practice.
The major soil pests attacking tomato seedlings are cut worms, Agrotis spp and chafer grubs, Melolontha spp. Aphids, Aphis gossypii and
thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergade) and whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci suck plant sap and cause leaf
distortion and plant stunting. More importantly, thrips have been reported to transmit the tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) disease,
while the whiteflies are known vectors of potato leaf roll virus which also infects tomato.
Severe infestation by the pests usually causes significant yield loss and may result in total crop loss. Appropriate and timely management
makes all the difference between good production, poor production or total crop failure. Proper identification of the pest and disease is
critical in a control strategy.
Kenya (a likely source market for seeds) has developed tolerant/resistant varieties to diseases and pests such as bacterial wilt, fusarium
wilt, Root knot nematodes, Tomato Mosaic Virus (TMV), verticillium wilt, early and late blight, red spider mites and Tomato Yellow Leaf
Curl Virus (TYLCV).
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 78
In general, the following practices can help reduce and/or control the incidence of pests and diseases in
tomatoes: 1) Avoid sowing seeds densely at nursery stage; 2) maintain a mixed cropping system which helps
maintain natural enemies; 3) mulching provides an attractive environement for ground living natural
enemies; (4) spray with b.t and neem products; avoid using broad spectrum pesticides.
.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 79
Pests and Diseases In Tomatoes and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Late Blight – (Phytophthora
Infestans)
Crop rotation
Management of nitrogen and field (tomatoes are a fussy nitrogen feeder). On
soils low in organic matter, tomatoes typically run out of nitrogen reducing yields and
predisposing the plants to blight. This disease is caused by too much nitrogen in the early
stages of the plants growth.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Early Blight – (Alternaria solani)
Crop rotation is key in managing the disease.
Infected crop debris should be disposed off well to avoid re-infection.
Use of certified disease free seeds as well as tolerant varieties.
Remove volunteer crops and weeds that can act as hosts for the fungus.
Plant tomatoes on well drained soils.
Maintain adequate levels of nitrogen. Nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency can increase
susceptibility to early blight. Also excess nitrogen could induce early blight infection.
Avoid overhead irrigation
Avoid overlapping crops (from one season to the other) to prevent transmission of pest and
diseases.
Mancozeb
Botanicals
Sulphur sprays although
harmful to predatory mites
can be used for prevention
Powdery Mildew – Leveillulata urica
Plant resistant/ tolerant varieties.
Use fungicide as soon as symptoms are observed.
Scout crop to assess any sign of the disease.
Rouge infected plants and destroy them through burning or burying.
Overhead irrigation reduces powdery mildew.
Avoid furrow irrigation in fields with powdery mildew
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Mancozeb
Bacterial Wilt – Ralstonia
solanacearum
Cultural practices such as crop rotation, field hygiene and irrigation
Water management (Dispersal of bacteria can be caused by furrow irrigation or surface
water. Use other alternative methods such drip or over head irrigation).Alternatively if
furrow irrigation has to be used, ensure water flows from new to old fields to minimize
infection;
Plant resistant/tolerant varieties.
In areas prone to bacterial diseases disinfect pruning knives with a commercial detergent
(e.g. Tepool) before working on a new plant.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
No chemical control
available
Fusarium wilt – Fusarium
oxysporum.sp. lycopersici
Use resistant/tolerant varieties (certified disease free seeds).
Use Push and Pull practices and maintain proper farm sanitation (removing all infected
plants and destroying them).
Crop rotation (maintain a 3-4 yr period) before planting again with solanacea crops.
Tomatoes can be intercropped with brasiccas, cereals, legumes, onion, and fodder grasses.
Regularly scout for the disease and take preventative action early as well as spot spraying
(spraying is determined by the percentage of affected area. This is an economically viable
method to prevent the spread of the disease to other areas on the farm other than spraying
the whole farm).
Do not use broad spectrum pesticides.
Remove crop debris from fields after harvest to minimize carry-over of pests and diseases.
Apply organic manure, mixing it well with the soil.
Avoid furrow and surface irrigation which helps transmit the disease. Alternatively if furrow
irrigation has to be used, ensure water flows from new to old fields to minimize infection.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of the disease.
Mancozeb
Metalaxyl
Sulfur based fungicides
Mancozeb
Sulfur
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 80
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
No pesticide use
recommended. If thrips are
managed, then disease is
controlled.
Tomato Spotted virus
Manage thrips which transmit the disease.
Crop rotation with different family crops.
Infected crop debris should be disposed off well to avoid re-infection.
Use of certified disease free seeds as well as tolerant varieties.
Conduct effective weed control in and around tomato or pepper fields.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Damping off Phytophthora infestans
Pythium spp
Rhizoctonia solani
Plant crop in well drained areas and avoid excess moisture in the soil.
Problem can also be avoided by not growing the crop during the rainy season.
Proper soil preparation and management to provide for good soil drainage, structure,
aeration, water-holding capacity and plant nutrition by including proper amounts of fertilizer
and lime according to soil test report.
Proper soil treatment with fungicide to reduce the level of fungi that cause damping-off.
Use fungicide-treated seed with high germination rate.
Proper seeding rates to avoid thick plant stands, poor air movement and low light intensity.
Strict sanitation to avoid re-infesting treated soil with these fungi.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Spot spray with neem
Septoria leaf spot
Septoria lycopersici
Cultural control measures include rotating for at least 1-2 years between tomato crops.
Control weeds susceptible to septoria leaf spot that can carry over the disease in rotation
crops and finally to the tomatoes again.
Infected crop debris should be disposed off well to avoid re-infection.
Use of certified disease free seeds as well as tolerant varieties.
Spray fungicides.
Staking plants to improve air circulation and reduce contact between foliage and soil.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Mancozeb
Root knot nematodes
Crop rotation to avoid building up and spread of the diseases (crops to be grown at intervals
of 3-4 yrs).
Use resistant/tolerant seed varieties.
Up root and burn the diseased plant.
Chemical fumigation.
Proper farm sanitation
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and
M. hapla
Meloidogynespp
Bacterial Canker –Clavibacter
michiganensis
subsp. michiganensi
Blossom end rot Alternaria solani
Pests in Tomatoes
Aphids (Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae)
Azadirachtin
Cultural control methods such as using tolerant varieties certified disease-free seeds,
practicing crop rotation, proper disposal of infected plant material and managing watering
by reducing overhead irrigation.
Tools such as pruning knifes should be sanitized to reduce the spread of disease in the farm.
Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases.
Fungicides can be effectively used.
Uproot the affected plants materials and bury or burn them to reduce the spread of the
disease.
Calcium application and irrigation management.
Avoid drought stress and wide fluctuations in soil moisture by using mulches and/or
irrigation.
Apply lime in calcium deficient soils.
Use nitrate fertilizers as source of nitrogen. Ammoniacal nitrogen may increase
blossom-end rot as excess ammonium ions reduce calcium uptake.
Apply foliar sprays of calcium chloride (not a regulated pesticide)
Use insecticidal soaps
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 81
Pest
Available Control Measure
Conserve natural enemies
Avoid use of broad spectrum pesticides
Fruit borers (Helicoverpa armiguera,
Spodoptera littoralis)
Cutworms (AgrotisSpp)
Leaf hopper (Graphocephala spp)
Spider mite Tetranynchus spp
Leaf miner (Liriomyza huido brensis
Thrips (Ceratothripoidesbrunneus)
Tobbaco whitefly Bemisia tabaci
Avoid planting tomato near corn or cotton to prevent heavy pest infestations.
Parasitic wasps, especially Trichograma spp., are important natural enemies.
Scout crop to assess the level of attack by fruit borers (Detection of eggs and small
caterpillars before they enter into the fruit is very important). Corrective action should be
taken before the borers get into the fruit (prefer the green fruit).
Spray selective biopesticides such as Bt or neem extracts
Eliminate weeds early at least 2 weeks before transplanting.
Plough and harrow to expose cutworms to natural enemies and desiccation.
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and ants are important in natural control of
cutworms.
Dig near damaged seedlings and destroy cutworms
Make barriers to protect the transplanted seedlings. Barriers can be made by wrapping
paper, aluminium foil, and thin cardboard or similar materials around the base of transplant
stem.
Use neem kernel extract against them (bio pesticide )
Destroy their breeding grounds especially around the farm.
Use insecticide as soon as symptoms are observed.
Use resistant cultivars.
Use natural pests such as the lady bird beetles).
Inspect the crop regularly to determine the presence and level of infestation of spider mites.
A recommended monitoring method is to select randomly 20 tomato plants and assess the
level of mite damage of three leaflets per plant using a leaf index ranking from 1 to 5 (1 is
few yellow spots, 5 is leaf totally covered with spots, dry patches occur). Once the average
damage level exceeds the first rank, control measures should start.
Avoid water stress in crops.
Scout for the pest and spot spray any infestation.
Spray with botanicals.
Conserve natural enemies.
Spray the crop with neem products.
Use parasitic wasps
Moisture control (adequate water placement by irrigation and mulching can be the first
defense in controlling thrips).
Conserve natural enemies (pirate bugs).
Monitor the crop regularly and take corrective action if infestation levels are high. Early
detection is particularly important at the onset of flowering.
Practice spot spray the crop with botanicals. (e.g. garlic, rotenone, neem, pyrethrum and a
mixture of garlic and pepper etc.)
Use of beneficial insects.
Use insecticidal soaps and botanicals.
Ensure field sanitation.
Control white flies multiplication.
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) and coriander are repellent to whiteflies, and
provide refuge for natural enemies.
Tobacco, hot pepper. These botanicals were transformed into plant extracts and used as
sprays at 5% concentration.
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Beta-cyfluthrin
Azadirachtin
B.t
Insecticidal soaps
Beta – cyfluthrin, Carbaryl,
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Beta-cyfluthrin, Carbaryl
Bacillus thuringiensis
Azadirachtin
Beta-cyfluthrin
Spray with neem extracts
and insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Imidacloprid
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 82
Dry Beans (Common Beans) Phaseolus vulgaris
Common beans are leguminous crops and include bush beans, common beans, dry beans, dwarf beans, field
beans, garden beans, green beans, haricot beans, kidney beans, pole beans, snap beans or string beans.
Beans are a vital staple in Africa, providing the main source of protein for many rural communities and are
mainly grown for subsistence and for the local market. The growth habit of common beans varies from
determinate dwarf or bush types to indeterminate climbing or pole cultivars. Bush beans are the most
predominant types grown in Africa. However, improved climbing beans introduced to Rwanda in the 80's
have since spread to other countries in the region. They are particularly grown in areas with limited land and
high human population. Common beans grow within a range of temperatures of 17.5-27°C at altitudes of
between 600 - 1950 m in many tropical areas.
A moderate well-distributed rainfall is required (300-400 mm per crop cycle) with dry weather during
harvesting time being essential. Climbing cultivars will give economic yields in areas of high rainfall but the
dwarf types appear to be more sensitive to high soil moisture levels. Suitable soil types range from light to
moderately heavy and to peaty soils with near-neutral pH and good drainage. Common bean are susceptible
to salinity.
Weed Control. Effective weed control on bean farms is essential because weeds compete for water and
nutrients. Beans are normally outcompeted by early emergent weeds which decrease their quality and yield.
Weed control involves integrating cultural, physical and chemical practices. The most suitable herbicide is
glyphosate.
Pest and Diseases in Beans. There are a number of pests and serious diseases that affects common beans
quality and yields. Many of these pests and diseases can be managed by cultural methods and use of
pesticides and fungicides. Integrating the two methods is quite effective and less expensive economically and
environmentally. The most important diseases and pests are thrips, mealy bugs, aphids, leaf miner, bean rust,
downy mildew, powdery mildew, and anthracnose and alternalia leaf spot. Planting beans near cowpea,
soybean and many other leguminous crops, that may be the source of bean flies should be discouraged.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 83
Pests and Diseases in Common Beans and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides,
when needed
Flower thrips (Frankliniella spp. and
Megalurotrhips sjostedti)
Early detection
Spray the crop with botanicals (e.g. some plant extracts: garlic, rotenone, neem,
pyrethrum, pepper etc.).
Mealy bugs
Physical killing especially during flowering stage.
use of natural enemies (assassin bugs, spiders, playing mantis, ants).
Aphids (Aphis fabae; Aphis cra
Monitor crop regularly.
Apply spot spraying when pest is noted on crops.
Foliar sprays with neem products such as Neemroc® (1-3%) and Neemros® water extract
(50g/l).
Ensure adequate soil moisture which prevents aphid infestations especially during the dry
season.
Soil diseases (Fusarium,Pythium,
Rhizoctonia, Sclerotini
Plough deeply
Remove bean debris after harvest.
Practice crop rotation without legumes.
Diseases
Bean rust
(Uromyces
appendiculatus
Anthracnose
Downy Mildew
Powdery Mildew
Weeds (pre emergent and post emergent
weeds)
Destroy crop residues after harvest
Practice crop rotation without legumes.
Intercrop with cereals
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps,
Imidacloprid,
Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Malathion, Imidacloprid,
Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Mancozeb
Mancozeb + metalaxyl
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Plant resistant varieties
Remove from the field and destroy crop debris after harvest.
Practice a 2 to 3 year rotation.
Avoid movement of workers in the field when wet.
Use healthy seeds
Use resistant varieties
Crop Rotation
Wider spacing of plants
Preventative treatments with rock powder
Plant resistant/ tolerant variety,
Maintain soil fertility
Use fungicide
Garlic extract
Mancozeb
Mancozeb
Mancozeb; Sulfur
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, pre-emergent spray if previous crop was
weedy
Glyphosate
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 84
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
Okra ((Abelmoschusesculentus) belongs to the family of Malvales. It is mainly grown for its young immature
pods, which are consumed (with seeds) as a vegetable, raw, cooked or fried. It is a common ingredient of
soups and sauces. The pods can be conserved by drying or pickling. Okra seeds contain a considerable
amount of good quality oil and protein.
The leaves are sometimes used as spinach or cattle feed, the fibres from the stem for cord, the plant
mucilage (thick gluey substance) for medical and industrial purposes, and the seeds as a substitute for coffee.
Common varieties available in Kenya, a key source market for vegetable seeds in South Sudan include
Pusasawani, Clemson spineless, Green Emerald, White velvet, Dwarf Green Long Pod.
Okra is propagated by seed. It may be established by direct seeding in the field, by growing seedlings in
nursery seedbeds or by raising seedlings in plastic trays.
Weed control is essential to control pests and reduce competition for nutrients and moisture. Hand weeding
is practiced and should avoid damage to the roots. Use of post emergence application of herbicide is possible
to control weeds
Pests and Diseases. There are a number of pests and diseases that affects okra quality and yields. Many of
these pests and diseases can be managed by cultural methods and use of pesticides and fungicides.
Integrating the two methods is quite effective and less expensive economically and environmentally.
The most important diseases and pests are African bollworm, Aphids, Bacterial blight,
Black mould Cotton seed bugs, Cotton stainers, Cutworms, Damping-off diseases, Early blight, Flea beetles ,
Flower or blister beetles, Fusarium wilt,Grasshoppers, Leafmining flies (leafminers). Powdery mildew, Rootknot nematodes, Semi loopers, Spider mites , Spiny bollworm, Stink bugs, thrips and whiteflies.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 85
Pests and Diseases in Okra and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Aphids (Aphis gossypii)
Conserve natural enemies
Spray only attacked plants (spot spraying).
Spray with botanicals (e.g. neem extracts)
The cotton aphid transmits the Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus in okra, therefore should be
effectively controlled.
Thrips (Frankliniella spp.)
Conserve natural enemies. (pirate bugs)
Monitor the crop regularly to establish the level of attack
Early detection is particularly important at the onset of flowering.
Practice spot spray the crop with botanicals. (E.g. garlic, rotenone, neem, pyrethrum and a
mixture of garlic and pepper etc.)
Plough and harrow before planting. This exposes pupae in the soil to natural enemies and
desiccation.
Use Insecticides
Spray bio pesticides. Spinosad, a bacterium metabolite, is effective in controlling thrips.
Use of beneficial insects {Parasitic wasps and predators (predatory mites, lacewings and
ladybird beetles)}
Avoid frequent spraying since white flies quickly develop resistance.
Interplant with companion plants.
Conserve natural enemies and predators (predatory mites, lacewings and ladybird beetles)
are important in natural control of whiteflies.
The tobacco whitefly (Bemisia
tabaci)
Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Leaf miners (Liriomyza spp.)
African bollworm (Helicoverpa
armigera)
Cutworms (Agrotis spp.)
Grasshoppers
Zonocerus spp, Oedaleus
senegalensis, Kraussaria angulifera,
Hieroglyphus daganensis,
Diabolocantatops
Use resistant cultivars
Use Natural pests enemies
Monitor regularly the crop to determine the presence and level of infestations of spider
mites.
Keep field free of weeds and destroy or compost crop residues immediately after harvesting.
Crop residues from an infested field should be destroyed.
Do not plant a new crop near an infested field.
Check the seedlings and older plants regularly for infestation and take necessary measures.
Avoid use of broad spectrum pesticides. They kill the natural enemies of leaf miners.
Conserve natural enemies eg Parasitic wasps
Spray the crop with neem products
Monitor regularly to establish presence of boll worms (once or twice a week after plants
begins to bloom. Early detection of eggs and/or caterpillars before they bore into the pods is
important).
Spray Bt or botanicals such as neem and pyrethrum extract.
Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and predators such as ants, lacewings, and
ladybird beetles are important in natural control of this pest.
Plough field and remove weeds well ahead of planting the crop in the field. Ploughing
exposes caterpillars to predators and to desiccation by the sun. Do not immediately plant
since some of the cutworms may be alive.
Pick and destroy worms
Early warning
Conserve natural enemies. Important natural enemies include ants, larvae of blister beetles,
parasitic flies, assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, fungi and robber
flies.
Domesticated poultry (e.g. chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and ducks) and wild birds
are good for keeping grasshopper populations in check.
Recommended Pesticides, when
needed
Azadirachtin (Experiments in Kenya
have shown that neem-based
pesticides, namely Achook©
(Azadirachtin 15% w/w) and a neem
extract (Azadirachtin 0.6 w/w)
effectively controlled the cotton aphid
giving protection to the crop for the
whole season). Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Spinosad
Imidacloprid
Imidacloprid
Clothiadinidim
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Azadirachtin
Spinosad
Azadirachtin
Azadirachtin
Bt
Insecticidal soaps
Malathion
Beta-cyfluthrin,
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Imidacloprid
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 86
Pest
axillaris,Homorocoryphus niditulus.
Flea beetles (Mylabris spp. and
Coryna spp.)
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.)
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides, when
needed
Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch. This is reported to reduce
grasshopper numbers since they prefer laying eggs on bare soil.
Monitor crop regularly.
Spray repellents such as extracts of strong smelling plants (eucalyptus, lantana, onion, garlic
etc.)
Crop rotation
Use tolerant/resistant varieties.
Rotate okra with onions, baby corn, maize, millet, sorghum, sesame or Sudan grass.
Maintain high levels of organic matter in the soil.
Mix crop with marigold (Tagetes spp.) or Indian mustard.
Remove crop debris from the field.
Incorporate neem cake powder into the soil.
Azadirachtin
Plant early
Mancozeb
Damping-off diseases (Pythium spp.,
Rhizoctonia solani)
Use certified disease-free seeds
Avoid over-irrigation and excessive fertilization with nitrogen fertilizers.
Avoid fields previously planted with cotton or other related crops.
None
Bacterial blight ( Xanthomonas
campestris p.v. malvacearum)
Plant certified disease-free seed
Maintain soil fertility.
Ensure the plot is well-drained
Avoid overhead irrigation.
Avoid working in the field when wet.
Remove crop debris after harvest.
Spray with copper-based fungicides.
Resistant/ tolerant variety, fungicide,
Maintain soil fertility
Mancozeb
Fusarium wilt
Use varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt
Crop rotation with cereals.
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Plant in fields with no previous record of wilt
Uproot wilted plants, burn plant residues after harvesting.
Mancozeb
Leaf spot
Remove and destroy affected plant materials.
Practice crop rotation
Leaf curl
Remove and destroy affected plant materials
Control white flies
Yellow vein mosaic virus(YVMV)
Remove and destroy affected plant materials
Control white flies
Timely planting
Hand hoeing using a ‘jembe’ or hoe.
Hand pulling of weeds.
Chemical weeding by use of Herbicides
Diseases in Okra
Early/late blight
Powderly mildew
Weeds
Digitaria spp: (cyperusrotundus,
Eleusin Indica, Echinochloacolona)
Sulphur
Glyphosate
Broad leaf weeds: Amaranthus spp,
Galinsoga spp, Striga spp, Euphobia
spp, Commelina spp and
Ageretumconyzoides
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 87
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 88
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), and Kales Var. capitata
Order/Family: Cruciferae/Brassicaceae
Brassicas constitute the majority of cultivated Cruciferae in eastern and southern Africa. The main brassicas
grown in the region include: Cabbage, Kale (sukumawiki) and Chinese cabbage (Cauliflower). Other brassicas
grown in the region are broccoli, brussel sprouts, kohlrabi, savoy and turnip. These vegetables are grown
mainly for the local market and are valuable as sources of vitamins and minerals, as well as a source of cash
for smallscale farmers in rural and peri-urban areas.
Cabbage is a biennial plant that grows best under full sunlight. The optimum mean temperature for growth
and quality head development is 15-18°C, with a minimum temperature of 4°C and a maximum 24°C.
Cabbage grows well on a wide range of soils with adequate moisture and fertility. Cabbage is a heavy feeder,
so to get good yields, proper fertilization is necessary.
To maintain growth, cabbage requires a consistent supply of moisture, and should as a general rule receive a
minimum of 2.5 cm of water per week. Larger quantities may be required when cabbage is grown on sandy
soils or when evapotranspiration is high. There are several varieties of cabbage grown in the region.
Production of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables is often constrained by damage caused by a range of
pests (insects, diseases, nematodes and weeds).
Weed control. To control weeds, prepare beds for planting and allow weeds to emerge and spray them with
glyphosate. Allow 7 to 10 days for the weeds to die before planting with minimal soil disturbance. Mulching
after planting will conserve moisture, suppress weeds and reduce the incidence of black rot.
Pests and Diseases in Cruciferous Vegetables. The major pest constraints of brassicas in Africa are the
diamondback moth (DBM), cabbage aphids, cabbage webworm and Bagrada bugs. The most important
diseases are blackrot, blackleg, black spot and Turnip Mosaic Virus.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 89
Pests and Diseases in Cruciferae Vegetables and Control Methods
Pest
The Bagrada bug (Bagrada hilaris)
The Cabbage Aphid (Brevicoryne
brassicae).The false cabbage aphid
(Lipaphis erysimi) and
The green peach aphid (Myzus
persicae)
Available Control Measure
Crop hygiene including destruction of weeds of the family cruciferae prevents
population build-up
Recommended Pesticides, when needed
Insecticidal soaps
Use natural enemies such as wasps and lady bird.
Use pesticides
Insecticidal soaps provide control.
Spot sprays of pyrethrum or neem can prevent build up of large populations
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Spinosad
Beta-cyfluthrin
Chlorpyrifos (< 10% AI)
Dimethoate
Destroy wild plants of the family of cabbages in the vicinity of the crop.
Bacillus thuringiensis
Lambda-cyhalothrin
The cabbage aphid is a major pest in
East Africa (region)
The cabbage sawfly (Athalia sjostedti)
Ploughing in of volunteer plants at the end of the season helps reduce sawfly
populations.
Diamond back moth (DBM) (Plutella
xylostella)
The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni)
Cutworms (Agrotis spp)
Use biological control of DBM using parasitoid wasp Diadegma semiclausum
Intercrop brassica crops with trap crops or repellent plants, to reduce pest
infestation. Tomato reportedly repels diamond black moth.
Use botanicals pesticide (neem-based) are very effective.
Bt sprays are effective
Use insecticide
Conserve natural enemies such as parasitic wasps and flies.
Birds feed on the adults (moths).
Use biopesticides such as neem-based products or Bt
Cutworm damage does not warrant chemical control measures.
The cutworms is normally found be found near the damaged plant and can be
killed physically or by insecticide
Leafmining flies (Lyriomiza brassicae)
Leaf miners are controlled by existing natural enemies, particularly parasitic wasps.
Don’t use broad spectrum non-selective pesticides.
Thrips (Thrips tabaci Frankliniella spp)
Plough and harrow before transplanting. This can be useful in reducing thrips
attacks by killing pupae in the soil.
Conservation of natural enemies, such as predatory bugs, predatory mites and
predatory thrips are important.
Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci,
Trialeurodes vaporariorum and
Aleyrodes proletella)
Necrotic spotting of the leaf (CaMV)
Natural enemies such as ladybird beetles, predatory mites and lacewings can play
an important role in reducing whiteflies
Spray with soapy water solutions
Use mineral oils and neem
Control aphids
Use clean and disease free planting materials
Practice crop rotation
Maintain high level of sanitation on the field
Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis
Beta-cyfluthrin
Carbaryl
Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Beta-cyfluthrin
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
carbaryl
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Mancozeb
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 90
Pest
Cercospora leafspots (Cercospora
brassicicola)
Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora
var. carotovora)
Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae)
Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv.
Campestris)
Available Control Measure
Use certified disease-free
Practise proper weedmanagement, particularly, cruciferous weeds such as
mustard.
Remove crop residues from the field after harvest.
Control sucking insects
Practice crop rotation
Remove and destroy diseased crop or left over stems in the field after the crop has
been harvested.
Wash hands and harvesting knives
Destroy all brassica crop residues, preferably by adequate burn and burial.
Practice crop rotation.
Manage irrigation properly to avoid creating conducive environment for the
disease.
Adjust pH to 7.2 with hydrated lime
Recommended Pesticides, when needed
Mancozeb
Use disease-free transplants materials
Growing cabbage on raised beds with mulch helps eliminate conditions that induce
black rot.
Remove, burn, or deep plough all infected crop debris immediately after harvest
Crop rotation (establish crops in black rot-free soils that have not grown crops
from the family Cruciferae for at least 3 years.)
Damping-off diseases
(Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani,
Fusarium spp.)
Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV)
Weeds
Digitaria spp: (cyperusrotundus,
Eleusin Indica, Echinochloacolona)
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Practice proper irrigation, avoid planting in wet, cold soils
Plant on raised beds to reduce moisture content in the root zone.
Practice crop rotation (seedbeds and production fields should not have had
crucifers for at least 3 years).
During cultivation, take care to avoid throwing soil into plant heads.
Control aphids that transmit the disease.
Use Resistant cultivars
Remove TuMV-infected plant debris and eradicate infected plants around fields,
this reduce virus inoculum and hence spread.
Timely planting
Hand hoeing using a ‘jembe’ or hoe.
Hand pulling of weeds.
Chemical weeding by use of Herbicides
Glyphosate
Broad leaf weeds: Amaranthus spp,
Galinsoga spp, Striga spp, Euphobia
spp, Commelina spp and
Ageretumconyzoides
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 91
Sesame/Simsim (Sesamum indicum) Order/Family: Pedaliaceae
Sesame originates in East Africa and is the oldest of the commercial oil seeds. The oil is clear and edible oil
with a pleasant taste and a long shelf life if properly refined.
Sesame has an oil content of 48-55% which is the highest of any oil crop while the protein content ranges
from 44 to 48%. Sesame seeds are either consumed directly as a highly nutritious foodstuff or processed by
the confectionery and bakery industries. The seed hulls, which are bitter due to their oxalic content, can be
removed with the use of steam. Sesame hay, if carefully dried, can be used as fodder. A large proportion of
the world's sesame production goes towards producing edible oil.
Purely white sesame seeds are in demand on conventional and on ecological markets, because of their higher
oil content than pigmented varieties. By-products of oil extraction are an excellent protein component to mix
into animal feed.
Sesame is an excellent rotation crop of cotton, maize, groundnut, wheat, and sorghum. It reduces nematode
populations that attack cotton and groundnut. It is also an excellent soil builder - as it improves the soil
texture, moisture retention and lessens soil erosion. The composted sesame leaves left on the soil binds the
ground; retains soil moisture better for planting the next crop; and increases the yield of the following crop.
Sesame is resistant to drought due to its deep tap root system and can produce good harvests even if soil
moisture is low. It is also tolerant to several insect pests and diseases, therefore a low production cost crop.
Weed control is essential to control pests and reduce competition for nutrients and moisture. However care
must be taken while hand-weeding to avoid damage to the roots. Use of post emergence application
herbicide is possible to control weeds
Pests and Diseases. Sesame is attacked by several diseases and pests. Severe infestation by the pests causes
significant yield loss and may result in total crop loss.
Among the serious pests and diseases are
aphids, bacterial blight, bacterial leaf spot, cutworms, fusarium wilt , leaf spot ,
powdery mildew, simsim gall midge, spider mites, stem rot or charcoal rot of bean , whiteflies, Sesame and
seed bugs.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 92
Pests and Diseases of Sesame and Control Methods
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides, when
needed
Stem rot (charcoal rot of bean)
(Macrophomina
phaseolina)
Fusarium wilt (Fusariumoxysporum
f. sp. sesam)
Use green manure.
Use resistant or less susceptible varieties (e.g. red shelled varieties).
Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas
syringae pv. sesami)
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Use resistant varieties where available.
Destruction of crop residues and weeds.
Early planting
Follow intercropping system of sesamum + sunflower.
Copper based fungicides
Leaf spot (Alternaria spp.)
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Use resistant varieties where available.
Destruction of crop residues and weeds.
Early planting i.e. immediately after onset of rains.
Follow intercropping system of sesamum + sunflower.
Copper based fungicides could be used as a preventive measure when conditions are
conducive to disease development.
Powdery mildew
(Sphaerothecafuliginea,
Leveillulataurica, Erysipheci
choracearum)
Use resistant varieties
Use sulphur dust
Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas
campestrispv. sesami)
Treat seeds with hot water.
Use white seeded varieties which are more resistant than coloured varieties.
Destroy crop residues.
Use resistant varieties
Pests
Aphids (Aphis spp.)
Mancozeb
Crop rotation
Use certified disease-free seeds.
Destruction of crop residues and weeds
Sulphur
Monitor regularly the crop.
Whenever necessary spray only affected plants (spot spraying).
Use bio pesticides that are not harmful to natural enemies e.g. Neem, ashes, soapy
water.
Azadirachtin
Insecticidal soaps
Imidacloprid, Acetamprid
Beta-cyfluthrin, chlorpyrifos (< 10%
AI),
Dimethoate
Cutworm (Agrotis spp.)
Till weeds early, before harvest
Use light traps against moths.
Ploughing can help by exposing larvae to predators -Flooding of the fields a few days
before planting can kill larvae in the soil.
Use preparations made of neem or pyrethrum
Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t)
Beta-cyfluthrin,
Carbaryl
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Simsim gall midge or gall fly
(Asphondyliasesami)
Monitor plants at the time of bud initiation.
Use resistant or tolerant varieties --Intercrop with pearl millet or groundnut.
Clip the galls pick and burn the shed buds.
Conserve natural enemies ie. wasps parasitize maggots of the gall fly.
Dimethoate
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 93
Pest
Available Control Measure
Recommended Pesticides, when
needed
White flies (Bemisia tabaci)
Parasitoids can play an important role in reducing whitefly numbers.
Flowering plants should be grown around the field to provide food source to the
parasitoids and pesticide.
Neem seed extracts controls young nymphs, inhibits growth and development of
older nymphs, and reduces egg laying capacity by adults.
Spraying with soapy water solutions can be effective in whitefly management
Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Field hygiene is important
Inter planting with garlic, basil or onion is said to give some protection due to their
strong smell.
Encourage natural enemies.
Spray preparations made of garlic, neem or soap
Insecticidal soaps
Azadirachtin
Spinosad
Beta-cyfluthrin, chlorpyrifos (< 10% AI)
Dimethoate
Azadirachtin
Spinosad
Weeds
Weeds (pre emergent and post
emergent weeds)
Thorough land preparation, hand weeding, pre-emergent spray if previous crop was weedy
Glyphosate
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 94
Upland Rice (Nerica)
Upland rice is cultivated under upland conditions without flooding, thus requires less water than lowland rice
varieties grown under flooding such as: Sindano, Basmati and IR8 among others.
In Sudan, upland rice is mainly grown in the upper Nile State but on a limited scale. There may be a need to
grow upland rice in South Sudan. Rice in Kenya is mainly cultivated under irrigation (lowland condition). It is a
cross breed of African and Asian Rice, i.e (Oryza sativa and Oryzaglaberrima).
It is possible to grow upland rice under rain fed conditions or with limited supplementary irrigation. Under
good management and agricultural practices, it is possible to achieve high yields of 5 tons/ha, comparable to
irrigated rice. Growing upland rice can help boost income for small scale farmers and as well as reduce rice
imports and thus saving on foreign exchange earning to the country.
Upland rice requires a maximum of 800mm of rainfall or 400mm during growth period and does well at
altitudes of 0-1500m above sea level. It does well on heavy soils such as clay loams or black cotton soil with
good water holding capacity and with a PH of neutral to slightly acidic (4.5-7.0). Drilling as a method of
planting is preferred as it makes it easier to weed the rice plant in lines thus reduced weeding costs.
Pests for Upland Rice/Nerica. Upland rice usually is grown as a single-season crop that occupies fields for
only 4-5 month a year. In the remaining months, fields may be planted to other upland crops or remain
fallow. Insect pests are seldom a major problem in upland rice. Upland rice systems prevent population
buildup of insects that feed only on rice. (P. C. Gupta J. C. O’toole 1989)
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 95
Pests and Diseases of Upland Rice and Control Methods
Pest
Termites
Stem borers (Sesamia, Chilo and
Maliarpha species)
Birds
Storage pests
Rice weevil- sitophilus oryzae and
Lesser grain borer –Rhizopertha
dominica
Blast
Weeds
Digitaria spp: (cyperusrotundus,
Eleusin Indica, Echinochloacolona)
Broad leaf weeds: Amaranthus spp,
Galinsoga spp, Striga spp, Euphobia
spp, Commelina spp and
Ageretumconyzoides
Available Control Measure
Use of bamboo stems
Smoking termite nests
Use of salts
Flooding of termite nests
Use of bio pesticides e.g. Neem seed oil, powdered tobacco
Use of red palm oil.
Use of entomo pathogenic fungus e.g. metarrhizium anisopliae
Management of stubbles by burning, ploughing and flooding after harvesting
Strip- and inter-cropping of maize with NERICA rice was found to be effective in
reducing stem borer damage on rice because maize
and rice share some common stem borer species.
Use of predators such as carabids, reduviids, dragon flies, spiders and braconids.
Plant resistant varieties of Nerica rice.
Erect scare crows randomly in the field.
Scare the birds manually.
Tie old VHS tapes diagonally
Discourage birds from breeding by cutting nearby trees, tall grasses,
and destroying roosting sites.
-Use dried chilli pepper
-Store of grains at extremely low temperatures (-15 to -20ºC ) for minimum of
12 hours or high temperatures (above 55ºC) for minimum of 3-4 hours.
-Use of airtight containers for grain storage
-Use oil
Recommended Pesticides, when
needed
Imidacloprid
Acetamiprid
Home-made concoctions
Indoxacarb
No chemical control
Silica gel powder (desiccant; not a
regulated pesticide)
Use disease resistant/tolerant varieties to Blast.
Use good cultural practices to limit blast infection.
High nitrogen associated with low potassium increase blast damage
(Split application of nitrogen is better than one application to
reduce blast damage).
Use clean healthy seeds
Treat the seeds 1–2 days before planting to control seed-borne
pathogens
Timely planting.
Hand hoeing using a ‘jembe’ or hoe.
Hand pulling of weeds.
Chemical weeding by use of Herbicides
Glyphosate
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 96
Stored grain & seed
Seeds of crops such as maize, sorghum, rice, dry beans, pigeon peas and groundnuts need to be stored by
small-scale farmers for household consumption, for the market or as seed for the next planting season.
(Farmers are organizing into producer groups to store grain until more favorable prices occur as the prices
during harvest season are low. This means longer storage times.)
Stored grain is under threat from a wide array of pests such as insects, rodents, fungi, and aflatoxin which
reduce quality and germination---and may pose significant health risks (e.g. alfatoxin, rodent feces).
Many of these pests attack the crop in the field just before harvest, thus the first step in reducing pest
damage is to harvest the crop on time at physiological maturity. Most maize farmers harvest four weeks too
late. Studies have shown that harvesting no later than two weeks after optimal time is critical to reducing
pest incidence.
Also critical is proper sun-drying: grain that is sun-dried to about 12-14% moisture significantly reduces the
ability of stored grain to serve as a breeding site for insects.
In the case of maize, proper cob storage is also critical. Farmers build cribs to store cobs before shelling and
bagging. These however are not well built and rats easily enter. FARM Sudan has an improved crib design
which is being distributed.
Seed should be sieved before bagging which removes not only dust and other impurities but also insect pests.
If grain is to be stored at home, farmers may add a number of botanically based products such as neem
leaves to protect the grain. For example:
Maize weevils are very important in stored maize and can be controlled by placing kinu seeds which
are as small as sesame seed mixed with maize seed. Their odor repells many insect pests.
(Kinu seeds are sold in stores for use in cooking; they are used to spice up cassava and potato. The oil
from kinu is used to treat eye infection for cows and to heal their ulcers.)
There is another botanical pesticide from the Morinda tree whose leaves are used to protect stored
seed. It is stronger than neem and comes from Uganda.
These home remedies, however, are limited: if grain is to be stored for more than three months an
insecticide or fumigant must be used.
Stored planting seed: At the farm level, farmers who have been trained to use protective equipment
can spray pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic) onto grain to be stored as home-saved seed until the next
planting season. Such grain CANNOT be eaten, however.
Fumigation of stored food grain: If protection is needed for stored food grain, then a fumigation
services provider may be contracted to fumigate using aluminum phosphide tablets Phosphide
fumigation is never appropriate for smallholder farmers; it requires specific equipment and training
to carry out safely.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 97
Pest
Damage
Control measure
Pesticide
Stored product
insect pests
Destroy grain
Timely harvest, sun drying, sanitation, purchased seeds
come with a seed treatment, varieties with closed husks,
store in an air-tight silo
Pirimiphosmethyl
On farm use Actellic (pirimiphos-methyl) spray to protect
next crop’s seed. Farmer method is the use of kinu seed
or neem leaves
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 98
Annex B:
PESTICIDE PROFILES:
TOXICOLOGY, USES, PROTECTIVE MEASURES
B.1 Orientation: Pesticide toxicity and risk
Pesticides of necessity are poisons, but the toxicity of different compounds varies greatly, as do the risks of
using them in particular circumstances.
Toxicity is the quality of being poisonous or harmful to animals or plants. A highly toxic substance causes
severe symptoms of poisoning with small doses. A substance with a low toxicity generally requires large
doses to produce mild symptoms. (Even common substances like coffee or salt become poisons if large
amounts are consumed.) Doses can be received (absorbed) via oral ingestion, through dermal contact, or
through inhalation. These different dose channels typically have different toxicities.
Toxicity can be either acute or chronic. Acute toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause harmful effects
which develop rapidly following absorption, i.e. a few hours or a day. Chronic toxicity is the ability of a
substance to cause adverse health effects resulting from long-term exposure to a substance. There is a great
range in the toxicity of pesticides to humans.
The relative risk of harm from a pesticide is dependent upon the toxicity of the pesticide, the dose received
and the length of time exposed. Dose can be influenced by the amount of pesticide used, concentration of
the pesticide and how the pesticide and application equipment are handled.
For example, a pesticide can be highly toxic as a concentrate, but pose little risk to the user if:
used in a very dilute formulation,
used in a formulation not readily absorbed through the skin or inhaled,
used by experienced applicators who are equipped to handle the pesticide safely.
In contrast, a pesticide may have a relatively low toxicity but present a high risk because it is used in the
concentrated form which may be readily absorbed or inhaled.
Formulated pesticide products (which often include inert ingredients) are given an overall acute toxicity
rating by US EPA which is shown on the label on the pesticide container:
Class I:
Class III:
Extremely toxic
Moderately toxic
Class II: Highly toxic
Class IV: Slightly toxic, Relatively non-toxic
Practically non-toxic, Non-toxic
The WHO toxicity classification system is similar (classes I-III), but assigns toxicity classes to Pesticide Active
Ingredients, not formulated products. As such, it is less precise.
B.2 Summary Toxicology Profiles of Pesticides Assessed by this PERSUAP.
The following table summarizes the toxicological profiles of all AIs examined by this PERSUAP, as well as their
EPA registration status. After the table are extended pesticide profiles, covering uses, toxicology and specific
protective measures for the subject pesticides.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 99
Table B-1: EPA Registration Status & Toxicological Profile of Analyzed Pesticides.
Note: Active Ingredients REJECTED by this PERSUAP are shown in strike-thru and highlight.
Active Ingredient
Chemical
class
EPA Status
Register RUP?
ed?
Human Health Issues
Acute toxicity Chronic
Class
Toxicity
WHO EPA
Ground- water Ecotoxicology
contaminant?
Fish
Bees
Birds
Amphibians
Earthworms
Mollusks Crustacea
Aquatic
insects
Plankt
on
RNT
VHT
ST
MT
VHT
VHT
VHT
Insecticides
Acetamiprid
Neonicotinoid yes
no
none
III
None
no data
ST
MT
PNT-MT
alpha
cypermethrin
synthetic
pyrethroid
no
no
II
II, III
PC
no data
HT
HT
PNT
Amitraz
Azadirachtin
(also fungicide)
Bacillus
thuringiensis-Bt
Beta-Cyfluthrin
Formamidine yes
Botanical
yes
no
no
III
U
II
III
RD
None
no data
No data
ST-HT
PNT ST
ST-HT
ST MT
PNT??
ST-MT
ST-MT
PNT ST
NAT
ST?
PNT VHT MT
Biopesticide
yes
no
none
III
None
no data
PNT
PNT
NAT
NAT
ST
ST
yes
few
II
II, III
ED
no data
VHT
HT
PNT
VHT
NAT-ST
VHT
Carbaryl
Synthetic
pyrethroid
Carbamate
yes
no
II
III
PC, RD
potential
S-VHT
ST-HT
PNT
ST-MT
VHT
ST
HT
HT
MT
Chlorpyrifos
(< 10% AI ONLY)
Clothianidin
organophosp yes
hate
Neonicotinoid yes
Some >10% AI
II
II, III
ED
no data
HT
HT
HT
MT
PNT
MT
VHT
HT
MT
no
none
II, III
None
potential
ST
NAT -HT
ST-MT
ST
HT
cypermethrin
synthetic
pyrethroid
synthetic
pyrethroid
organophosp
hate
organophosp
hate
organophosp
hate
Neonicotonoi
ds
oxadiazine
yes
all
none
II, III
PC, ED, RD
no data
HT
HT
PNT
VHT
VHT
VHT
yes
no
II
III
None
no data
HT-VHT
yes
II
III
RD
potential
MT
HT
VHT
MT
HT
HT
yes
Some
(Basudin)
no
1b
I, II, III
PC, ED
no data
ST-MT
HT
HT
ST-MT
yes
no
II
II
PC, ED, RD
potential
ST
VHT
VHT
HT
MT
HT
VHT
STVHT
MT
yes
no
II
II, III
None
potential
RNT NAT
HT
ST-PNT
NAT
ST
ST MT
VHT HT
yes
yes
no
no
none
none
III
II, III
None
None
No data
Not potential
HT
PNT
NAT -HT
PNT
HT
PNT
PNT
HT
HT
yes
Some
II
(but only “Karate”
products/above
10% AI)
no
III
II, III
ED
no data
VHT
HT
PNT
II, III
PC, ED
potential
ST -VHT
HT
ST-MT
Cyphenothrin
diazinon
Dichlorvos
dimethoate
Imidacloprid
indoxacarb
insecticidal soaps
lambda cyhalothrin synthetic
(<10%A AI only)
pyrethroid
Malathion
organophosp yes
hate
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 100
MT
MT
MT
ST
ST
MT
VHT
No info
MT
MT
HT
HT
VHT
NATVHT
MT
PNT
PNT
VHT
PNT
VHT
PNT
VHT
PNT
VHT
PNT
ST-HT
ST-MT
VHT
ST-VHT
HT
NATST
Active Ingredient
Chemical
class
EPA Status
Register RUP?
ed?
pirimiphos methyl Organophosp yes
no
(pyrimiphos
ahte
methyl)
(seed
treatment only.)
Profenofos
organophosp yes
no
hate
spinosad
microbial
yes
no
Sulfur
Inorganic
yes
no
(also fungicide)
Thiamethoxam
Neonicotinoid yes
no
Fungicides
Azadirachtin
Botanical
yes
no
(also insecticide)
Mancozeb
Dithioyes
no
carbamate
metalaxyl
benzanoid
yes
no
Sulfur
Inorganic
yes
no
(also insecticide)
thiram
Dithiocarbam yes
no
ate
Fumigants
Aluminium
inorganic
yes
all
phosphide
phosphide
Herbicides
diuron
Urea
Yes
no
fluazifop-p-butyl
Arlyloxypheno yes
No
xy –Propionic
acid
Glyphosate
Phosphonogly yes
no
cine
imazapyr
Imidazolinone yes
no
pendimethalin
Propanil
thiobencarb
2,-6
yes
Dinitroaniline
Analide
Yes
Thiocarbamat yes
e
Bird repellant
methyl
anthranilate
Veterinary Applications
yes
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 101
Human Health Issues
Acute toxicity Chronic
Class
Toxicity
WHO EPA
Ground- water Ecotoxicology
contaminant?
III
None
II, III
II
Fish
Bees
Birds
No data
MT
HT
MT
none
no data
MT-VHT
No data
Amphibians
Earthworms
MT
Mollusks Crustacea
MT
Aquatic
insects
VHT
Plankt
on
VHT
VHT
VHT
VHT??
ST
PNT
PNT
PNT
HT
PNT
MTVHT
MT
PNT
PNT
RNT
RNT
RNT
ST
PNT ST
PNT VHT MT
MT
ST
MT
PNT
PNT
NAT HT
ST
PNT
NAT-MT
HT
HTVHT
ST-MT
MT
ST
ST-HT
NAT-ST
NAT-ST
ST
PNT
PNT
PNT
ST
MT NAT
HT
MT
MT
ST
MT
MT
MT
PNT
PNT
PNT
PNT
IV U
U
III/IV
IV
None
None
No data
No data
PNT ST-MT PNT-HT
NAT-ST
NAT
PNT
NAT
none
III
PC
No data
RNT
VHT
PNT
U
II,III
None
No data
PNT ST
ST MT
PNT??
U
III
PC, ED, RD
No data
MT-HT
MT (NAT) ST
MT-HT
MT
III
U
II, III
IV
None
None
potential
No data
ST
NAT-ST
PNT
NAT
PNT
NAT
NAT
PNT
III
III
ED, RD
No data
HT-VHT
NAT ST
PNT
VHT
HT
I
none
no data
HT
HT
HT
U
III
III
II, III
KC
None
known
no data
ST-MT
MT
PNT NAT
ST
PNT
ST
III
III
None
potential
ST-MT
ST
ST
U
III
None
potential
no
III
III
PC, ED
No data
PNT NAT- PNT ST
MT
HT NAT-MT NAT
No
no
III
U II
II, III
III
None
Potential
Minimal
potential
MT
MT
NAT
PNT
PNT
ST
MT
no
IV U
II, III
None
none
PNT
PNT
PNT
PNT
NAT
NAT
ST-MT
PNT
MT
ST-MT
NAT
PNT
Active Ingredient
Albendazole
Chemical
class
EPA Status
Register RUP?
ed?
Bendimidazol Not
Applicable—Orally
e
Administered Drug.
Human Health Issues
Acute toxicity Chronic
Class
Toxicity
WHO EPA
Ground- water Ecotoxicology
contaminant?
Fish
Bees
Birds
Amphibians
Earthworms
Mollusks Crustacea
Aquatic
insects
Plankt
on
No data
Key to abbreviations
WHO Acute Toxicity:
Class O = Obsolete Pesticide; Class 1a = Extremely Hazardous, Class Ib = Highly Hazardous; Class II = Moderately Hazardous; Class III = Slightly Hazardous, Class U = Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard
in Normal Use
EPA Acute Toxicity:
Class I = Extremely Toxic, II = Highly Toxic, III = Moderately Toxic, IV = Slightly Toxic
Chronic Toxicity:
KC = Known Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive or Developmental Toxin; P = Potential Parkinson’s disease Risk Factor
Ecotoxicity:
VHT = Very Highly Toxic; HT = Highly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; PNT = Practically Not Toxic; NAT = Not Acutely Toxic
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 102
B.3 Insecticide Profiles
These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures.
Note: These profiles OMIT all candidate AIs rejected by this PERSUAP and AIs that are approved but identified
during the 2012 survey of input stores.
Acetamiprid.
Acetamiprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide with systemic and contact as well as by ingestion. It is available in a
number of sprayable formulations including seed treatment on mustard and canola. It is labeled for control
of aphids, whiteflies, leaf beetles, leaf miner, leafhopper, codling moth, psyllids, swede midge, oriental fruit
moth, blue berry maggot, flea beetles, spanworm, thrips, fruit worm, root worm, Japanese beetle, grape
phylloxera, on crops such as leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, pome fruits, grapes, cotton, cole crops, and
ornamental plants.
It is a relatively safe insecticide rated by EPA as toxicity class III for oral and dermal exposure due to eye
irritation and skin irritation effects. It is in a safer IV class for acute inhalation.
In chronic tests it neither is mutagenic, teratogenic nor considered a likely carcinogen and/or an endocrine
disruptor. The long term toxicological effects after continuous administration of acetamiprid in the diet were
investigated using rats and dogs with ‘no effect levels’ resulting from the studies on developmental or
reproductive systems.
In terms of its role in the environment, acetamiprid poses minimal risk to fish and wildlife. Acetamiprid
ranges from practically non-toxic to moderately toxic to birds and is slightly toxic to freshwater fish and
aquatic invertebrates, but is relatively non-toxic to Daphnia (a small crustacean). It also is rated from slightly
to moderately toxic to bees and earthworms. US EPA concluded that acetamiprid use would generally pose
low risk to threatened and endangered species.
It is slowly degraded on or in plants. Its half-life in clay loam: 1 day and in light clay: 1-2 days. Acetamiprid
degrades rapidly by aerobic soil metabolism. No major issues for soil mobility are apparent since low use rate
and rapid degradation reduce the amount for offsite movement. Environmental residues in drinking water
are predicted to be low. Acetamiprid will not bio-accumulate in fish and in sediment.
However, recent studies have shown that as a neonicotinoid insecticide it has the potential to be a causal
agent for honey bee colony collapse disorder (CCD) in the US and Europe through the translocation of
acetamiprid residues in nectar and pollen. In honey bees, the effects of this toxic chronic exposure may
include lethal and/or sub-lethal effects in the larvae and reproductive effects in the queen.
As described in Section 5, analysis factor G, the small-scale and asynchronous uses of neonicotinoids
envisioned in South Sudan are judged to present markedly lower risks to bee colonies than the large-scale,
synchronous applications in the US and Europe, where hundreds or thousands of hectares may be sprayed at
one time. And because of their low toxicity to humans, broad-spectrum uses, and low toxicity to non-insect
targets, they have many other desirable attributes. They are thus approved for both seed treatment and
foliar use under this PERSUAP.
However, this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale applications are
shown to present significant risk of CCD.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 103
Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts. Risk is somewhat reduced by spraying crops
pollinated by bees in the early evening when bees are in their hives and warning beekeepers of spray events
so that they may protect/relocate hives. It may not be used on crops pollinated by honeybees when these
crops are blossoming.
Summary: the only negative effects of acetamiprid are its potential role in honey bee colony collapse disorder.
To reduce risk to bees, spray applications of acetamiprid are restricted to the early evening. Local beekeepers
must be given notice of usage so that hives may be protected/moved. Acetamiprid use must be monitored for
honeybee impacts. May not be used on crops pollinated by honeybees when these crops are blossoming.
Azadirachtin (Neem oil)
Azadirachtin is classified as a botanical insecticide as it is extracted from the neem tree Azadirachtaindica.
Neem oil is classified as a tetra-nortri-terpenoid and kills or repels mites and insects including whiteflies,
aphids, scales, thrips, fungus gnats, caterpillars, mealybugs, leafminers, beetles, and leafrollers on vegetables,
fruits, nuts, melons and field crops as well as in the greenhouse.
It is also classified as an insect growth regulator. It is structurally similar to insect hormones called
"ecdysones," which control the process of metamorphosis as the insects pass from larva to pupa to adult.
Metamorphosis requires the careful synchrony of many hormones and other physiological changes to be
successful, and azadirachtin seems to be an "ecdysone blocker." It blocks the insect's production and release
of these vital hormones. Insects then will not molt, thus breaking their life cycle. Azadirachtin may also serve
as a feeding deterrent for some insects. Depending on the stage of life-cycle, insect death may not occur for
several days. However, upon ingestion of minute quantities, insects become quiescent and stop feeding.
Residual insecticidal activity is evident for 7 to 10 days or longer, depending on insect and application rate.
It is very safe to humans in its pure form and classified in the least toxic class IV by EPA (relatively non-toxic).
But due to the irritation caused by its solvents and carriers it is classified as toxicity class II-III by EPA.
Neem oil causes moderate eye irritation. If the product gets in your eye, open your eyes while rinsing slowly
and gently with water for 15-20 minutes.
It has proven safe regarding chronic toxicity and is not carcinogenic, mutagenic nor teratogenic. It also is not
an endocrine disruptor nor has been linked to reproductive problems in long term feeding tests.
It is slightly toxic to bees. Thus the farmer should not apply it while bees are actively visiting the treatment
area. It is practically non-toxic to birds, mollusks, and fish, but moderately toxic to aquatic insects. It may
cause a significant fish kill if large concentrations reach waterways which is highly unlikely. Azadirachtin is
relatively harmless to spiders and parasitoids andother beneficials such as ladybeetles that consume
aphids.This is because neem products must be ingested to be active.
Azadirachtin breaks down rapidly (in 50-100 hours) in water or light, and is not likely to accumulate or cause
long-term effects in groundwater or in the soil.
Neem oil is most effective when applied every 7 to 14 days. For heavy insect populations, the farmer should
spray on a 7 day schedule. The farmer should mix neem oil at the rate of 2 tablespoons (1 fluid ounce) per
gallon of water. Thoroughly mix solution and spray all plant surfaces (including underside of leaves) until
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 104
completely wet. Frequently mix solution as you spray. Formulations include a 10% plant extract (technical)
and a 3% EC sprayable.
Summary: Azadirachtin generally is a very safe insecticide with the only detraction being a potential eye
irritant as its potential risks hazards are minimal to humans and non-targets in general. Farmers apply this
material should wear goggles.
Bacillus thuringiensis-(B.t.)
B.t. is a biological insecticide (biopesticide) produced by fermentation of the naturally-occurring soil
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The bacteria form spores that are killed before being made into commercial
pesticide products. When they form spores they also produce a crystal-like structure that is toxic to certain
groups of insects.Like azadirachtin, B.t. must be eaten before it can kill the target insect pests. The crystals
break down the cell lining the insect gut which causes the insects to stop feeding within 1 day. Other bacteria
pass through the damaged gut tissue and multiply in the insect's body. The subsequent infection causes
death within 2-3 days. B.t. only kill simmature stages of certain moths (caterpillars). There are other B.t.
strains that are effective against mosquito and black fly larvae.
Its specificity to pests, combined with safety to man and the natural enemies of crop pests, make it highly
suitable for use in pest management programs. Because the bacteria do not spread, it is important to treat
the parts of the plant normally attacked by insect larvae. It is labeled on cotton, ornamentals, pome fruit,
stone fruit, vines, tomatoes, olives, soybean, tobacco, vegetables and forest trees. B.t. is considered ideal for
pest management because of its specificity to pests and because of its lack of toxicity to humans or the
natural enemies of many crop pests.
This microbial insecticide is classified as toxicity class III - slightly toxic because of its potential to irritate eyes
and skin due to solvents in the formulation. Powder B.t. products may cause eye irritation and/or
sensitization. Avoid breathing spray mist or dust. Treated areas are safe to re-enter right after application.
Regarding chronic toxicity, there is no indication that B.t. causes reproductive effects. There is no evidence
indicating that formulated B.t. can cause birth defects in mammals. B. thuringiensis appears to have
mutagenic potential in plant tissue. Thus, extensive use of B.t. on food plants might be hazardous to these
crops. However there is no evidence of mutagenicity in mammalian species. It is unlikely that B.t. is
carcinogenic as tumor-producing effects were not seen in 2-year chronic studies with rats.There is no
evidence of chronic organ toxicity in tests with dogs, guinea pigs, rats,or humans, or other test animals. B.t.
does not persist in the digestive systems of mammals that ingest it.
B.t. is practically non-toxic to bees, birds, fish; however, shrimp and mussels may be affected adversely and
B.t. is rated as slightly toxic against them. It did not have negative effects on frogs and salamanders but is
classified as slightly toxic.
B.t. spores are released into the soil from decomposing dead insects after they have been killed by it. B.t. is a
naturally-occurring pathoge nthat readily breaks down in the environment. B.t. is degraded very rapidly
whenexposed to UV light and is unstable inwater pH greater than 8 (highly alkaline). B.t. poses no threat via
groundwater. Due to its short biological half-life and its specificity, B.t. is less likely than chemical pesticides
to cause field resistance in target insects.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 105
B.t. is moderately persistent in soil. Its half-life in suitable conditions is about 4 months. Microbial pesticides
such as B.t. are classified as immobile because they do not move or leach with groundwater. The EPA has not
issued restrictions for the use of B.t. around bodies of water.
For best results the farmers should apply B.t. when the immature stages of the target pest are feeding. But
do not apply if there is a risk of rain within 24 hours of application. Repeat applications as necessary at 10day intervals (in the absence of rain). During hot sunny weather, apply B.t. in the late afternoon to reduce
exposure to UV light and maximize residual control (3-10 days).Thorough coverage and proper application
rate is essential.Use an approved spreader-sticker withpowder formulations forhard-to wet crops such as
cabbage orto improve weather fastness of thespray deposits.
Summary: B.t. also has the potential to irritate eyes upon exposure thus goggles should be worn during
application. Effects on non-targets were rated at most as only slightly toxic and there is only a low health risk
in its use.
Clothianidin Clothiandin has uses both as a seed treatment and foliar spray.
Clothianidin is moderately toxic to small mammals on an acute oral basis and is in toxicity class III. From a
dermal exposure, however, clothianidin is less toxic (toxicity class IV). Toxicity through inhalation of
clothianidin dust is toxicity class III. If clothianidin enters the eyes it becomes a mild irritant but is a nonirritant from skin contact. It is not classified as a skin sensitizer.
Chronic exposure to treated seeds through accidental ingestion may result in reproductive and/or
developmental effects. Such accidents should be minimal as all treated seed will be colored with a dye.
Clothianidin is not mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic.
Clothianidin is slightly toxic to fish and is slightly to moderately toxic to birds. However, exposure to treated
seeds through ingestion may result in chronic toxic risk to birds. It is slightly toxic to crustacean and highly
toxic to aquatic invertebrates and is moderately toxic to earthworms.
Clothianidin is highly toxic to honeybees on an acute contact basis. Clothiandin and other neonicitonoid
pesticides are identified by some studies as one of a set of causal agents for honey bee colony collapse
disorder (CCD) in the US and Europe through the translocation of acetamipridresidues in nectar and pollen. In
honey bees, the effects of this toxic chronic exposure may include lethal and/or sub-lethal effects in the
larvae and reproductive effects in the queen.
As described in Section 5, analysis factor G, the small-scale and asynchronous uses of neonicotinoids
envisioned in South Sudan are judged to present markedly lower risks to bee colonies than the large-scale,
synchronous applications in the US and Europe, where hundreds or thousands of hectares may be sprayed at
one time. And because of their low toxicity to humans, broad-spectrum uses, and low toxicity to non-insect
targets, they have many other desirable attributes. They are thus approved for both seed treatment and
foliar use under this PERSUAP.
However this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale applications are
shown to present significant risk of CCD, or if the Clothiandin’s US EPA registration status changes.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 106
Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts. Risk is somewhat reduced by spraying crops
pollinated by bees in the early evening when bees are in their hives and warning beekeepers of spray events
so that they may protect/relocate hives. It may not be used on crops pollinated by honeybees when these
crops are blossoming.
Environmental chemistry and fate studies indicate aquatic photolysis is the most rapid route for the
environmental degradation of clothianidin and it is not likely to be a ground water contaminant.
Summary. When used as seed treatment: Treated seeds exposed on soil surface may be hazardous to wildlife.
Cover all treated seeds with soil in the seed furrow. Wear long-sleeved shirt, long pants, and plastic gloves
when handling treated seed. Dispose of all excess treated seed. Left over treated seed may be double-sown
around the headland or buried away from water sources in accordance with local requirements. Do not
contaminate water bodies when disposing of rinse water from washing up afterwards. Dispose of seed
packaging by burying in the soil after puncturing so that it will not be re-usable. There are some health
concerns if clothianidin is ingested but this is true of all insecticides. It is highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates
and honey bees in acute exposure. However, as a seed treatment material such exposures should be rare.
When used as a spray (foliar application): To reduce risk to bees, spray applications of clothianidin are
restricted to the early evening. Local beekeepers must be given notice of usage so that hives may be
protected/moved. Clothiandin spray use must be monitored for honeybee impacts. May not be used on crops
pollinated by honeybees when these crops are blossoming.
Imidacloprid
Imidacloprid is a systemic, chloro-nicotinyl neonicotinoid insecticide with soil, seed, and foliar uses for the
control of sucking insects including leafhoppers, aphids, thrips, whiteflies, mealybugs, scales, termites, soil
insects and some beetles. It is most commonly used on cereals, vegetables, and field crops and is especially
systemic when used as a seed or soil treatment. It is effective on contact and via ingestion. Imidacloprid is
available in a variety of formulations.
The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it
causes a blockage in a type of neuronal pathway (nicotinergic) that is more abundant in insects than in warmblooded animals (making the chemical selectively more toxic to insects than warm-blooded animals). This
blockage leads to the accumulation of acetylcholine, an important neuro-transmitter, resulting in the insect's
paralysis, and eventually death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. It has been shown to be
compatible with fungicides when used as a seed treatment to control insect pests.
Imidacloprid is moderately acutely toxic to mammals (toxicity class III) and also with a low dermal (class IV). It
is considered non-irritating to eyes and skin (rabbits), and non-sensitizing to skin (guinea pigs). Some granular
formulations may contain clays as inert ingredients that may act as eye irritants. In acute inhalation toxicity
tests with rats, the airborne concentration of imidacloprid that resulted in mortality to half of the test
organisms (LC50) is > 69 mg/m3air in the form of an aerosol, and >5323 mg/m3air in the form of dust. These
values represent the maximum attainable airborne concentrations.
A 2-year chronic toxicity feeding study in rats resulted in a No Observable Effect Level (NOEL). Reproductive
effects were also a NOEL. Tests showed it was not teratogenic, but imidacloprid may be weakly mutagenic.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 107
Imidacloprid is considered to be of minimal carcinogenic risk, and is thus categorized by EPA as a "Group E"
carcinogen (evidence of non-carcinogenicity for humans). There were no carcinogenic effects in a 2-year
carcinogenicity study in rats. In short-term feeding studies in rats, there were thyroid lesions associated but
only at very high doses of imidacloprid. Imidacloprid is quickly and almost completely absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract, and eliminated via urine and feces within 48 hours.
Imidacloprid is moderately toxic to avian species but demonstrates low toxicity to fish. Products containing
imidacloprid may be very toxic to aquatic invertebrates. It is highly toxic to bees when used as a foliar
application, especially during flowering, but is not considered hazardous to bees when used as a seed
treatment. In tests with Daphnia showed very highly toxic to crustacea. It is slightly toxic to earthworms.
Imidacloprid is slightly to relatively non-toxic to upland game birds. But it was observed that birds learned to
avoid imidacloprid treated seeds after experiencing transitory gastrointestinal distress (retching) and ataxia
(loss of coordination). It was concluded that the risk of dietary exposure to birds via treated seeds was
minimal. Based on these studies, imidacloprid appears to have potential as a bird repellent seed treatment.
Imidacloprid demonstrates the properties and characteristics associated with chemicals detected in
groundwater. The use of imidacloprid in areas where soils are permeable, particularly where the water table
is shallow, may result in groundwater contamination. But as imidacloprid is moderately soluble, and has
moderate binding affinity to organic materials in soils, it is generally not a high risk of groundwater
contamination if used as directed. The half-life of imidacloprid in soil is 48-190 days, depending on the
amount of ground cover (it breaks down faster in soils with plant ground cover than in fallow soils). The halflife in water is about 31 days.
Seeds are treated with imidacloprid as an insecticide. Follow the same instructions and precautions as with
clothianidin.
Imidacloprid and other neonicitonoid pesticides are identified by some studies as one of a set of causal
agents for honey bee colony collapse disorder (CCD) in the US and Europe through the translocation of
residues in nectar and pollen. In honey bees, the effects of this toxic chronic exposure may include lethal
and/or sub-lethal effects in the larvae and reproductive effects in the queen.
As described in Section 5, analysis factor G, the small-scale and asynchronous uses of neonicotinoids
envisioned in South Sudan are judged to present markedly lower risks to bee colonies than the large-scale,
synchronous applications in the US and Europe, where hundreds or thousands of hectares may be sprayed at
one time. And because of their low toxicity to humans, broad-spectrum uses, and low toxicity to non-insect
targets, they have many other desirable attributes. They are thus approved forboth seed treatment and foliar
use under this PERSUAP.
However this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale applications are
shown to present significant risk of CCD, or if Imidacloprid’s US EPA registration status changes.
Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts. Risk is somewhat reduced by spraying crops
pollinated by bees in the early evening when bees are in their hives and warning beekeepers of spray events
so that they may protect/relocate hives. It may not be used on crops pollinated by honeybees when these
crops are blossoming.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 108
Summary: Imidacloprid is only weakly mutagenic in chronic exposure but is highly to very highly toxic to
crusteacea, aquatic invertebrates and bees. As a seed treatment these negative consequences are viewed to
be minor. It is moderately toxic to birds upon contact, but is repellant rather than toxic. It is only a potential
pollutant of water.
To reduce risk to bees, spray applications of imidacloprid are restricted to the early evening. Local beekeepers
must be given notice of usage so that hives may be protected/moved. Imidacloprid spray use must be
monitored for honeybee impacts. May not be used on crops pollinated by honeybees when these crops are
blossoming.
Indoxacarb
Indoxdacarb is an oxadiazine insecticide and is used as a contact and stomach poison. It is labeled by EPA for
alfalfa, cotton, peanuts, and soybeans against leafhoppers, cutworms, armyworms, bollworms, and loopers.
It is a nerve poison and blocks sodium channels in nerve cells. Treated insects stop feeding, go into paralysis,
and then die. Knockdown occurs in 1-2 days. It also is an ovicide. It is being considered in this PERSUAP due to
its efficacy against lepidopterous and grasshopper pests of vegetables and field crops. Indoxacarb is very
effective in the control of Lepidoptera species but also works wells on Homoptera and Coleoptera pests. It is
also most effective when applied to insects at the larva stages.
Its acute and dermal mammalian toxicity is in class III, slightly toxic. It has very low inhalation toxicity.
Insecticide is a slight to mild skin irritant and is a skin sensitizer, but is not an eye irritant in animals.
As an oxadiazine, it is highly toxic to fish, bees, crustacea, aquatic invertebrates, but conserves most
beneficial arthropods so is good in IPM programs.
It has not been found to have chronic toxicological effects and is not classified as an endocrine disruptor. It is
not mutagenic, teratogenetic, or carcinogenic nor does it negatively affect the reproductive systems of
mammals.It is considered to be only moderately persistent in the soil and is considered to be immobile thus
not a threat to move in ground water. Indoxacard should not be directly applied to water or to areas where
surface water is present. Runoff from treated areas may be hazardous to aquatic organisms in neighboring
areas.
Summary: indoxacarb irritates the skin on moist contact. It is highly toxic to many non-target organisms
(except beneficial arthropods) but as it will not be used in large quantities it should pose a low risk.
Application should only be performed when bees are not flying but most of its usage will be on cereals.
insecticidal soaps
A number of insecticides are in the market under the label of insecticidal soaps which have low toxicity to
mammals and thus are very safe for farmers to use. Some brand names are Safer or M-Pede. The
formulations are based on potassium salts of naturally derived fatty acids and are used against soft bodied
insects and mites primarily on vegetables and fruits. Target insects include aphids, caterpillars, leafhoppers,
leafminers, mealybugs, mole crickets, psyllids, scales, spider mites, thrips, whiteflies, and bugs. Interestingly
they also provide curative action against powdery mildew fungi. Soap acts by contact with the target pests
and therefore good coverage is needed at the top and bottom of leaves while spraying.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 109
Even though these are not nerve poisons and act mostly as repellants, they are rated as toxicity class II by
EPA due to substantial, but temporary, irritation that can occur if the product enters the eyes or irritation if
on the skin. Therefore the applicator must wear goggles when applying these materials. If the product enters
the eyes hold the eyelids open and flush with a steady gentle stream of water for 15 minutes.
They have a clean bill of health in terms of all chronic toxicity tests. Soaps are highly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates, thus should not be applied directly into water. They are non-toxic to bees, which is important
for vegetable and fruit crops, mammals and birds. They also break down rapidly in the environment, so much
so that repeated applications may be necessary to achieve good control.Use of insecticidal soaps will be
mostly for vegetables where safety is of utmost importance to both those farmers applying them as well as
consumers of the protected produce.
Multiple applications are needed to control most insect pests. Hard water should not be used for mixing
soaps, and where soft water is not available, distilled water should be used. Before application, one should
read label to check if target pest is listed for the particular crop one wants to spray. Soaps should be sprayed
in the mornings and evenings when drying time is longer. Spraying should not be done when relative
humidity is above 90% and temperatures are 90 degrees F and above and also on moisture or drought
stressed crops.
Summary: Insecticidal soaps can cause temporary irrigation to the eyes upon contact thus those applying it
should use goggles. Soaps are highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates so should never be allowed to enter bodies
of water.
pirimiphos-methyl (also pyrimiphos methyl)
Pirimiphos-methyl is the active ingredient for the popular seed treatment product Actellic against stored
grain product insect pests of maize, rice, wheat, and grain sorghum. It is available as an emulsifiable
concentrate liquid formulation and is meant to be sprayed onto seed to protect against build up on stored
product of insect pests that often infest the crop before harvest in the field.
It is not meant to protect grain that will be used as food. Therefore it is important to kill the field infestation
before long term storage.It is an organo-phosphate insecticide and a nerve poison and is active by contact,
ingestion, and vapor action.
Its mammalian acute toxicity rating is slightly toxic by EPA (III), but moderately toxic when affected by dermal
exposure (II). It is only slightly toxic as a dermal irritant and is not a skin sensitizer. Its usage precludes
inhalation exposure.
Chronic feeding trials showed it is not teratogenic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic nor does it produce
reproductive effects. Studies suggest that pirimiphos-methyl is rapidly excreted, and no evidence of
bioaccumulation was noted.
As an organo-phosphate nerve poison it is harmful to non-targets in the environment and is very highly toxic
to aquatic invertebrates, highly toxic to bees, highly toxic to fish, and moderately toxic to worms, and
mollusks. However it is slated to be used exclusively to treat grain in storage it would not come into contact
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 110
with these organisms in general usage (measures to ensure it does not get into the aquatic environment
should be put in place).
Summary: The greatest hazard presented by pirimiphos-methyl is that it would be used to protect grain that
will be consumed rather than for seed. It also is rated as toxicity class II in dermal exposure so applicators
must wear long sleeved shirts and trousers. It is highly toxic to a number of non-targets but would be used for
protection of stored grain and thus would not be sprayed widely in the field.
Spinosad
Spinosad is derived from the fermented juices of a soil bacterium called Saccharopolyspora spinosad and
there are two active ingredients: spinosyn A &D. These compounds are produced by certain microbes that
were first discovered in soil found at an abandoned rum factory.
Spinosad has a residual effectiveness of up to four weeks. This contrasts with B.t., which has a residual of
only one or two days. In general, Spinosad provides effective control of pests belonging to the following
groups: moths and butterflies (caterpillars); flies; mosquitoes and ants; and thrips. It is also effective for some
beetles and members of the grass hopper family.
Spinosad must be ingested by the insect, therefore it has little effect on sucking insects and non target
predatory insects. Spinosad is relatively fast acting. The pest insect dies within 1 to 2 days after ingesting the
active ingredient. Spinosad will not persist in the environment. Sunlight and soil microbes break it down into
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Spinosad does not significantly affect beneficial organisms including ladybugs, green lacewings, minute pirate
bugs, and predatory mites. Spinosad is listed by the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) as acceptable
for use during organic farming. Spinosad loses its toxicity after 8 to 24 hours and so it may be necessary to
reapply a few days later if new larva hatch.
Although spinosad is a broad-spectrum insecticide, meaning that it is toxic to a wide variety of insects, it is
relatively non-toxic to mammals (toxicity class IV). Even though it is toxic to most insects, it is relatively safe
to use around beneficial and non-target species because it is only toxic if ingested or if a treated surface is
contacted while wet.
Single dose oral toxicity is extremely low. No hazards anticipated from swallowing small amounts incidental
to normal handling operations. It may cause slight eye irritation, but even prolonged exposure is not likely to
cause significant skin irritation. A single prolonged exposure is not likely to result in the material being
absorbed through skin in harmful amounts. It did not cause allergic skin reactions when tested with guinea
pigs. Tests for carcinogenicity were negative and it does not cause birth defects nor negative effects on the
reproductive system. Chronic tests on laboratory animals were all negative.
It is highly toxic to bees if sprayed directly onto them but is practically non-toxic once the residue dries on the
foliage. Therefore one should not spray when bees are flying. It is non-toxic to predatory sucking bugs,
ladybeetles, and lacewings so work well in IPM programs. If used on a crop, the crop can still be labeled as
organically grown. This insecticide would prove useful in vegetable culture due to its low risk of being
poisonous to applicator and consumer.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 111
It is soluble in water but breaks down on a leaf surface or in the soil after a few days so that it does not pose
a threat to ground water.
Summary: Spinosad can cause eye irritation so applicators must wear goggles. It is toxic to bees on contact
thus should not be used when bees are active.
sulfur
Sulfur is a non-systemic contact insecticide/acaricide and protectant fungicide. Its properties have been
recognized since 1880. It is used for control of apple scab, peanut leaf spot, brown rot, downy mildew, and
powdery mildew diseases. It is used on apples, gooseberries, hops, ornamentals, grapes, peaches,
strawberries, sugar beets, beans, carrots, lucerne, melons, and tomatoes. As an acaricide it controls many
kinds of mites. As an insecticide it controls thrips and scales.
Sulfur is a component of the environment and is even needed by humans for nutrition and health. But
ironically it is also a pesticide. Some formulations also can cause phytotoxicity on certain crops or varieties.
Sulfur comes in wettable, flowable, and colloidal formulations. Compatibility with other products is
considered good. Numerous mixed products with insecticides and fungicides are manufactured. For reasons
of phytotoxicity, mixing sulfur with oils should be avoided. Wettable sulfurs are the safest on tender foliage
and its effectiveness is based on the finely ground particles.
Sulfur is known to be of low toxicity to humans, and poses very little if any risk to animal health. Short-term
studies show that sulfur is of very low acute oral toxicity and does not irritate the skin (it has been placed in
EPA Toxicity Category IV, the least toxic category, for these effects). Sulfur also is not a skin sensitizer.
However, it can cause some eye irritation, dermal toxicity and inhalation hazards for which WHO grades it in
toxicity class III. Acute exposure inhalation of large amounts of the dust may cause catarrhal inflammation of
the nasal mucosa which may lead to hyperplasia with abundant nasal secretions.
Chronic exposure to elemental sulfur at low levels is generally recognized as safe. No known risks of
oncogenic, teratogenic, or reproductive effects are associated with the use of sulfur. Also, sulfur has been
shown to be non-mutagenic in microorganisms. Epidemiological studies show that mine workers exposed to
sulfur dioxide throughout their lives often had eye and respiratory disturbances, chronic bronchitis and
chronic sinus effects. Repeated or prolonged exposure to dust may cause irritation to the mucous
membranes and can incite asthma attacks.
Sulfur is considered practically non-toxic to non-targets such as bees, birds, fish, crustacea, and amphibians.
Elemental sulfur is slowly converted to sulfate in soil by the action of autotrophic bacteria in the natural
sulfur cycle. Elemental sulfur leaches in soil as sulfate at a slow rate.
Summary. Sulfur is phytotoxic to some crops or specific varieties so must be first tested in small patches. In
dust form which would be contacted when measuring amounts to place in sprayers the farmer should use
goggles. Chronic exposure can cause problems but its usage is likely to be minimal.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 112
B.4 Fungicide Profiles
These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures.
Note: that these profiles OMIT all candidate pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP and approved pesticides
identified during the 2012 survey of input stores.
azadirachtin (Neem Oil)
Neem has fungicidal properties against powdery mildew fungi. See discussion under insecticides, above.
mancozeb
Mancozeb is anethylene bis-dithiocarbamate (EBDC) fungicide which is sold under the most popular brand
name of Dithane M45 is used to protect many fruit, vegetable, nut and field crops against a wide spectrum of
fungal diseases, including potato early and late blight, leaf spot, scab, downy mildew and rust. It is also used
as a seed treatment of cotton, potatoes, maize, safflower, sorghum, peanuts, tomatoes, flax, and cereal
grains.
Mancozeb is available as dusts, liquids, water dispersible granules, as wettable powders, and as ready-to-use
formulations. It may be commonly found in combination with zineb and maneb.
Mancozeb is labeled by EPA in toxicity class III via both the oral and dermal route . It is a mild skin irritant and
sensitizer, and a mild to moderate eye irritant in rabbits. Workers with occupational exposure to mancozeb
have developed sensitization rashes. In chronic toxicity tests no toxicological effects were apparent in rats
fed dietary doses of 5 mg/kg/day in a long-term study. Impaired thyroid function was observed as lower
iodine uptake after 24 months in dogs fed doses of 2.5 and 25 mg/kg/day of mancozeb, but not in those dogs
fed 0.625 mg/kg/day.
A major toxicological concern in situations of chronic exposure is the generation of ethylenethiourea (ETU) in
the course of mancozeb metabolism and as a contaminant in mancozeb production. ETU may also be
produced when EBDCs are used on stored produce or during cooking. In addition to having the potential to
cause goiter, a condition in which the thyroid gland is enlarged, this metabolite has produced birth defects
and cancer in experimental animals.
Chronic reproductive effects were determined in a three-generation rat study with mancozeb at a dietary
level of 50 mg/kg/day there was reduced fertility but no indication of embryo-toxic effects. It is unlikely that
mancozeb will produce reproductive effects in humans under normal circumstances. No teratogenic effects
were observed in a three-generation rat study with mancozeb at a dietary level of 50 mg/kg/day. In view of
the conflicting evidence, the teratogenicity of mancozeb could not be ascertained. Mancozeb was found to
be mutagenic in one set of tests, while in another it did not cause mutations. Mancozeb is thought to be
similar to maneb, which was not mutagenic in the Ames Test. Data regarding the mutagenicity are
inconclusive but suggest that mancozeb is either not mutagenic or weakly mutagenic.
No data are available regarding the carcinogenic effects of mancozeb. While studies of other EBDCs indicate
they are not carcinogenic, ETU (a mancozeb metabolite), has caused cancer in experimental animals at high
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 113
doses. Thus, the carcinogenic potential of mancozeb is not currently known. The main target organ of
mancozeb is the thyroid gland; the effects may be due to the metabolite ETU. Mancozeb is rapidly absorbed
into the body from the gastrointestinal tract, distributed to various target organs, and almost completely
excreted in 96 hours.
Mancozeb has modest effects on non-target organisms. Mancozeb is slightly toxic to birds, and is moderately
to highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates and is rated as slightly toxic in crayfish, and moderately toxic
to both tadpoles and bees.
Mancozeb is of low soil persistence, with a reported field half-life of 1 to 7 days. Mancozeb rapidly and
spontaneously degrades to ETU in the presence of water and oxygen. ETU may persist for longer, on the
order of 5 to 10 weeks.
Because mancozeb is practically insoluble in water, it is unlikely to infiltrate groundwater. Studies do indicate
that ETU, a metabolite of mancozeb, has the potential to be mobile in soils. However, ETU has been detected
(at 0.016 mg/L) in only 1 out of 1295 drinking water wells tested. Mancozeb degrades in water with a half-life
of 1 to 2 days in slightly acidic to slightly alkaline conditions. When used as directed, mancozeb is not
poisonous to plants.
Summary. Mancozeb is an eye irritant and thus goggles are needed during application. A number of medical
issues occur from chronic exposure to the metabolite including enlarged thyroid glands, birth defects and
cancer in experimental animals. It is unlikely however that chronic exposure will be a problem in South Sudan.
It is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates and so needs to be kept from bodies of water.
metalaxyl
Metalaxyl is a systemic fungicide belonging to the benzenoid class and is absorbed through the leaves, stems
and roots. It is used to control plant diseases such as damping off, Phytophthora, Pythium, downy mildew,
potato blights. It is used as a seed treatment for long lasting protection. It is used on many food and feed
crops, and on non-food crops and for residential and greenhouse uses. Metalaxyl may be applied by foliar
application, soil incorporation, surface spraying, drenching, sprinkler or drip irrigation, and soil mix or seed
treatment.
Metalaxyl generally is of low acute toxicity but is a moderate eye irritant and has been placed in EPA Toxicity
Category III, or slightly toxic, for eye irritation effects. Rabbits exhibited slight eye and skin irritation, but
guinea pigs displayed no sensitization after metalaxyl exposure.
In a sub-chronic feeding study using rats, reduced food consumption and liver cell effects were noted at the
highest dose tested. In a dermal study using rabbits, no treatment-related effects were observed. In a chronic
toxicity study concluded that metalaxyl did not have carcinogenic potential in laboratory animals. Although
people may be exposed to residues of metalaxyl in many food commodities, the chronic dietary risk from all
uses is minimal. Application and post-application risks to workers and others also are minimal because
metalaxyl has no toxicological endpoints of concern. Feeding data suggest that metalaxyl is unlikely to cause
reproductive effects. Nor is it teratogenic or mutagenic. Available studies of the carcinogenicity of metalaxyl
are inconclusive. The liver is the primary target organ for metalaxyl in animal systems. Studies with rats and
goats showed rapid metabolism and excretion via the urine and feces.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 114
Metalaxyl poses minimal if any risks to birds, small mammals, fish and estuarine species, honey bees and
aquatic plants. The registered uses of metalaxyl do not present an acute hazard to endangered terrestrial and
aquatic animals or plant species. Aquatic invertebrates and crusteacea are slightly more susceptible to
metalaxyl, which is rated as slightly toxic to these organisms.
Metalaxyl is moderately stable under normal environmental conditions. It is photolytically stable in water
when exposed to sunlight, with a half-life of 400 days, and is stable to photo degradation in soil with a halflife ranging from 7-170 days.These properties in combination with its long persistence pose a threat of
contamination to groundwater. In aquatic systems, metalaxyl degrades moderately rapidly. Very little of the
chemical is lost to volatilization. Metalaxyl is persistent and mobile, and both metalaxyl and its major
degradation metabolites are readily leached in many soils. Monitoring data demonstrate that metalaxyl and
its primary degradation products have the potential to reach groundwater. Metalaxyl is not absorbed directly
from the soil by plants.
Summary. Metalaxyl is an eye irritant so farmers need to wear goggles during application. It has a slight
potential to be a contaminant in water so should not be used near bodies of water.
Sulfur
Sulfur has properties against powdery and down mildews and is a fungicide, acaricide, and insecticide. Its use
would be for control of plant diseases on vegetable crops. See discussion under under insecticides.
thiram
Thiram is a non-systemic fungicide used as a seed protectant (e.g., small seeded vegetables, large seeded
vegetables, cereal grains and other seeds) from fungal diseases. In addition, thiram is used as an animal
repellent to protect sown-seeds from damage by rabbits, rodents, and deer. Thus as a seed treatment may
have an additional use in preventing vertebrate wild animals from removing seeds from the soil. Thiram is
applied to seeds prior to planting. It is available in a variety of formulations.
Thiram exhibits low to moderate acute toxicity via the oral (toxicity class III) and dermal (toxicity class III)
routes of exposure. Thiram is considered to be moderately toxic via the inhalation route of exposure (toxicity
class II). It is a moderate eye irritant (toxicity class II), a slight dermal irritant (toxicity class IV), and a
moderate skin sensitizer.
Thiram is a neurotoxicant and can also act as a developmental toxicant. The neurotoxic effects of thiram seen
in laboratory animals include lethargy and reduced motor activity. In carcinogenicity studies in rats and mice,
thiram did not demonstrate any significant evidence of carcinogenic potential.
It was rated as practically non-toxic to birds, but is very highly toxic to amphibians. It is highly toxic to fish,
earth worms, and aquatic invertebrates. Thiram is expected to be sufficiently mobile and persistent in some
cases to reach surface waters in concentrations high enough to impact aquatic life. It should therefore not be
used near water bodies, nor should wastes from its use be disposed of where they can reach surface water
bodies or groundwater aquifers.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 115
Mammals and birds in the field may be exposed to thiram by ingesting treated seeds or by other routes, such
as incidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dermal contact with treated seed surfaces and soil during
activities in the treated areas, inhalation of pesticide vapor and contaminated particulate, and ingestion of
drinking water contaminated with the pesticide. The ecological risk assessment for birds shows risks for
reproductive effects. Overall, it is not considered to be toxic to birds, as it causes them to retch to entrain an
avoidance behavior.
Summary. Thiram is moderately toxic via inhalation and is an eye irritant. It is also can cause skin rashes.
Applicators should wear goggles and long sleeved shirts and long pants. From chronic exposure it can cause
lethargy and reduced motor activity but this is a low risk in South Sudan where pesticide usage will be
minimal. It is a likely ground water contaminant and is very toxic to amphibians, fish, earthworms, and
aquatic vertebrates so needs to be kept from bodies of water.
B.5 Herbicide Profiles
These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures.
Note: that these profiles OMIT all candidate pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP, and approved pesticides
identified during the 2012 survey of input stores.
fluazifop-p-butyl
Fluazifop-p-butyl is a selective post-emergence phenoxy herbicide used for control of most annual and
perennial grass weeds in cotton, soybeans, stone fruits, asparagus, coffee, common beans, and others. It has
essentially no activity on broadleaf species. It is compatible with a wide variety of other herbicides. It is
available as an emulsifiable concentrate.
Chronic toxicity tests where rats were fed small amounts of fluazifop-p-butyl for 90 days developed no
compound-induced effects. Further tests showed no reproductive effects and it is not teratogenic, mutagenic
nor carcinogenic. In addition organ toxicity has not been seen in experimental animals.
Fluazifop-p-butyl is practically nontoxic to bird species; but is highly tomoderately toxic to fish, but only
slightly toxic to other aquatic species, such as invertebrates. The compound is practically non toxic to bees.
Fluazifop-p-butyl is of low persistence in moist soil environments, with a reported half-life in these conditions
of less than 1 week. Fluazifop-p-butyl breaks down rapidly in moist soils to the fluazifop acid, which is also of
low persistence. Fluazifop-p-butyl and fluazifop-p are both reported to be of low mobility in soils and not to
present appreciable risks for groundwater contamination. Fluazifop-p-butyl is rapidly hydrolized (cleaved
apart by water) under most conditions to the fluazifop acid.
After uptake by the leaves of plants, Fluazifop-p-butyl is rapidly broken down in the presence of water to
fluazifop-p, which is translocated throughout the plant. The compound accumulates in the actively growing
regions of the plant (meristems of roots and shoots, root rhizomes and stolons of grass), where it interferes
with energy (adenosine triphosphate or ATP) production and cell metabolism in susceptible species.
Summary. Fluazifop-p-butyl is a mild eye irritant so applicators should wear goggles. It is highly toxic to fish
so should be kept from bodies of water.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 116
glyphosate salt
Glyphosate is supplied in several formulations with glyphosate acid being the most common. The
isopropylamine salt is being recommended which is the least toxic (class III). Glyphosate salt is a broadspectrum, non-selective systemic herbicide. It is useful on essentially all annual and perennial plants including
grasses, sedges, broad-leaved weeds, and woody plants. It can be used on non-cropland and among a great
variety of crops.
Even though the LD50 values show the compound to be relatively non-toxic it can cause significant eye
irritation. The toxicity of the more commonly known technical product (glyphosate), and the formulated
product (Roundup) falls into toxicity class II. In a number of human volunteers, patch tests with glyphosate
salt produced no visible skin changes or sensitization.
Sub-chronic and chronic tests with glyphosate have been conducted and with few exceptions there were no
treatment-related easily observable or cellular changes. In a chronic feeding study with rats, no toxic effects
were observed given at high doses. No toxic effects were observed in a chronic feeding study with dogs fed
the highest dose tested. The lifetime administration of very high amounts of glyphosate produced only a
slight reduction of body weight and some microscopic liver and kidney changes. Blood chemistry, cellular
components, and organ function were not affected even at the highest doses. Hens fed massive amounts
over three days and again 21 days later showed no nerve related effects.
Most of the field and laboratory evidence shows that glyphosate produces no reproductive changes in test
animals. It is unlikely that the compound would produce any reproductive effects in humans. In a teratology
study with rabbits showed it was safe; in addition no developmental toxicity was observed in the fetuses at
the highest dose tested. The compound did not cause mutations in microbes. Genetic tests on eight different
kinds of bacterial strains and on yeast cells were all negative.
The compound poses little mutagenic risk to humans. Rats and dogs and mice fed glyphosate over a wide
range of doses showed no cancer related effects directly due to the compound. EPA has stated that there is
sufficient evidence to conclude that glyphosate is not carcinogenic in humans.
Glyphosate is only slightly toxic to wild birds. The bioaccumulation factor in chicken muscle, fat, eggs, and
liver was low. Glyphosate is practically non-toxic to fish. There is a very low potential for the compound to
build up in the tissues of aquatic invertebrates or other aquatic organisms. Glyphosate is relatively non-toxic
to honeybees.
Glyphosate is highly adsorbed on most soils especially those with high organic content. The compound is so
strongly attracted to the soil that little is expected to leach from the applied area. Unbound glyphosate can
be degraded by bacteria. The time it takes for half of the product to break down ranges from 1 to 174 days.
Because glyphosate is so tightly bound to the soil, little is transferred by rain or irrigation water. One estimate
showed less than two percent of the applied chemical lost to runoff. The herbicide could move when
attached to soil particles in erosion run-off. Photodecomposition plays only a minor role in environmental
breakdown. Once in the plant tissue, the chemical is translocated throughout the plant, including to the
roots.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 117
Summary: Glyphosate salt can be a significant eye irritant so goggles should be worn. No other significant
effects are noted.
imazapyr
Imazapyr is of the imidazolinone chemical class and is a systemic, non-selective herbicide used for pre- and
post-emergent control of annual and perennial grasses and broadleaf weeds, brush, vines, and many
deciduous trees in non-agricultural settings. Agricultural uses of imazapyr include field corn and grass.
Imazapyr is applied either as an acid or as the isopropylamine salt. Imazapyr is absorbed by the leaves and
through the root system, and acts by disrupting protein synthesis.
Imazapyr has been given an unique role in the control of striga. Maize has been developed which is herbicideresistant thus when maize seed is coated with low doses of the herbicide, about 30g imazapyr per hectare,
striga can be controlled. The herbicide resistant maize is called StrigAway and when it germinates, it absorbs
some of the herbicide used in coating it. The germinating maize also stimulates striga to germinate, and as it
attaches to the maize root, it is killed before it can cause any damage. Herbicide that is not absorbed by the
maize plant diffuses into the soil and kills striga seeds that have not germinated. It is for this unique usage
that imazapyr is being included in this PERSUAP. However it is not known at this time how important striga is
in maize culture in South Sudan.
Imazapyr has low acute toxicity via the oral (class IV) and dermal (class III) routes exposure. Imazapyr has
been placed in acute class II for the inhalation exposure. It is not irritating to the skin, and is negative for
dermal sensitization. However, imazapyr results in irreversible eye damage (class I) which will be less of a
hazard as it is being used as a seed treatment. Farmers will have to use gloves when sowing the crop.
Normally, an acute hazard value is chosen from acute (non-lethal), sub-chronic, developmental toxicity
studies from which there is reasonable evidence that an exposure can lead to a potential effect. The available
data suggest that a single exposure imazapyr does not result in an effect of concern for risk assessment
purposes.
From chronic exposure there is no evidence of human carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or teratogenicity. No
reproductive malfunction was noted in chronic feeding tests.
It is rated as practically non-toxic to bees as acute exposure and similarly to fish, birds, crustacean, and
aquatic invertebrates as well.
Imazapyr is moderately persistent in the plant and soils. The primary route of degradation is microbial
activity. The half-life of imazapyr is 90 days. Imazapyr is moderately persistent with a moderate soil
adsorption coefficient. There is a moderate potential for imazapyr to leach into groundwater and a high
potential for surface water runoff.
Summary. Imazapyr results in severe irreversible eye damage so that when it is applied as a seed treatment
the farmers need to use plastic gloves and goggles and wash up afterwards. It is a threat to leach into
groundwater but the small quantities used in each application make this possibility of minimal consequence.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 118
Pendimethalin
Pendimethalin is a selective dinitroamino-benzene herbicide used to control most annual grasses and certain
broadleaf weeds in field corn, potatoes, rice, cotton, soybeans, tobacco, peanuts, and sunflowers. It is used
both pre-emergence, that is before weed seeds have sprouted, and early post-emergence. Incorporation into
the soil by cultivation or irrigation is recommended within 7 days following application. It is absorbed by plant
roots and shoots, and inhibits cell division and cell elongation. Once absorbed into plant tissues, translocation
is limited and pendimethalin breaks down via oxidation.
Pendimethalin is a slightly toxic compound in EPA toxicity class III by both oral and dermal exposure.
Pendimethalin is slightly to practically nontoxic by ingestion. It is slightly to practically nontoxic by skin
exposure. It is not a skin irritant or sensitizer in rabbits or guinea pigs, but it causes mild eye irritation in
rabbits. The inhalation 4-hour test indicated practically no toxicity via this route.
In a three-generation reproductive study of rats suggested that pendimethalin is unlikely to cause
reproductive effects in humans under normal circumstances. It does not appear that pendimethalin is
teratogenic, mutagenic, nor carcinogenic. Chronic exposure to pendimethalin has resulted in increased liver
weights in test animals. Pendimethalin is largely unabsorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and excreted
unchanged in the feces.
Pendimethalin is slightly toxic to birds, but is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. It is slightly toxic
to Daphnia magna, a small freshwater crustacean. The bio-concentration factor for this compound in whole
fish is 5100, indicating a moderate potential to accumulate in aquatic organisms. Pendimethalin is non-toxic
to bees.
Pendimethalin is moderately persistent, with a field half-life of approximately 40 days. It does not undergo
rapid microbial degradation except under anaerobic conditions. Slight losses of pendimethalin can result
from photodecomposition and volatilization.
Pendimethalin is strongly adsorbed by most soils. Increasing soil organic matter and clay is associated with
increased soil binding capacity. It is practically insoluble in water, and thus will not leach appreciably in most
soils, and should present a minimal risk of groundwater contamination. Pendimethalin is stable to hydrolysis,
but may be degraded by sunlight in aquatic systems. Pendimethalin may also be removed from the water
column by binding to suspended sediment and organic matter.
Summary: Pendimethalin causes mild eye irrigation so farmers need to use goggles. Chronic exposure is
unlikely so that the physiological effects noted probably are only remotely possible. It is highly toxic to fish and
aquatic invertebrates so needs to be kept from bodies of water.
thiobencarb
Thiobencarb is a selective, systemic, pre emergence and early post emergence rice herbicide, absorbed by
coleoptile, mesocotyl, roots and leaves of target plants. It inhibits shoot growth of emerging seedlings by
interfering with protein synthesis. Thiobencarbwill control most annual grasses, broadleaved weeds and
sedges in dry-seeded riceup to five weeks following application.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 119
The oral toxicity of thiobencarb is in class (III) while dermal toxicity is in class IV. The product has low toxicity
by the inhalation route (class IV). It will irritate the skin and eye irritation tests produced reversible slight to
severe ocular effects which cleared within 7 days. This product did not produce a skin sensitization reaction
in guinea pigs.
Thiobencarb is non-mutagenic, non-teratogenic, and non-carcinogenic based on standard tests. A twogeneration reproduction study conducted with thiobencarb technical in rats did not show impairment to
reproductive performance.
Thiobencarbis is practically nontoxic to birds and bees, and has moderate toxicity in amphibians, aquatic
invertebrates, and zooplankton. It is moderately to highly toxic in crustaceans and fish, and it is slightly to
moderately toxic in mollusks.
Thiobencarb is rapidly adsorbed by soil and not easily leached thus is of little consequence as a groundwater
contaminant. Degradation is primarily by microbial breakdown with little loss from volatilization and photodegradation. The half-life of the material varies from 2-3 weeks under aerobic conditions to 6-8 months
under anaerobic conditions.
Summary: Thiobencarb can irritate the skin and eye so that applicators should wear goggles and long sleeved
shirts and trousers. It is moderately toxic some non-targets so should not be used near bodies of water.
B.6 Bird Repellant Profiles
methyl anthranilate
Methyl anthranilate has been used by the food and drug industry for more than forty years to flavor candy,
sodas, gum and drugs. It is on the U.S. Food & Drug Administration's "Generally Recognized as Safe" list. Bird
Shield is the brand name and is a bird repellant derived from an extract of concord grapes thus is safe for
humans. EPA has registered it on maize, sorghum, rice, and sunflower.
Bird Shield works best when applied to crops early in the morning or in the late afternoon when
temperatures are lowest and winds are calm. Extremely hard water that contains high amounts of iron and
calcium can affect the tank solution, so compatibility tests are suggested prior to tank mixing.
Eye irritation comes from the solvent and carrier used in the formulations.
Bird Shield is rain fast and is gradually broken down by sunlight and air movement and does pose a threat to
the environment.
Summary: Methyl anthranilate poses little to no risk to the environment and to non-targets. However, it only
irritates the eyes upon contact so that applicators must wear goggles.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 120
ANNEX C:
MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF
PESTICIDE SAFER USE TRAINING
Pesticide safer use training must address the following minimum elements.
Definition of Pesticides
Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons
Concepts of active ingredients vs formulated products
Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective against only certain classe
of organism.
Concept of proper application rates and the concept of pesticide resistance and techniques for
preventing resistance.
Concept that pesticides have specific organisms against which they are effective
Survey of the core elements of Safer Pesticide Use: IPM, Safer Purchase, Transport, Storage, Mixing,
Application, Reentry and pre-harvest Intervals, Clean-up & Disposal, including specific treatment of
PPE
Pesticide First Aid & Spill Response
Interpretation of Pesticide Labels --- particularly to understand PPE requirements and other
precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs, and expiration dates
Proper sprayer operation and maintenance.
The following sections provide specific content notes on some of these topics.
C.1 Integrated Pest Management
IPM is an integral part of Safer Pesticide Use and supporting the use of pesticides only within an IPM
framework is core requirement of this PERSUAP. Therefore Pesticide Safer use training must build an
understanding of IPM fundamentals.
The heart of IPM is an understanding of the relationship between pest injury, damage, yield loss, and
economic loss. IPM was developed within the discipline of economic entomology. Farmers who are not
trained in IPM may spray a crop upon seeing a single insect in a field or a few brown spots of a disease on a
leaf. Pesticides are expensive and should only be used as a last resort and only when economically justified.
Extension workers and farmers first need to understand the relationship between increasing injury levels and
crop yield of each pest which is known as the damage function. A small amount of injury in fact can cause
yield gain called overcompensation. In most cases significant yield loss does not occur until a certain pest
density occurs in the field because the crop can compensate for this level of damage. Then there is normally
a linear decline in yield with increasing pest density. From this relationship the economic injury level,
economic threshold or action threshold can be defined in the case of insect pests. Other methods to assess
the threat of weeds and crop diseases will need to be developed based on field experience. Certain
guidelines can be developed based on experience in neighboring countries.
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 121
IPM involves several tiers of integration. First there is the integration between control methods which must
be harmonious. Non harmonious examples are the negative effect of pesticides on biocontrol agents.
Biocontrol, which is the action of natural enemies against the pest, is free to the farmer so it behooves him
not to upset this delicate balance unless absolutely necessary. The next tier of integration occurs between
the different pest control disciplines. When one sprays an insecticide, herbivorous insects feeding on weeds
are killed. Some fungicides also kill insect pests. Removing weeds forces army worms to now feed on the
crop. The third tier is the integration with the cropping system and farming system. Crops that are well
nourished can tolerate more damage. Many crop husbandry practices also affect pests, either positively or
negatively. Application of Nitrogen fertilizer is an example. On the one hand it can stimulate plant diseases
but on the other can provide strength of the crop to tolerate insect pest damage.
Pests do not occur in isolation thus the crop has to deal with multiple pests as well as multiple stresses. A
crop that is weak from zinc deficiency or water stress cannot tolerate as much pest damage as a healthier
crop. In fact some sucking insect pests explode in abundance on a drought stressed crop further exacerbating
the problem. The relationship between multiple pests and multiple stresses can be additive (1+1 = 2),
antagonistic (1 + 1 = 1), or synergistic (1 + 1 = 3). This can occur in terms of yield loss from adding more pests
or stresses or can occur in terms of yield gain when one or more stresses are removed due to an effective
curative control effort.
The IPM training will provide examples of the different pest control methods beginning with preventative
ones which start with quarantine and cultural crop husbandry methods based on good agronomic practices
which increase the crop’s tolerance for pest injury. Many of these methods fall under the rubric of cultural
control. Host plant resistance is also a good example of prevention. Other pest control methods can be
physical (a fence to keep out animals), mechanical (using nets), or biological (parasitoids, predators,
pathogens). Biological includes natural control and man induced methods such as purchasing and releasing
natural enemies or using selective pesticides. As a last resort there is chemical control.
Farmers will need to be trained to recognize pests in the field and to be able to assess their densities as well
as know of the several methods of control for each. Training manuals with good color photos will be essential
in the training process. Government approved recommended practices need to be published and updated
annually in guides given to extension officers.
Using personal protective equipment and clothing needs to be understood for each level of toxicity. This
information is summarized below as well as other information on the risks and hazards of transport, storage,
and disposal of pesticides. Safety practices need to be learned such as that pesticides should not be stored in
the home where children can find them.
C.2 Protective clothing and equipment
Training must address the types of personal protective equipment (PPE), when theyshould be worn and why.
HANDLER PPE FOR WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD PRODUCTS
Toxicity Category by Route of Exposure of End-Use Product
Route of Exposure
I
DANGER
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 122
II
WARNING
III
CAUTION
IV
CAUTION
Dermal Toxicity
or Skin Irritation
1
Potential /
Coveralls worn over long- Coveralls worn over longsleeved shirt and long
sleeved shirt and long
pants
pants
Long-sleeved shirt and
long pants
Long-sleeved shirt and long
pants
Socks
Socks
Socks
Socks
Chemical-resistant
footwear
Chemical-resistant
footwear
Rubber boots or shoes
Rubber boots or shoes
Chemical-resistant
2
Gloves /
Chemical-resistant
2
Gloves /
Chemical-resistant
2
Gloves /
No minimum /
4
No minimum /
4
No minimum /
No minimum /
Inhalation Toxicity
Respiratory protection
3
device /
5
Eye Irritation Potential
Goggles /
4
4
Respiratory protection
3
device /
5
Goggles /
No minimum /
4
1
/ If dermal t1/Toxicity and skin irritation toxicity categories are different, PPE shall be determined by the
more severe toxicity category of the two. If dermal toxicity or skin irritation is category I or II, refer to the
pesticide label/MSDS to determine if additional PPE is required.
2
/ Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of chemical-resistant glove.
3
/ Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of respiratory protection.
4
/ Although no minimum PPE is required for these toxicity categories and routes of exposure, some specific
products may require PPE. Read pesticide label/MSDS.
5
/“Protective eyewear” is used instead of “goggles” and/or “face shield” and/or “shielded safety glasses” and
similar terms to describe eye protection. Eye glasses and sunglasses are not sufficient eye protection.
Note: Where necessary, Farmers can make their own PPE. For example a plastic or water repellent apron
from the waist to ankle length, can be fashioned from a large piece of plastic purchased in the local market
(important if walking through the spray path).
C.3 Proper Spray Technique: Protecting against herbicide spray drift
Many farmers apply pesticides with a knapsack sprayer which means that delivery of pesticides is either in
front of the person spraying or to the side, not to the back as it is with tractor drawn sprayers. Inevitably
pesticide drift will be carried by the wind and potentially settle on sensitive ecosystems such as national
parks if they are nearby. Herbicides pose the greatest risk for environmental damage especially when their
drift lands on a neighbors crops and kills or severely damages them.
The potential for drift to travel long distances has been shown with the highly residual chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides such as DDT have been found at both of the poles on earth that arrived via the
atmosphere. They are in sufficient quantity that their amount can be measured. Pesticides are transported to
the earth’s distant poles are bound tightly to dust particles carried high into the atmosphere and moved on
jet streams. Their presence only represents a very small percentage of the drift. Spray drift is a mostly local
phenomenon, whereby spray droplets move to areas near to the field.
There are a number of ways in which pesticide drift can be minimized:
2013 South Sudan PERSUAP | pg. 123
Increase spray droplet size. Fog sized droplets can travel three miles while a coarse droplet < 10 feet. To
increase droplet size, the farmer can reducing spray pressure (ie. 30 to 50 pounds per square inch with 5 to
20 gallons of water per acre), increase nozzle orifice size, use special drift reduction nozzles, and purchase
additives that increase spray viscosity.
Distance between nozzle and target. Reduce the distance between the nozzle and the target crop.
Temperature and relative humidity. As pesticides vaporize more under high temperature, low relative
humidity and/or high temperature will cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray
nozzle and the target. Evaporation also reduces droplet size, which in turn increases the potential drift of
spray droplets. It is best not to spray in the heat of the day to avoid drift problems.
Avoid spraying when the wind speed > 10 mph. As drift occurs as droplets suspended in the air, it is best to
minimize applications during windy days. If spraying has to be done, however, the farmer should spray away
from sensitive areas. Local terrain can influence wind patterns, thus every applicator should be familiar with
local wind patterns and how they affect spray drift.
Do not spray when the air is completely calm or when a temperature inversion exists. When the air is
completely still, small spray droplets becomesuspended in the warm air near the soil surface and will be
readily carried aloft and away from susceptible plants by vertical air movement. A temperature inversion
occurs when air near the soil surface is cooler than the higher air. Temperature inversions restrict vertical air
mixing, which causes small suspended droplets to remain in a concentrated cloud and impact plants two
miles or more downwind. This cloud can move in unpredictable directions due to the light variable winds
common during inversions.
Application height. Making applications at the lowest height reduces exposure of droplets to evaporation and
wind.
C.4 Pesticide Transport
Where IPs or beneficiary groups will be transporting pesticides, training must address the fundamentals of
safe transport of pesticides. (Some of the largest accidents involving pesticides have occurred during
transportation.) Drivers should be trained on how to deal with and contain spills and not to transport
pesticides with food. Many of the agro dealers are also small and they ship their stock individually in
relatively small quantities. Agro dealers should be sensitized about minimizing potential risks during
transporation. Minimum elements of safer transport are:
keep pesticides away from passengers, livestock and foodstuffs;
do not carryp esticides in driver’s compartment;
containers must be in good condition; do not transport packages with any leakage;
transport under cover and protected from rain, and direct sunlight.
C.5 First aid
Training must include the basis elements of pesticide first aid, as per the table below. Wherever possible,
personnel at local health facilities should participate in/receive such training.
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General
Poison on skin
Read the first aid instructions on the pesticide label, if possible, and follow them. Do not become exposed to
poisoning yourself while you are trying to help. Take the pesticide container (or the label) to the physician.
Act quickly
Remove contaminated clothing and drench skin with water
Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with detergent and water
Dry victim and wrap in blanket.
Chemical burn
on skin
Wash with large quantities of running water
Remove contaminated clothing
Cover burned area immediately with loose, clean, soft cloth
Do not apply ointments, greases, powders, or other drugs in first aid treatment of burns
Poison in eye
Wash eye quickly but gently
Hold eyelid open and wash with gentle stream of clean running water
Wash for 15 minutes or more
Do not use chemicals or drugs in the wash water; they may increase the extent of injury
Inhaled poison
Carry victim to fresh air immediately
Open all doors and windows so no one else will be poisoned
Loosen tight clothing
Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or if the victim’s skin is blue. If patient is in an
enclosed area, do not enter without proper protective clothing and equipment. If proper protection is
not available, call for emergency equipment from your fire department (if available)
Poison in
mouth or
swallowed
Rinse mouth with plenty of water
Procedure for
inducing
vomiting
Position victim face down or kneeling forward, Do not allow victim to lie on his back, because the vomit
could enter the lungs and do additional damage
Give victim large amounts (up to 1 quart) of milk or water to drink
Induce vomiting only if instructions to do so are on the label
Put finger or the blunt end of a spoon at the back of victim’s throat or give syrup of ipecac
Collect some of the vomit for the physician if you do not know what the poison is
Do not use salt solutions to induce vomiting
When not to
induce
vomiting
If the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions
If the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison. A corrosive poison is a strong acid or alkali. It will burn
the throat and mouth as severely coming up as it did going down. It may get into the lungs and burn
there also
If the victim has swallowed an emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution. Emulsifiable concentrates and
oil solutions may cause severe damage to the lungs if inhaled during vomiting
C.6 Pesticide storage
Preventative measures are required in pesticide warehouses in order to reduce cases of pilferage, exposure
through leakages, theft and expiration of pesticides. Where IPs or beneficiaries, including agro dealers, will be
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maintaining pesticide stores, trainng must address these practices, as per the best management practices for
pesticide storage highlighted in FAO’s storage manual and summarized below:
All primary pesticide storage facilities will be double-padlocked and guarded on a 24 hour basis
All the storage facilities will be located away from water courses, domestic wells, markets, schools,
hospitals etc. Wastewater from pesticide storage facilities must not be drained directly into public
drains but should be pre treated on site.
Soap and clean water will be available at all times in all the facilities
A trained storekeeper will be hired to manage each facility
Pesticides will be stacked as specified in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual.
Inventory management will include recording expiration dates of all pesticides and maintaining a
“first-in first-out” stocking system.
All the warehouses will have at least two exit access routes in case of fire outbreak
A non-water-based fire extinguisher will be available in the storage facilities, and all workers will be
trained on how to use this device, and how to respond to fire. (see below)
Warning notices will be placed outside of the store in the local language(s) with a skull and
crossbones sign to caution against unauthorized entry
Further, if IP-run pesticide stores exist in an area with fire or emergency services, local first responders
must receive training on how to deal with pesticide fires. The smoke from such a fire is highly hazardous
and effluent from water spray can do great harm to the environment. If fire fighters use water to put out
a fire in a pesticide storage shed, the runoff will be highly toxic.
C.7 Proper pesticide container disposal
Once pesticides have been used, the empty containers need to be properly disposed of. Training must
address proper disposal. This table gives a summary of the best practices for doing so.
Proper methods to dispose of pesticides and their empty containers
Container Type
Disposal Statements
Metal Containers (non-aerosol)
Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and bury
Paper and Plastic Bags
Completely empty bag into application equipment. Then bury empty bag
Glass Containers
Triple rinse. Then bury.
Plastic Containers
Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and bury
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