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Effect of some selected tree species on soil attributes and
yield of millet (pennisetum typhoides) under semi arid
environment.
By
Mohammed Hussein Abdalla
B.Sc. Forestry Science
Faculty of Forestry and Range Science
Sudan University For Science And Technology
1999.
Supervisor
Dr. Mubarak Abdelrahman Abdalla
A thesis Submitted to the University of Khartoum in partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of M.Sc of Science in Desertification
Desertification and Desert Cultivation Studies Institute,
University of Khartoum
June - 2008.
Dedication
To my father
To my mother
To my wife
To my son Eihab
To my brothers and sisters
To my friends and my colleaques
With love and respect
Mohammed
i
Acknowledgments
My gratitude and appreciation to Allah who provides me with health and
strength.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Mubarak
Abdelrahman Abdalla for his valuable advice and directions throughout the
study.
Special thanks to the director of Eldubibat Forestry Mr. Gumaa Mukki for
his assistance and cooperation during study.
Grate full thanks for my family for their patience.
Deepest gratitude and appreciation are also extended to the director of the
Forestry of South Kurdofan State.
My gratitude is extended to the director of Lugawa Forestry Mr. Mohammed
Osman.
My thanks also extended to the staff of (DADACSI) for advices and
encouragement.
Full thanks are extended to my dear colleaques in Institute for their
assistance during laboratory analysis and so my friends.
Also thanks are extended to any person who supported the processing study.
ii
Abstract
Trees tend to improve soil fertility by changing the chemical properties,
physical structure, microclimate, infiltration capacity and moisture regime of
the soil. Two field experiments were carried out in south Kordofan State
(between July and November (2006),) to determine (in the first experiment)
the contribution of three selected trees (Acacia senegal, Blanites aegyptiaca
and Azadirachtica indica) to millet (Pennisetum typhoides) and soil quality
and to monitor (in the second experiment) decomposition and nutrients
release of the litters from these tree species.
The results showed that millet yield under the Neem (174.83 kg/ha) and
Heiglig (173.09 kg/ha) were significantly (P≤0.03) higher than the control
(121.43 kg/ha) by an average of 43%. The lowest yield (111.04 kg/ha) was
recorded under the Hashab trees. Similarly, straw dry matter in the Heiglig
(1161.5 kg/ha) and Neem (857.8 kg/ha) were significantly (P ≤ 0.0001)
higher than both under Hashab (321.8 kg/ha and the control (454.8 kg/ha).
Trees vary in their capacity to induce changes in soil pH, OC, ECe whereas
effects on soil K, P and N were not substantial. In this respect, the Hashab
tree was found to contribute much higher amounts of OC to the soil.
Initial dry matter weight loss during decomposition of the tree litter varied
significantly (P ≤ 0.04) between the different sources and was found to be in
the order of Hashab > Neem > Heiglig. The decomposition study also found
that tree litters do not vary significantly in their potential to release N and P.
However, K in all litters was the rapid element to be mobilized. It is
concluded that the capacity of trees to improve soil fertility in the nutrient
poor sandy soils could offer an alternative management system for improved
cultivation of field crops.
iii
However, due to high initial P content, Neem tree could be a good source for
enriching soil with P.
iv
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬
‫ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﰲ ﲢﺴﲔ ﺧﺼﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﳋﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﳌﻨﺎﺥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ‪ ،‬ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﺏ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺭﻃﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ‪ .‬ﺍﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﲡﺮﺑﺘﺎﻥ ﺣﻘﻠﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﰱ ﻭﻻﻳﺔ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﻛﺮﺩﻓﺎﻥ)ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﺑﲔ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ ﺣﱴ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﱪ( ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﲢﺪﻳﺪ)ﰱ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ( ﻣﺴﺎﳘﺔ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻨﺘﺨﺒﺔ)ﻫﺠﻠﻴﺞ‪ ،‬ﻧﻴﻢ ﻭﻫﺸﺎﺏ( ﶈﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻦ ﻭﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﳌﻼﺣﻈﺔ)ﰱ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ(‬
‫ﲢﻠﻞ ﺑﻘﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻦ ﲢﺖ ﺍﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻢ )‪174.83‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﻭﺍﺷﺠﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺍﳍﺠﻠﻴﺞ)‪173.09‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺘﻪ ﰱ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻫﺪ )‪121.43‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﲟﻌﺪﻝ ‪.%43‬‬
‫ﺍﻗﻞ ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﻪ )‪111.04‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﺳﺠﻠﺖ ﲢﺖ ﺍﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﳍﺸﺎﺏ‪ .‬ﻭﰱ ﺣﲔ ﺍﻥ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳉﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻘﺼﺐ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻦ ﲢﺖ ﺍﳍﺠﻠﻴﺞ )‪1161.5‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻢ ‪857.8‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﲢﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﳍﺸﺎﺏ )‪321.8‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ( ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺎﻫﺪ )‪454.8‬ﻛﻠﺠﻢ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ(‪.‬‬
‫ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﰱ ﻣﻘﺪﺭ‪‬ﺎ ﻻﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﰱ ﺍﳊﻤﻮﺿﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻯ ﻭﺍﳌﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺎﺳﻴﻮﻡ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﺘﺮﻭﺟﲔ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻏﲑ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﰱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺷﺠﺮﺓ ﺍﳍﺸﺎﺏ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎﳘﺔ ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻯ ﰱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻘﺪﺍﻥ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳉﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﲢﻠﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﳜﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﻫﺸﺎﺏ ﻳﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻢ ﰒ ﺍﳍﺠﻠﻴﺞ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻞ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﻭﺟﺪﺕ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﻻﲣﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﰱ ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻻﻃﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺘﺮﻭﺟﲔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺎﺳﻴﻮﻡ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺍ ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺎ ﰱ ﻛﻞ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻟﻸﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﳊﺮﻛﺘﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﳜﻠﺺ ﺑﺄﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺷﺠﺎﺭ ﰱ ﲢﺴﲔ ﺧﺼﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﲑﺓ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺩﺍﺭﻯ ﺑﺪﻳﻞ ﻟﺘﺤﺴﲔ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﶈﺎﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﳊﻘﻠﻴﺔ‪.‬ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻭﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﶈﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﺷﺠﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻢ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺟﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮﺭ‬
‫‪v‬‬
Table of content
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Abstract
Arabic Abstract
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Literature review
2.1 Agroforetry as atool for sustainable agriculture
2.1.1 General
2.1.2 Forest loss and soil degradation in the tropics
2.2 Contribution of tree to soil fertility
2.2.1 General
2.2.2 Tree on farm and their contribution to soil fertility
2.2.3 Main tree types (Heiglig, Neem and Hashab)
2.2.4 Effect of trees on soil biology
2.3 Effect of specific trees on soil properties (Mesquite)
2.4 Effect of afforestation and deforestation on soil properties
2.4.1 General
2.4.2 Effect on soil carbon
2.5 Tree crop interaction
2.6 Decomposition of tree litters
2.6.1 Patterns of decomposition and carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphours
dynamics of litter in upland forest and peat land
2.7 Importance of efficient use of rainfall
Chapter Three :Material and methods
3.1 Location of study area
3.2 Climate
3.3 Topography
3.4 Soil
3.5 Vegetation
3.6 Agriculture
3.7 Experiment layout
3.8 Soil analysis
3.9 Plant analysis
3.10 Calculation
Chapter Four : Results
vi
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30
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38
40
4.1 Main experiment
4.2 Secondary experiment
Chapter Five : Discussion
5.1 Cultivation of millet under different tree species
5.1.1 Effect on yield and straw dry matter
5.2 Decomposition and nutrients release
5.2.1 Dry matter weight loss(DMW)
5.2.2 Nutrients release
Chapter Six : Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions
6.2 Recommendations
References
vii
40
54
64
64
64
69
69
69
72
72
73
74
List of tables
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
4.3
Some selected soil physical and chemical properties of the study sit.. 32
Characterization of the plant used…………………………………….36
Effect of trees on yield of millet………………………………………40
Effect of trees on dry matter content of millet………………….….…41
Actual changes of percent dry matter weight remaining of …….……56
Heiglig (H), Neem(N) and Hashab (S) during the period of
10 weeks of decomposition
4.4 Actual changes of percent remaining N of Heiglig (H), Neem(N)…….58
and Hashab (S) during the period of 10 weeks of decomposition
4.5 Actual changes of percent Phosphorus remaining of Heiglig(H), …….60
Neem(N) and Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of
incubation
4.6 Actual changes of percent Potassium remaining of Heiglig(H)…….…62
, Neem(N) and Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of
incubation.
4.7 Actual changes of ash remaining of Heiglig(H), Neem(N) and………63
Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of incubation.
viii
List of figures
4.1 Effect of trees on soil pH in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40…………..43
(b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
4.2 Effect of trees on ECe (dSm-1) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40 …….45
(b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
4.3 Effect of trees on ECe (dSm-1) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40……..47
(b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
4.4 Effect of trees on TN (%) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40 ……..…..49
(b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
4.5 Effect of trees on Total P (ppm) in the 0-20……………….51
(a), 20- 40 (b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
4.6 Effect of trees on Total soluble k (meqL-1) in the 0-20……53
(a), 20- 40 (b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths
ix
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Traditionally, soil quality has been mainly associated with forest production
(Hornik 1992), whereas more recently the definition has been expanded to
include the capacity of a soil to sustain biological productivity, maintain
environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health (Doran &
Parkin 1994). Moreover, it has been established that more dynamic
characteristics such as microbial biomass, soil enzymes activity, soil
respiration and other biological indices respond more quickly to changes in
management or environmental conditions than characteristics such as soil
organic matter and total nitrogen (Brookes 1995; Trasar et al. 1998).
Trees tend to improve the site by changing the soil chemical
properties, physical structure, microclimate, infiltration capacity and
moisture regime of the soil (Prinsely and Swift, 1986). With time, process
such as litter fall, nitrogen fixation, root extension, crown expansion and
nutrient cycling contribute to nutrient and organic matter build-up in the
top soil leading to physical, chemical and biological improvement in the
critical rooting zone (Gill et al., 1987; Gill and Abrol, 1991; Evans, 1992;
Garg and Jain, 1992).
Agroforetry has been defined as "tree plus any other food crop”
1
or, alternatively as land management "comprising trees with a form of
food crops” (Mac Dicken and Vergara 1990; Vergara 1985).
Agroforestry, also is considered a collective term for those land
use practices in which trees and shrubs are combined deliberately on a
land unit with the agricultural crops and\ or livestock in spatial
arrangements or temporal sequences (Rain tree 1987).
A more comprehensive definition that Agroforestry is considered
to be any land use that maintains or increase total yields by combining
food crops, livestock production and forest crops on the same unit of land.
Alternately or simultaneously, using management practices that suit the
social and cultural characteristics of the local people, and the ecological
and economic condition of the area (Young 1983).
The region of south Kordofan is characterised by a wide
diversification of vegetation cover and infertile sandy soil is dominated in
north side of the state where some crops such as millet is cultivated. It was
observed that the yield of annual crops associated with these trees is not
similar. Therefore, there is a need to determine the factors that contribute
to such variations. From this point of view, we set this research study with
the main objective of determination of the contribution of trees to soil
2
amelioration and yield of millet crops in nutrients poor sandy soils.
3
Specific objectives include:
1. Determination of the effect of trees on soil quality attributes (chemical
and physical).
2. Monitoring decomposition and nutrients (N, P and K) release from
litters of Acacia senegal (Hashab), Blanites aegyptiaca (Heglig) and
Azadirachtica indica (Neem).
3. To determine the effects on yield of millet (Penesitum typhoidium)
4
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1. Agroforestry as a tool for sustainable agriculture:
2.1.1 General
A variety of agricultural and natural resource production systems
are recognized and practiced in the dry land regions of the world.
Depending upon the environmental and socioeconomic situation,
these production systems vary from traditional agricultural crop
and livestock production systems to different combinations of
agricultural, livestock, forestry. and other productions systems
that are practiced either rotationally. simultaneously, or spatially
on the same piece of land. Regardless of the nature of these
combined production systems, their goal is to provide ecological
stability and sustainable benefits to users of the land.
Combined production systems that involve trees or shrubs are
known more commonly as agroforestry systems. Although new
to many people. agroforestry is not a new concept of land use.
Historically it has been a common practice to cultivate tree or
shrub species and agricultural crops in intimate combinations.
Worldwide examples of agroforestry are numerous ranging from
practices in the middle ages in Europe before colonial times in
5
America, Asia, and Africa (King 1989).
Agroforestry was largely a "handmaiden" of forestry in its early
history. while today it is recognized set of systems that are
capable of yielding food and wood and at the same title
conserving and when necessary rehabilitating ecosystems.
2-1-2:Forest loss and soil degradation in the tropics:
Tropical forests cover less than 6% of the Earth’s land area but contain
the vast majority of the world’s plant and animal genetic resources. It is
estimated that the tropical rain forest may contain 30 million plant and
animal species. People depend on forests and trees in the developing
countries in many different ways (Dubois 2003):- one fourth of the
world’s poor depend directly on forests for their livelihood;
- 350 million people live in or adjacent to dense forests and rely on them;
- At least 2 billion people rely on biomass fuels (mainly fuelwood) for
cooking and heating;
- Forestry provides employment for more than 10 million people;
- Natural products from forests are the only source of medicine for 7590% of people in the world. Shifting cultivation is believed to have
originated around 7000 BC, and this system is still common in the
mountainous areas of tropical Asia, and in Africa and Latin America. It
was predominantly sustainable in the past due to a low population
pressure and the availability of large forest areas. Today, shifting
cultivation contributes to excessive soil erosion and to land degradation
(Steppler and Nair 1987). It is estimated that 500 million farmers in
developing countries still use shifting cultivation systems (Scherr 1999).
6
Most of them cultivate their land in marginal areas with poor soil quality,
or on steep slopes. Shortening fallow periods and widespread burning to
control weeds and pests further contribute to land degradation. Large
areas have already been abandoned due to nutrient and organic matter
depletion or invasive weeds (Scherr 1999). Soils on steep slopes have
commonly completely lost their productivity due to soil erosion. This
causes serious local food shortages (Sah 1996).
Productivity has declined 16% on the African agricultural lands in the past
50 years. Of the degraded soils, 58% are in drylands and 42% in humid
areas. The most common reason for declining productivity is water
erosion. Other reasons are wind erosion, chemical soil degradation (loss of
nutrients, salinization, pollution, and acidification) and physical soil
degradation (loss of organic matter, water logging, and compaction
sealing or crusting. The extent and effect of water erosion depend on the
soil erosivity, which is the power of the rain to cause erosion; and
erodibility, which is the ability of the soil to resist the rain (Hellin 2006).
Water erosion is problematic in the tropics because of heavier rain
showers, as compared to other regions. Erosion is caused in the tropics
due to uncovered soil, absence of windbreaks, lack of organic matter in
the soil, and monocultures in farming (Glover 2005).
The highest erosion rates in Africa have been calculated in the Maghreb
region, East African highlands (including the East Usambara Mountains),
eastern Madagascar, and parts of Southern Africa (Scherr 1999). Soil
degradation is a major contributor to nutrient losses, because most of the
scarce soil nutrients in the tropics are in the top 5-10 cm of the soil
(Nkonya et al. 2004). The soils have a low water holding capacity due to a
low content of small soil particles. High temperatures favour rapid
7
decomposition of organic residues; thus organic inputs are needed to
avoid erosion. Steep lands are more sensitive to rapid soil degradation
through runoff (Hellin 2006).
Soil fertility depletion on smallholder farms in Africa is already
considered as a biophysical limiting factor affecting food production
(Sanchez et al. 1997). This soil degradation affects more the rural poor,
because they are more dependent on annual agricultural crops that also
cause more degradation than the other crops. They also rely more on
common-property lands, which often are most seriously degraded. During
the present field work local farmers in the
8
Population
increase
Shortage
of land
Shortening
of fallows
Lack of
capital
Decline in
fertility
Low crop
yields
Shortage of
food or
Low inputs
Sloping land
Soil
erosion
Intensive
land use
Decline in
fertility
Low crop
yields
Shortage of
food or
Lack of
conservation
Figure 1. Chains of cause and effect linked to decline in soil fertility
(UNDP 1995.
9
2.2. Contribution of trees to soil fertility:
2-2-1:General :
The properties of forest soils are connected immediately with
the type and chemical composition of the forest humus they
contain. The chemical nature of forest humus layers plays an
important role in the storage and cycling of nutrients (Snyder
and Pilgrim 1985). Equally significant is the impact of forest
litter and humus on the processes of soil genesis (Duchaufour
1976).
The organic matter of forest soils is formed during humification
of plant litter, resulting in the formation of three main types of
forest humus-mull, moder, and mor, which are determined by the
rate of decomposition. The humification process can be followed
starting from the natural plant biopolymers. Studies on the
quantitative organic chemical composition of forest litter are
scarce (Mangenot and Toutain;. 1980), depite the significance of
the nature of the parent litter material on the formation of humic
compounds, and hence on the quality of forest humus.
Conventionally, the chemical composition of litter is divided into
four classes: water-soluble compounds, lipids, polysaccharides
(cellulose and hemicelluloses), and lignin.
These are analyzed by the classical method of successive
10
extractions developed by Waksman and Tenney (1927) and
modified by Blume (1965). Mangenot and Toutain (1980)
summarized existing data on litter composition and found large
differences for contents of cellulose, hernicelluloses, and lignin
of several litter types.
According to Berthelin and Toutain (1982) and Swift et al
(1979), these variations are related not only to differences in the
overall litter composition, but mainly to inadequate organic
chemical analysis.
2-2-2:Trees on farm and their contribution to soil fertility:
Among these tree species, Cordia africana Lam. And Croton
macrostachyus Del. are commonly grown in association with crops in
many places in Ethiopia including Badessa area. Edwards et al. (1995)
and Negash (1995) reported the biology, germination, propagation, uses
and distribution of these species. Both species are less vulnerable to
drought compared with eucalypts that are re- garded as drought tolerant
(Gindaba et al. 2004a) and grow fairly comparable to the eucalypts if
moisture is available (Gindaba et al. 2005). Studies by Nyberg and
Högberg (1995), Ashagrie et al. (1999) and Yadessa; et al. (2001) reported
positive influence of C. macrostachyus and C. africana on various soil
fertility parameters. In mixed-farming systems where trees and crops grow
11
in combination, various types of interactions take place between the
associates (Nair 1993; Van Noordwijk et al. 1996; Young 1997).
According to Van Noordwijk et al. (1996), a tree with a deep root system,
having limited lateral extension in the surface soil, is ideal from a nutrient
cycling perspective due to the low competition for nutrient and moisture
uptake with annual or perennial crops. However, the competition of trees
with annual crops is only seasonal and is restricted to the crop root zone
(Young 1997). Farmers usually amputate lateral tree roots during tillage
and hoeing to discourage the interference of tree roots with crop roots. In
addition to root cutting, seasonal shoot pruning and pollarding could also
influence root development and the contribution of the trees to underneath
soil (Schroth and Zech 1995). Trees on croplands have been reported to
improve soil fertility due to their organic inputs with nutrient recycling
through mineralization (Nair 1993; Mwiinga et al. 1994; Young 1997;
Nyberg 2001; Gindaba et al. 2004b). Comparison of soils from under tree
canopy and areas away from the influence of the trees has been used to
study the influence of trees on soils (Nyberg and Högberg 1995; Young
1997; Yadessa et al. 2001; Nyberg 2001). However, no studies were made
to investigate the lateral distributions of roots of C. africana and C.
macrostachyus and their influences on soil nutrient reserve. In Badessa
12
and other areas where the tree cover of croplands are drastically declining
with subsequent loss of fertility, knowledge of the contribution of trees to
soil fertility is vital to encourage tree planting by individual farmers .
2.2.3. Main tree types (Heiglig, Neem, Hashab):
* Blanites aegyptaca (Heiglig):
Description:
A small to medium sized tree generally reaching 10 miters in height, and
rarely goes over 15 miters. This tree is an evergreen which losses its
leaves only when very dry. Older trees are recognizable by the bark which
has deep vertical fissures running the length of the trunk. The crown of the
tree is frequently characterized by drooping young branches. Thorns occur
singly and are often over 8 cm log.
Distribution:
Balanites aegyptiaca is found in Africa in most Arid to sub-humid area
north of Zimbabwe. It is wide spread throughout the Sahel and Sudan.
The tree is used for fuel wood , amenity, sand dune control, medicine ,
charcoal , shelter belt, shade , pesticide , fodder , timber , agroforestry and
fruit hedging (live and dead).
Tree requirements:
The tree requires rainfall of about 200
13
___
800 mm in a year. However, in
areas with lower rainfall this species requires a high water table and initial
irrigation.
Soil type:
Heiglig adaptable to all soil types including sandy, heavy clay, and
skeletal soils.
Altitude: 380 to 1500 m above see level.
Temperature: The tree tolerates extremely high temperatures.
Propagation: 500____1500 seeds/kg. The flesh of the fruit should be
removed by soaking or washing or it can be eaten .Seed can be directly
sown into polythene bags, although germination is enhanced if they are
first soaked in cold water for 2 - 3 days. Germination takes 3 - 4 weeks and
the germination rate can reach up to 70%. This tree is a valuable and
highly recommended tree, despite its slow growth rate. Easily established
(especially through direct seeding), and although initial protection is
required, it is relatively maintenance-free once rooted. This has been
studies by: (Andrews (1956); National Academy of sciences (1980); Von
maydell (1986);Vogt (1976); Branney (1989); Wickens (1990); Hamza
(1990); Mahony (1990) ).
14
* Azadirachta idica (Neem)
Description:
The Neem tree is an ever green tree reaching maximum height of 20 m.
The leaflets enable easy recognition; they are serrulate and have very
bitter, quinine –like taste. Flowers occur in panicles and are small, white
to yellow in color, and fragrant. It is universally known by the Indian
name (Neem).
Distribution:
Neem originates from Asia, in particular north east India and naturalized
throughout the tropics including Sudan.
The tree used for fuel wood, amenity, shelter belt, oil, timber, pesticide,
hedging, fruit, medicine and agroforestry.
Tree requirements:
For establishment, the tree required rainfall of about 400__ 1200 mm in a
year. In the presence of high water table, less than 200 mm will be
satisfactory for tree establishment or in some cases, if suitable water
harvesting techniques are carried out. The tree does not withstand water
logging.
15
Soil type:
The Neem tree grows in a wide range of conditions, i.e. from sandy to
heavy clay soils and also on stony and nutrient poor sites.
Temperature:
Neem tree tolerates very high temperatures but sensitive to lower
temperature degrees (Reference).
Propagation: about 5.000 seed/kg.
This tree is becoming increasingly popular in the Sahel zone due to its
many benefits that mentioned above. This has been studies by: (Tirkul
(1984), Von Maydell (1986), Kerkhof (1988), Branney (1989), Hamza
(1990), Mahoney (1990), Apdein (1991) personal communication) .
* Acacia senegal (Hashab):
Description:
Acacia senegal is a shrub or small tree approaching 8 m in height and well
known for its gum Arabic .This Acacia species is most readily
distinguished by its black thorns, that occur in groups of 3 (not in pairs
like most other acacia species), with two side thorns curved upwards and
the middle one curved downwards, and measuring roughly 0.5 cm in
length.
16
Distribution:
The tree is typically associated with the Sahel zone and it occupies an area
from the red Sea to Senegal. Different varities are also found in east and
southern Africa. Also, it has been introduced and naturalized in Asia.
The tree used for Fuel wood, amenity, dune control, gums, charcoal, shade,
shelter belt, honey, timber, pesticide, fodder, fruit, medicine, hedging,
agroforestry.
Tree requirement:
In the sandy soils, the tree requires rainfall of about 300 to 700 mm/year
whereas in the clay soils it requires about 450 mm.
Soil type: The tree prefers sandy soils. It will also grow on loamy sands
and, in places of higher rainfall, on clays.
Temperature
Acacia tolerates very high temperatures and very sensitive to frost. It is
propagated by seeds at a rate of 8.000-10.000 seeds/kg, Most production
takes place in nurseries and seeds should be collected from a good parent
stock and if treated with an insecticide will remain viable for at least a
year (from one growing season to the next). Sowing can be directly into
unshaded pots without any pre-treatment. Germination usually starts after
three days and is complete within a week. As it is a fast growing species,
17
total nursery time may be as little as three months.
The tree coppices well which is an important point in its favour, when
coppicing, stem should be cut at as lant to allow for rainfall runoff and
thus prevent rotting. This has been studies by: (Andrews(1956); National
Academy of sciences (1980); Wickens (1980); Thirakul (1984); Von
Maydell (1986); Vogt (1987); Hamza (1990); Paulos and Abdein (1990).
2-2-4:Effects of trees on soil biology:
The influence of different plant species on soil microbial properties has
been of interest for decades initially with respect to microbial biomass and
activities in stands with different dominant tree species ( Turner et al.,
1993; Bauhus et al., 1998 ) and more recently in identifying changes in
microbial community composition in the forest floor ( Myers et al., 2001;
Priha et al., 2001; Grayston and Prescott, 2005; Hackl et al., 2005 ), in
grasslands ( Bardgett and McAlister, 1999; Grayston et al., 2001 ) or in
particular ecosystems such as deglaciated terrain and cut-away peatland (
Bardgett and Walker, 2004 ; Potila et al., 2004 ). However, while it is well
established that plants have species-specific effects on their associated
living microbial biomass, activity and communities, little is known about
the degree to which soil microbial residues persist and differ in forest
floors under different tree species. Persistence of microbial residues may
18
be an important control over carbon and nitrogen cycling or storage in
forest soils ( Balser, 2005 ). Amino sugars are important microbially de rived residues that can be quantified in forest soils to provide information
about the fate of carbon and nitrogen within biomass of bacteria and
fungi, in turn indicating relative microbial contribution to carbon and
nitrogen cycling ( Parsons, 1981; Amelung, 2001). Plants do not
synthesize significant amounts of amino sugars, and amino sugars are
stable against fluctuations in living microbial biomass (Nannipieri et al.,
1979; Chantigny et al., 1997 ). Further, following cell death, amino sugars
are significantly stabilized in soils, and accumulate over time
(Guggenberger et al., 1999 ; Glaser et al., 2004 ).
2-3:Effects of specific tree on soil properties (Mesquite):
Build up of soil organic carbon is only possible with additions of both
organic matter and nitrogen. Nitrogen additions are essential to decrease
the C/N ratio and facilitate the decomposition of high C/N containing dry
matter such as grasses. As soil organic matter degradation is much more
rapid above 35.3 oC than at lower temperatures (Jenny, 1944), and as
savanna trees decrease soil temperatures by 5–12.3 oC (Belsky et al.,
1993), the shading effect of trees helps build soil organic matter.
There has been controversy in the literature regarding the cause of the
19
islands of fertility surrounding nitrogen fixing trees in arid regions
(Scholes & Archer, 1997; Belsky et al., 1993; Weltzin & Coughenour,
1990). Despite the fact that trees such as Prosopis can fix N, some
workers (Garcia-Moya &McKell, 1970; Barth & Klemmedson, 1982)
have suggested that the increased nutrients under the canopies is simply a
redistribution of nutrients from deeper in the profile and outside the
canopy.
However, Rundel et al. (1982) conclusively demonstrated that Prosopis
glandulosa in the California desert fixed about 30 kg N ha~1year~1 which
is about 15 times the annual deposition of N in west Texas (Loftis &
Kurtz, 1980). Johnson & Mayeux (1990) found nodules on 19 mesquites
at five locations in the eastern portions of mesquite’s range.
2.4. Effects of afforestation and deforestation on soil properties:
2-4-1: General:
The complex integration of the primary natural resources, soil, water and
vegetation, is vital to maintaining terrestrial ecosystem functions and
productivity (Islam & Weil, 2000). Land use changes may influence many
natural phenomena and ecological processes, including soil nutrient and
soil water change (Fu et al. 1999, 2000). Characterizing soil nutrients in
relation to land use types and history is important for understanding how
20
ecosystems work and assessing the effects of future land use change
(Wang et al. 2001). Soil nutrient status can be changed where forest is
cleared for agricultural cultivation, allowed to revert to natural vegetation
or replanted to perennial vegetation (Lepsch et al., 1994; Moran et al.,
2000). During the last 50 years, as a result of increasing demand for wood
timber, pasture, shelter and food, natural land covers, particularly forests,
are being converted to cropland at an alarming rate in southwestern China,
particularly in Sichuan province.
2.4.2. Effects on Soil carbon:
Due to the low activity of the mineral phase and the restrictive chemical
conditions commonly found in soils of wet tropical regions, soil organic
carbon (SOC) plays major role in virtually all edaphological processes,
from aggregation to plant nutrient supply, and its importance is expected
to increase in the less fertile and coarse-textured soils. When in initial,
usually labile form (litter and debris), organic matter is a source of energy,
carbon and mineral nutrients for soil fauna and micro biota, and may
contain a major part of the plant-available nutrient reserve of the soil
(Zinn, 1998). Additionally, the by-products of organic decomposition play
a decisive role in phenomena such as soil aggregation, chemical buffering
and CEC (Silva et al., 1994; Mendonca and Rowell, 1996), when at an
21
intermediate (sugars, polysaccharides, amino sugars, etc.) or advanced
stage of chemical alteration (humic substances). The conservation of SOC
may be considered a critical factor for the sustainability of land use
systems in the tropics, and it also represents an effective way of reducing
the agricultural emissions of CO2, and may even be a sink for the
anthropogenic atmospheric excess of this greenhouse gas (Lat;. 2001).
Nevertheless, many authors report that substitution of native
vegetation by agricultural systems leads to depletions in SOC content,
primarily due to accelerated decomposition rates caused by soil tillage,
which enhances aeration and physical contact to decomposer organisms
(Silva et al., 1994; Resck et al., 2000). In the long run, SOC losses may
affect crop yields by reduction of nutrient supply from labile forms and
organic- dependant CEC. Despite the importance of organic carbon in
soils of Brazil and other tropical countries, most research on the subject
refers to litter and soil carbon quantification, although studies of SOC
dynamics and is chemical characterization in natural and agricultural
ecosystems have been given increasing attention (Volkoff et al., 1988;
Bravard and Righi, 1991; Nascimento et al., 1992).
A fforestation with exotic, fast-growing tree species such as Eucalyptus
spp. And Pinus spp. is an important economical activity in many tropical
countries, in order to supply wood for industry, energy and farm purposes,
22
and plantation areas may often be very large. Once a fforestation does not
require annual or constant tillage and cultivation, it is normally considered
a conservation land use system when compared to croplands, even if short
rotation cycles (>7 years) are used. Nevertheless, the environmental
impacts of this practice, such as on hydrology and soil properties have
been a concern in many parts of the world (Lima, 1996). However, the
alterations caused in tropical soils through a fforestation with fastgrowing trees are not yet fully understood, and literature frequently
reveals opposite conclusions about processes and effects, especially in
SOC dynamics and Properties.
2.5. Tree crop interaction:
The benefit of deep-rooted vegetation for maintaining ecosystem
functioning is a major attraction for using agroforestry for sustainable land
and water management in areas where high energy input large scale
agriculture is impractical (Kidd and Pimentel, 1992) As in Australia,
removal of native perennial vegetation and its replacement by shallow
rooted annual crops and pastures in many tropical countries has led to a
profound change in the pattern of energy capture by vegetation and to
hydrological imbalances. In the Sahel, removal of vegetation with deep
roots has led to increased drainage from 10-20 to 200-300 mm per year
and leaching of nitrate to the water table (Edmunds, 1991; Deans et al.,
1995). On the sandy soils of Niger, unfertilized millet fields utilize only 616% of the total rainfall in a watershed and the remainder is lost a run-off,
23
drainage or through soil evaporation (Rockstrom, 1997).
In this paper it is intended to review recent evidence of how agroforestry
may be able to improve the efficiency with existing land and water are
currently used, with the ultimate aim of achieving sustainability of
production and resource use. Because much of the future increase in food
and wood production in the tropics, necessary for the needs of increasing
populations, will have to be achieved from land and water resources
already in use, agro forestry is one of the promising options (Young,
2000). Examples from the semiarid tropics, where average land holdings
are rapidly declining (1-2 ha compared to 1000-2000 ha in Australia) but,
unlike Australia where tree rows are 100-200 m apart (White et al., 2002),
it is necessary to integrate tree and crops more closely without
compromising the already low crop yield. In particular, they focus on
recent attempts to manipulate root function in order to improve spatial
complementarily in below- ground resource use and to promote a closer
integration of tree and crops.
2.6. Decomposition of tree litters:
Plant required more nutrients to take for growth and yield. These nutrients
may be released from decomposing residues or animal remains on the soil.
The role of trees for soil mulch and livestock feed has been reviewed by
24
Kang et al.,(1990) and Haque et al.,(1995). For instance, understanding
the dynamics of availability in soils amended with organic materials could
be important in the overall impact assessment on productivity.
The efficiency of nutrient transfer from organic inputs to crops could be
improved by varying the quality or the time of the application of organic
inputs (Swift, 1985). In this context, N derived from legume or harvest
residues depends largely on the synchrony between N release from these
residues and N demand for uptake by trees. Palm (1995) pointed out that
agroforestry species with high N, lignin, and poly phenolic contents may
provide nutrient release patterns that more closely match the demands of
crops for nutrients, especially N.
Myers et al., (1994) stated that, crop residues promote a greater nutrient
cycling and improve the synchrony of nutrient cycling and improve the
synchrony of nutrient release with crop demand.
It was found that in ally cropping system, leucaena mulch and cattle
manure agroforestry, maybe a considerable source of N and K for crop
growth (Lupwayi and Haque, 1999).
25
2.6.1 Patterns of decomposition and carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus dynamics of litter in upland forest and peat land:
Organic matter accumulates in northern peat lands and other wetlands
because the rates of net primary production of vegetation are faster than
the rates at which dead plant tissues are decomposed in the soil profile.
Net primary production rates in Canadian peat lands are small compared
with those of other ecosystems (e.g., Campbell et al. 2000; Moore et al.
2002), so the organic matter accumulation has been linked to slow rates of
litter decomposition. Several studies of short-term decomposition rates in
peat lands have been made. In these, peat-forming plant tissues have been
placed in litterbags, left for several years, and then retrieved. The mass
remaining inside the bags is used as an indication of the rate of
decomposition. These studies have shown that decomposition rates vary
with overall climate (e.g., Hogg et al. 1994), tissue type (e.g., Rochefort et
al. 1990; Johnson and Damman 1991), peat land type (e.g., Szumigalski
and Bayley 1996; Thormann and Bayley 1997), and placement position
within the soil profile (e.g., Belyea 1996).
The rate of decomposition of tissues has commonly been assumed to be
slower in peat lands than in nearby well-drained upland sites having forest
or grassland vegetation. One reason for this assumption is that many peat
26
land litters, especially in bogs, have low nutrient concentrations,
particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (e.g., Aerts et al. 1999).
Some peat-forming plants, particularly Sphagnum moss, have very slow
rates of decomposition (e.g., Clymo 1965) and produce compounds that
may slow the rate of microbial activity and tissue decomposition as the
peat forms (e.g., Painter 1991; van Breemen 1995). Furthermore, peat
lands have a high water table, and the occurrence of flooding (e.g., Day
1983; Lockaby et al. 1996) and anoxic conditions may slow the rate of
litter decomposition. The reduction in the rates of CO2 production from
peat during the conversion from oxic to anoxic conditions is well
established (e.g., Bridgham et al. 1998; Scanlon and Moore 2000).
However, in most peat lands, the water table is beneath the peat surface
for most of the year, so aboveground litter initially decomposes under oxic
conditions before entering the zone beneath the water table.
Roots produced at or below the water table may decompose from the
outset under anoxic conditions. Frolking et al. (2001) developed a simple
peat decomposition model, based on prescribed decomposition rates, peat
temperature, and reduction in decomposition upon passage from the oxic
to anoxic zones.
The authors were able to reasonably simulate organic matter accumulation
27
in several eastern Canadian peat land profiles. Decomposition of litter
under anoxic conditions may also affect the release or retention of N and
P. Because litter decomposition studies in peat lands and upland forests
have usually been conducted separately, there is no clear evidence of
whether the site (peat land or upland) is significant in controlling
decomposition rates. To test and quantify this, they examined the rates of
decomposition of 11 litters placed in three peat land and three nearby
upland sites in central Canada, over a 6-year period. The pairs follow a
climatic gradient that extends from near the forest–prairie border to the
subarctic. they compared the mass remaining after 6 years and the
exponential decay model parameter (k) calculated from annual collections
over the 6 years. To test whether placement of litter in upland or peat land
sites affects the dynamics of N and P during the early stages of
decomposition, they also compared the retention, gain, or loss these two
nutrients over the 6 years, as a function of the loss of carbon (C).
2.7. Importance of efficient use of rainfall water:
Can agro forestry increase productivity through more effective use of
rainfall? Cannell et al. (1996) argued that agro forestry may increase
productivity provided the trees capture resources which are underutilized
by crops. In annual systems where the land lies bare for extended periods,
28
the residual water remaining in the soil after harvest, and off –season
rainfall, are often unused, particularly in areas of unimodal rainfall. For
instance, at Hyderabad, India (annual rainfall 800 mm) substantial
amounts of water remain available below 50 cm depth after harvesting
sorghum (Sorghum bicolour) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) (One et al.,
1992) and about 20% of the annual rainfall occurs outside the normal
cropping season which could be used by perennial species.
29
CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Methods
3.1: Location of study area
This experiment was carried out in the area north Aldebaibat, near Dilling
city, northern part of South Kordufan State (longitudes 28º-0ֿ, 32º- 5 ֿeast
and latitudes 10º-0ֿ, 12º- 5 ֿnorth) (South Kordufan survey Office).
3.2: Climate
Sudan is known as a dry tropical climate Country. Dilling locality climate
is known as savannah tropical climate with high temperature in summer
and low temperature in winter.
3.2.1 Temperature
Maximum average temperature in summer is between 36oC and 42 oC
whereas the minimum temperature is in winter and ranged between 13 oC
and 17 oC while the maximum temperature is reached in May. However,
the mean temperature is about 35 oC (Salih 2003).
3.2.2: Rainfall:
The study area falls within the savannah region and therefore is
characterized by seasonal rainfall. The rains start from May until October
and the maximum amount is recorded to be in August. Total annual
rainfall varies from 400 mm to 650 mm.
3.2.3: Wind:
One of the major factors affecting Sudan climate is the inter tropical zone,
particularly its movement from north to south and vice area. In winter
30
north east wind blows from November up to April and it’s a dry wind, in
summer the prevailing wind is the (south west wind), it causes rainfall
during autumn, it is a humid wind, relative humidity in dry season is about
35%, but during the rainy season it reaches about 75% during august.
(Salih 2003).
3.3: Topography:
Bashir (2003) reported that the height of Nuba Mountains is generally 600
m above sea level. However, the northern parts of the mountains which
include Elhamadi, Adebaibat, Sunjukaia and Elfarshaia areas can be
considered as flat plains.
3.4: Soil:
The soil in the study site is generally sandy soil covering Elhamadi,
Adebaibat and Elfarshaia areas; however some chemical and physical
properties of the soil are given in Table 3.1.
31
Table 3.1: Some selected soil physical and chemical properties of the
study site
Soil attribute
0-20 cm
20-40 cm
40-60 cm
pH(paste)
5.2 ± 0.49
4.2 ± 0.32
3.9 ± 0.28
ECe (dSm-1)
0.7 ± 0.59
0.97 ± 0.52
0.2± 0.07
O.C (%)
0.2 ± 0.19
0.3 ± 0.28
0.5 ± 0.33
TN (%)
0.5 ± 0.04
0.5 ± 0.49
0.4 ± 0.12
TP (ppm)
9.1 ± 6.26
8.2 ± 3.82
11.2 ± 6.97
K (meq L-1)
0.2 ± 0.02
0.2 ± 0.01
0.2 ± 0.05
Sand (%)
77.5 ± 2.5
76.9± 2.39
76.3 ± 2.04
Silt (%)
8.1 ± 3.15
9.9 ± 3.42
6.9 ± 1.25
Clay (%)
14.4 ± 1.25
13.2 ± 4.61
16.9 ± 1.25
ECe = Electrical conductivity of the saturation extract
O.C = Organic Carbon
TN = Total Nitrogen
TP = Total Phosphours
K = Potassium
3.5: Vegetation:
The vegetation of the site can be explained in two categories as
follows:
Division 1: High land vegetation and this in turns can be divided in to two
sub-divisions:
a) Vegetation covers with great variability because of the variations in
elevations from low levels to high levels and with temperature variations
at different levels.
32
Species found are:
Sterculia
setigera(Tartar),
Stereospermum
Boswellia
papyrifera(Tragtarg),
kunthianum(Khashkhash),
Anogeissus
leiocarpus(Sahabb-Silak) and Albizia amara(Arad), ect.
b) High land herbs and grasses:
Cassia senna (Sennamecca), Cymbopogon nervatus(Nal), Blepharis
linariifolia(Begeil), Triagus perteronianus, Echinochloa colona(Difra),
Setaria viridis (Lusig), Solanum dubium(Jubain), Cassia occidentalis
(Sim Eldabib), Chloris gayana (Afan Elkhadim).
Division 2: vegetation of the Khors and Wadies:
The area includes khors and Wadies between hills and characterized by a
warm climate. High rainfall for short periods always causes run –off and
surface floods.
The area is also characterized by the dominance of
different trees as follow:
a) Trees and shrubs;
Adansonia digitata (Tabeldi), Diospyros mespiliformis (Jogan), Sesbania
spp. (Sesaban), Acacia albida (Haraz), Acacia nilotica (Sunot), Acacia
mellifera(Keter),
Acacia
senegal(Hashab),
Acacia
seyal(Talih),
Dichrostachys cinerea (Kadad), Hyphaene thebaica (Doam), Balanites
aegyptiaca(Heiglig),
Guria
senegalensis(Gubaish),
Combertum
hartmannianum (Habeal Elgabal) and other Combertum spp. , Ziziphusspinia-chrisi(Sider).etc.
b) Grasses of the Wadies
It includes annual and perennial grasses like Amaranthus
33
spp(Lissan
Eltair), Cenchrus spp(Haskenit), Aristolchia bractealata(Um Galagil),
Eragrostis spp(Bano). ect.
3.6: Agriculture:
Majority of the people are practicing traditional shifting cultivation and
crops grown in the area are millet (Penesitum spp.), ground nut (Arachis
hypoaea), Vigen anguiculata(Adasi), Rosette (Hibiscus sabdariffra) and
sesame (Sesamum indicum).
3.7: Experiment lay out:
Main experiment (1): Effects of trees on soil and yield of millet
3.7.1: Treatments
The treatments included the selection of the followings trees:
1 Blanites aegyptiaca (Heglig).
2 Azadirachtica indica (Neem).
3 Acacia Senegal (Hashab).
4 Control (Without trees)
To study the effect of some tree species on soil attributes and yield of
millet under arid environment. Plots of a size of about 4 m X 4 m were
made beside each treatment tree. The plots were arranged in the
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and was replicated four
times (therefore, total experimental plots were 16).
Millet crop was grown under three species of trees and the control with
four replication in each block. The seed rate was 3.15kg per feddan.
The plant was irrigated by the rainfall.
34
Parameters
The harvest was carried out after 3 month from each plot, 4 plants were
removed from the center rows and were immediately weight, oven dried at
70oC and the moisture content was determined. The heads in each plot
were removed, dried and the dry matter yield was recorded. Then after,
stalks remained in each plot were cut and weighed fresh. The values of
moisture content of the samples previously taken were used for
calculation of total dry matter accumulation as follows:
Total plot dry matter yield (kg/plot) = total plot fresh yield (kg/plot) X
(100- moisture content).
Total dry matter (kg/ha)= total plot dry matter (kg/plot) X 10000/16
Similarly, the heads weight of the millet from all the replication was
determined.
Secondary experiment: Decomposition and nutrient release from tree
litters
This experiment was carried out to support findings from the main
experiment using the litterbag technique.
3.7.2: collection of litters from trees
From each tree species under which millet was grown, the fresh leaves
were removed and used in this study. About 20 gram fresh plant material
(whole plant material without grinding) was placed inside the litterbags. A
sample from each type was used to determine moisture content and
consequently, the content of dry matter added in each litterbag. Each type
plant material was replicated four times. Table 3.2 shows some selected
mineral composition of the tree leaves used in this experiment.
35
Table 3.2 Characterization of the plant used
TN
TP
K
Ash
(%)
(H)
Heiglig
(N) Neem
(S)
Hashab
3.74
0.36
1.2
20
4.24
4.82
1.14
0.4
0.71
0.42
7.43
23
Then after, the litterbags were placed in plots of the three locations and on
the surface of the topsoil. The locations were similar to the site of the
main experiment where millet was grown. In each plot, 20 litterbags from
were placed. After 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 weeks, four litterbags from each plot (four
replications) were drawn and each bag was carefully placed inside a paper
envelope with a label and transferred to the laboratory for analysis. The
samples were air dried and cleaned carefully from attached soil particles.
After that the samples were weighed again for determination of the loss of
dry matter. Samples were then crushed, grinded to pass a sieve of 0.5 mm
and were stored in small nylon envelopes with a label for further analysis.
3.7.3: Soil sample collection
After harvest of the main experiment, soil samples were taken from the
four sites using the auger, where the experiment was conducted. They
were taken at intervals of 0-20, 20-40, 40-60 cm soil depths. Samples
were air dried, crushed and sieved through 2mm. sieve and kept for
analysis
36
3-8: Soil analysis:
1 The pH value of the soil paste and extract were measured using pHmeter model Kinck digital type 664/ I.
2
The electrical conductivity of the extract (ECe) was measure by
Conduct-meter CG 851.
3 Available phosphorus was determined photometric ally by the blue
method (Orsen and Cole 1954).
4 Organic carbon was measured by using the modified Walkley Black
methods (Walkleyand Black. 1934): 10 ml of K2 Cr2 O7 (1N) and 20 ml
of conc. H2 S O4 were added to 0.05 g of soil sample completed to 200ml
with distilled water, after awhile 10ml of conc.H3P2O5 (Orthophosphoric
acid) and 10 to 15 drops of Diphenylamine were added to 10ml of the
pure solution. Then titrated up on ferrous sulphate (0.5N)
5 Potassium was determined according to the flamphotometric described
by Chapman and Pratt (1961).
6 Particle size distribution was determined and the textural class was
determined according to the American system using textural triangle
(Richard, 1954. Chapman and Pratt 1961 et all, 1986).
3-9: Plant analysis:
6 Total nitrogen was determined by the semi-macro Kjeldanhl apparatus
37
(Bremner and Mulvany. 1982): after wet digestion of 0.2 gram of sample
by concentrated H2SO4 and gentle heating. Then distillated against HCL
(0.1N).
7 Organic carbon was measured by using the modified Walkley black
methods. (Walkley and Black. 1934): 10 ml of K2Cr2O7 (1N) and 20ml of
conc.H2SO4 were added to 0.05 g of the plant sample completed to 100ml
with distilled water, after awhile 10ml of conc.H3P2O5 (Orthophosphoric
acid) and two or three drops of Orthophenatroline were added to 10ml of
the pure solution. Then titrated up to on ferrous sulphate (0.5N).
8 The samples were ashed at 150 ºC first, then at 550 C and dissolved in
HCL (5N) to extract the samples and determine K and P, they were
reading by flame photometer and spectrophotometer respectively.
3.10: Calculations:
* Percent remaining dry matter after a sampling period was determined as
follow:
Weight of dry matter at week (e.g. week 2) X 100
Weight of initial dry matter
* Percent remaining nutrient (N, P, K):
% element at week (e.g. week 2) X 100
% element of initial material X Dry matter added
38
*Statistical differences between treatments were determined using
Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1985) and means were separated using
lest significant difference (LSD).
39
CHAPTER FOUR
Results
4.1. Main experiment (1): Effects of trees on soil
properties and yield of millet
4.1.1 Effect of trees on yield of millet:
The effect of trees on yield of millet is shown in Table 4.1.
Statistical analysis showed that there were significant (P≤0.03) differences
in yield under the different tree species of Heiglig, Neem and Hashab as
compared to the control. The results showed that millet yield under the
Neem (174.83 kg/ha) and Heiglig (173.09 kg/ha) were higher than the
control (121.43 kg/ha) by an average of 43%. The lowest yield (111.04
kg/ha) was recorded under the Hashab trees.
Table 4.1. Effect of trees on yield of millet (Average ± standard
Deviation).
Treatment
Yield kgha-1
H (Heiglig)
173.09a ± 51.2
N (Neem)
174.83a ±40.70
S (Hashab)
111.04b ± 4.02
C (Control)
121.43b ± 14.63
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) are not significantly different at P
≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
40
4.1.2 Effect of trees on millet straw DM
The effect of trees on millet DMC is presented in Table 4.2.
Statistical analysis indicated that there were significant (P ≤ 0.0001)
differences in straw DM among the different species of trees. It was found
that straw DM in the Heiglig (1161.5 kg/ha) and Neem (857.8 kg/ha) were
significantly higher than both under Hashab (321.8 kg/ha and the control
(454.8 kg/ha). Therefore, yield under Heiglig trees was higher than that
under Neem, Hashab and the control by 35%, 261% and 155%,
respectively. Interestingly, yields under Hashab although not significantly
different from the control but seemed to be lower (by about 29%).
Table 4.2 Effect of trees on dry matter content of millet (Average ±
standard deviation) .
Treatment
Straw Dry matter kgha-1
H
1161.5a ± 147.7
N
857.8b ± 49.61
S
321.8c ± 139.1
C
454.8c ± 126.2
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) are not significantly different at P ≤
0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
N: Neem.
H: Heiglig
S: Hashab.
41
C: Control.
4.1.3 Effect of millet cultivation beside trees on soil chemical
properties
4.1.3.1. pH
The effect of trees (H, N and S) on soil pH of the 0-20 (a), 20-40 (b) and
40-60 (c) cm soil depths is illustrated in Figure 4.1. Statistical analysis
indicates that there were significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) on soil pH in
the (a) depth. Soil pH under the Heiglig showed the highest value (4.93)
followed by Neem (4.73) followed by Hashab (4.33) whereas the control
showed the lowest value (4.13).
In the 20-40 cm soil depth, statistical analysis indicated that there were no
significant difference between all treatment (C.V= 6.19).
The pH of the 40-60 cm depth showed that there were significant (P≤0.05)
differences between treatments where soil under the Heiglig showed the
highest value (4.45) while Hashab indicated the lowest pH value (3.83).
42
a
ab
5
ab
4.5
N
b
a
H
S
4
C
3.5
N
4.5
H
S
C
a
a
a
a
b
N
H
4
S
C
3.5
N
5
c
4.5
H
S
C
a
ab
b
4
N
b
H
S
3.5
C
3
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.1 Effect of trees on soil pH in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40 (b)
and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter (s) are not
significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
43
4.1.3.2. ECe
The effect of millet cultivation under Heiglig , Neem , Hashab as
compared with the control on soil ECe of the 0-20 (a), 20-40 (b) and 4060 (c) cm depths is illustrated in Figure 4.2. Statistical analysis showed
that there were significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences between treatments in the
(a) depth. The control treatment showed the highest value (1.07) followed
by Hashab, Heiglig and Neem was the lowest (0.5).
However, for the 20-40 cm and 40-60 cm depths, statistical analysis
showed that there no significant effects on ECe values, though values
under Neem cultivation showed consistent increase as compared to other
treatments.
44
1.5
a
ab
1
a
a
N
H
b
S
0.5
C
0
N
1
a
H
S
a
a
C
a
N
b
H
0.5
S
C
0
N
1
a
H
S
a
a
C
a
c
N
H
0.5
S
C
0
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.2 Effect of trees on ECe (dSm-1) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40
(b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter (s) are not
significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
45
4.1.3.2. O.C.
The effect of millet cultivation under the different tree species in the
content of soil O.C measured at the 0-20 (a), 20-40 (b) and 40-60 (c) cm
depths is illustrated in Figure 4.3. In the 0-20 cm soil depth, statistical
analysis showed that there were no significant differences in soil O.C
content accumulated due to the different treatments, though values
determined under Neem trees seemed to be higher. However, in the
second depth (i.e. 20-40 cm), results showed there were significant (P ≤
0.006) variations between treatments in accumulation of O.C. Soils under
the Hashab (1.01%) and Neem (0.925) showed the highest values
followed by Heiglig (0.432) and the control sowed the lowest value
(0.275).
At the lower depth (40-60 cm), statistical analysis showed that there was
significant (P ≤ 0.01) difference between the treatments with the highest
value of (1.15%) recorded in Hashab treatment whereas other treatments
showed similar values.
46
1
a
a
a
a
0.8
N
0.6
H
0.4
S
C
0.2
0
N
b
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
H
S
a
ab
b
b
S
H
S
1.2
C
C
a
1
c
N
H
N
0.8
C
b
0.6
b
N
b
H
S
0.4
C
0.2
0
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.3 Effect of trees on O.C. (%) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40 (b)
and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter (s) are not
significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
47
4.1. 3. 3. Total Nitrogen (TN)
The effects of millet cultivation on TN in the soil profile are shown in
Figure 4.4. In the topsoil (0-20 cm depth), statistical analysis showed that
there were no significant difference between treatments. The content of
TN varied from 0.40% (under the Hashab tree) to 0.58% (under the Neem
trees).
In the sub-soil (20-40 cm depth), content of TN was also not different
between treatments. However, values seemed to be higher than that
determined in the topsoil.
Similarly, there were no clear variations in TN observed in the lower soil
depth (40-60 cm).
48
a
a
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
a
a
a
N
H
S
N
H
S
a
a
0.7
0.6
b
a
C
C
a
N
0.5
H
0.4
S
0.3
C
0.2
0.1
N
0.6
c
a
H
S
a
a
a
0.5
C
N
0.4
H
0.3
S
0.2
C
0.1
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.4 Effect of trees on TN (%) in the 0-20 (a), 20- 40 (b)
and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter (s) are not
significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
49
4.1. 3. 4. Total soil P
The content total soil P in the soil profile as affected by millet cultivation
under different tree species is given in Figure 4.5.
Statistical analysis indicates there were no significant differences between
treatments in all soil depths. However, it was noticed that P content in the
0-20 and 20-40 cm soil depths seemed to be higher in plots under Heiglig
and Neem, respectively.
50
a
12
10
8
a
a
a
a
N
H
6
4
2
0
S
C
N
10
a
H
S
a
a
a
8
b
C
N
6
H
4
S
2
C
0
N
10
c
8
a
H
S
a
a
a
C
N
6
H
4
S
2
C
0
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.5 Effect of trees on Total P (ppm) in the 0-20 (a), 2040 (b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter (s) are not
significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
51
4.1. 3. 4. Total soluble K
The content of soluble K in the soil profile determined after harvest of the
millet and under the different tree species is shown in Figure 4.6. Results
showed that there no statistical variations between treatments in all
depths. However, in the lower depth (40-60 cm), K content under the
Neem treem was more than double that determined under other
treatments, though not significant.
52
0.24
a
a
a
a
0.2
0.16
a
N
H
0.12
S
0.08
0.04
C
0
N
0.24
0.2
b
a
H
S
a
a
C
a
N
0.16
H
0.12
S
0.08
0.04
C
0
N
0.24
H
S
C
a
0.2
c
N
a
0.16
a
a
H
0.12
S
0.08
C
0.04
0
N
H
S
C
Figure 4.6 Effect of trees on Total soluble k (meqL-1) in the 0-20
(a), 20- 40 (b) and 40- 60 (c) cm depths. Histograms with similar letter
(s) are not significantly different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
53
4.2: Secondary Experiment: Decomposition and nutrients
release
4-2-1: Dry matter weight loss (DMW)
Dry matter weight loss from the three trees residues during decomposition
was calculated from that remaining in the litterbag in each sampling week.
Table 4.3 shows percent remaining of DMW of Heiglig, Neem and Hashb
during the 8 weeks of the decomposition period.
Results showed that, after two weeks, there was a rapid loss of DM from
Hashab litter and it was significantly (P ≤ 0.04) higher than both from
Neem and Heiglig. Accordingly, percent remained DM after this period
was 71.06, 86.33 and 90.45% for Hashab, Neem and Heiglig,
respectively. The decomposition rate constant [(100%-%remained)/time]
after this period were calculated to be 5%, 7% and 13% week -1 for
Heglig, Neem and Hashab, respectively.
In the fourth week, it was observed that DM of Hashab remained almost
similar (71.90%) to the second week and without an advanced loss.
Whereas loss during the next two weeks from Neem and Heiglig
continued rapidly and accounted for about 11% and 12% for Neem and
54
Heiglig, respectively. By the end of this week the amount of DM
remained were statistically similar between tree litters.
After 6 weeks, statistical analysis showed that there were also no
significant differences in DM loss between the trees litters. They were
found to be 45.65%, 48.15% and 41.73% for Hashab, Neem and Heiglig,
respectively.
After 8 weeks of decomposition, statistical analysis indicates that DM
remained was not significantly different between litters. However, DM
remained in Hashab (31.34%) seemed to be lower than that found in both
Neem (42.04%) and Heiglig (41.52%).
After 10 weeks, loss of DM from Hashab (72.38%) was also greater than
observed in Neem (67.53%) and Heglig (57.1%). Therefore, despite of
absence of significant difference, loss from Hashab was higher than that
observed in Heglig and Neem by about 7 to 27%. After this period it was
calculated that decomposition rate constants from Higlig, Hashab and
Neem were 5.7, 6.8 and 7.3%, respectively.
55
Table 4.3. Actual changes of percent dry matter weight remaining of
Heiglig (H), Neem(N) and Hashab (S) during the period of 10 weeks of
decomposition. (Average ± standard deviations)
Tree
type
Week2
Week4
Week6
Week8
Week1
0
(%)
H
N
S
90.45a±3.
78.83a±5.
41.73a±5.
41.51a±11
42.94a±11
55
86
85
.22
.03
86.33a±10
75.08a±9.
48.15a±10
42.04a±17
32.47a±12
.85
38
.78
.13
.14
71.06b±12
71.90a±13
45.65a±5.
31.34a±6.
27.62a±12
.41
.78
86
13
.36
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) were not significantly
different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
56
4.2.2 Nutrient release:
Percent Remaining N
Nitrogen release during the incubation period (10 weeks) is shown in
Table 4.4.
Statistical analysis showed that, there was none significant difference in N
remained in the second week among three trees litters. At the fourth week,
statistical analysis indicates there is no significant difference for N
released in trees litters, but the N remained in Heiglig, Neem and Hashab
is lower by 13%, 12% and 5% respectively than N remained in second
week. For 6th week, analysis showed that there was no significant
difference among trees litters, however the N remained in this week in
Heiglig, Neem and Hashab is lower by 16%, 21% and 8% respectively
than in fourth week. At the 8th week, N remained in Heiglig was exceeded
by 2% than the N remained in 6th week, while the N remained in both
Neem and Hashab is lower by 5% than N remained in 6th week. Statistical
analysis showed that, there was no significant difference among three tees
litters by the end of 8th week. At 10th week, N remained in Heiglig, Neem
and Hashab is lower by 1%, 10% and 6% respectively than the N
remained in 8th week. Statistically no significant differences among the
trees litters for N remained in 10th week.
57
Generally there was rapid loss N remained in both fourth and sixth week,
from 6th week to 10th week no remarkable loss in N remained except the
Neem in 10th week.
Table 4.4.
Actual changes of percent remaining N of Heiglig (H),
Neem(N) and Hashab (S) during the period of 10 weeks of decomposition.
(Average ± standard deviations)
Tree
Week2
Week4
N
S
Week8
Week10
(%)
type
H
Week6
55.84a±12
42.14a±7.
26.5a±1.6
21.38a±6.
20.27a±7.
.75
55
9
27
1
66.71a±19
54.66a±7.
33.27a±5.
28.48a±11
18.07a±8.
.22
14
98
.70
74
47.24a±16
42.87a±19
34.38a±15
29.62a±14
23.36a±8.
.78
.16
.04
.98
30
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) were not significantly
different at P ≤ 0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
4.2.2.2 Percent Remaining P
Phosphorous release during the incubation period is shown in Table (4.5)
After second week statistical analysis showed that there was no significant
difference among trees litters for remained P. After the fourth week,
analysis indicates there is no significant difference among the trees litters,
58
but there was a rapid loss in this week in both Heiglig (66.23% to 10.4%)
and Neem (43.61% to 5.28%) than in Hashab (52.9% to22.01%). After
sixth week, for P remained, statistical analysis showed that, there were no
significant differences among the trees litters, but the P remained was
exceeded among all trees litters than P remained in fourth week. For 8th
week, the remained P was significantly lower in both Neem(3.61%) and
Hashab(3.52%) than Heiglig(9.49%) at (p ≤ 0.04). At 10th week, analysis
showed that, P remained in both Neem(2.83%) and Heiglig(5.19%) was
significantly lower than P remained in Hashab(14.58%) at (p ≤ 0.01). In
this week Hashab was exceeded by 38% than in 8th week
.
59
Table 4.5 Actual changes of percent Phosphorus remaining of Heiglig(H),
Neem(N) and Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of
incubation
Tree
Week2
Week4
Week6
Week8
Week1
type
0
(%)
H
N
S
60.23a±2
10.96a±2
39.40a±3
9.49a±4.
5.19b±3.
8.4
.3
2.1
5
6
43.61a±2
5.28b±2.
24.94a±1
3.61b±1.
2.83b±1.
9.5
3
4.5
2
3
52.94a±1
22.01a±2
29.14a±1
3.52b±1.
14.58a±4
8.2
1.4
8.6
5
..6
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) were not significantly different at P ≤
0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
4.2.2.3 Remaining K:
K release during the incubation period is shown in table (4.6). At second
week statistical analysis indicates there is significant difference in K
remained among the trees litters (p≤ 0.01), percentage remained K in
Heiglig(32.97%) is lower than K remained in both Neem(55.76%) and
60
Hashab(68.54%). At fourth week, statistical analysis showed that, there
were significant differences among trees litters (p ≤ 0.02), K remained in
both
Heiglig(
25.33%)
and
Neem(34.12%)
is
lower
than
in
Hashab(56.46%). After the end of 6th week, statistical analysis showed
that, K remained in both Heiglig(5.31%) and Neem(11,68%) was
significantly lower than K remained in Hashab(31.28%) at (p ≤ 0.01). For
the 8th week, statistical analysis showed that, there was significant
difference among the three trees litters in K remained (p ≤ 0.01),
Heiglig(3.53%) was the lowest followed by Neem(10.63%) and
Hashab(20.72%) was the highest. At the end of 10th week, statistical
analysis showed that, there were none significant differences among
Heiglig(5.50%), Neem(3.87%) and Hashab(7.59%), but the K remained in
this week was exceeded in Heiglig by 2% than K remained in 8th week.
61
Table 4.6 Actual changes of percent Potassium remaining of Heiglig(H),
Neem(N) and Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of
incubation.
Tree
Week2
Week4
Week6
Week8
Week1
type
0
(%)
H
N
S
32.97b±6
25.35b±8
5.31b±1.
3.53b±1.
5.50a±2.
.4
.4
7
6
3
55.76a±1
34.12b±1
11.68b±3
10.63b±4
3.87a±2.
7.6
5.4
.3
.7
6
68.54a±1
56.46±12
31.28±18
72a 20.
7.59a±4.
3.5
.1
.5
±9.1
4
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) were not significantly different at P ≤
0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
4.2.3: ِAsh content
Ash content during the incubation period (10week) is shown table (4.7).
Statistical analysis showed that, Heiglig was significantly lower than both
Neem and Hashab for ash content for all samples weeks (second week p ≤
0.03, fourth week p ≤ 0.01, 6th week p ≤ 0.0001, 8th week p ≤ 0.0006 and
10th week p ≤ 0.0002).
62
Table 4.7 Actual changes of ash remaining of Heiglig(H), Neem(N) and
Hashab(S) application during the period of 10 weeks of incubation.
Tree
Week2
Week4
Week6
Week8
type
Week1
0
(g/kg)
H
196.60b
187.63b
156.00b
124.58b
124.98b
N
283.88a
263.10a
270.45a
241.10a
241.68a
S
294.10a
274.68a
271.78a
2209.18a
227.80a
Values in columns followed by similar letter (s) were not significantly different at P ≤
0.05 using Least Significant Difference (LSD)
.
63
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion
5.1. Cultivation of millet under different tree species
5.1.1. Effects on yield and straw dry matter
In this study, millet cultivated under Heiglig and Neem trees were found
to produce the highest dry matter yield and also dray matter of straw. This
could possibly be due to their initial high N and K contents. However, the
Hashab tree (though a legume tree) also contained similar amount of N
but yields were lower than other tree species. It was reported earlier that
initial N content of many leguminous plants were not good indicators of
the N release. This is because other contents (for example lignin and
polyphenols) might hasten release of the N. Palm (1995) showed that
leguminous materials release nitrogen immediately, unless they contain
high levels of lignin or polyphenols. Nonlegumes and litter of both
legumes and nonlegumes generally immobilize N initially. Cannel et al.
(1996) reported that agroforestry may increase production provided that
the trees capture nutrients which are utilized by crops.
Dry matter production and yield under Hashab trees are the lowest which
could also be due to the low rate for the residues decomposition. The soil
pH under the Hashab trees is the lowest, thus that may decreases
microbial activities and decomposition of organic matter (Motavali et al.,
1995) and also may cause imbalances in nutrients, especially major
elements. However, Akbar et al. (1990) reported that the statistical
analysis did not show any significant difference in the wheat yield among
64
different tree species (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Albizia procera, Morus
alba and Leucaena leucocephala)
along the boundary of wheat fields.
However, the wheat yield was numerically lowest at 2 m distance in case
of all the four tree species and control. In case of mulberry, it was lowest
statistically also from other distances. Numerically higher wheat yield
values were noted at later distances (8, 10 and 12 m) in case of all tree
species including control except for siris where numerically highest value
was found at 6 m distance. Therefore, it can be generalized that tree's
impact on wheat yield can be experienced up to 2 m distance, there is
little, if any, impact up to 6 m distance and almost no impact at 8, 10 and
12 m distances.
The results were also similar to Puri and Bangwara (1992) who studied he
effect of Azadirachta indica, Prosopis cineraria, Dalbergia sissoo and
Acacia nilotica on the yield of irrigated wheat crop. Their results indicate
that A. indica and P. cineraria did not show any significant difference in
the wheat yield while the other two species (D. sissoo and A. nilotica)
showed a reduction in wheat yield. A. nilotica had the most significant and
prominent effect, and a reduction of nearly 40 to 60% wheat yield was
observed. The effect of this tree species was observed even beyond the
spread of the crown. D. sissoo reduced yield by 4 to 30% but the reduction
was only up to a distance of 3 m. In general, the impact of trees on wheat
yield was observed up to 3 m distance and there is little, if any, impact up
to 5 m distance and almost no impact at 7 m distance. In all the tree
species, the wheat yield was reduced to a maximum on the north side of
the trees and had almost no effect in the southern direction. Crop maturity
was observed to be delayed by three weeks under A. nilotica, by 9–10
65
days under D. sissoo, and only by 6–7 days under P. cineraria and A.
indica.
5.1.2. Effects on soil attributes
After harvesting, for soil analysis results showed that, the pH under the
Heiglig trees of the topsoil was higher than under other trees. This is
possibly due to the much release of ash content from the leaves (see
decomposition experiment). Ash content was reported to contain basic
elements like Ca and Mg which may result in the increase in soil pH.
Finzi et al. (1998) found that the pH under sugar marple (Acer saccharum)
was significantly higher as compared to other trees. He found that
exchangeable Ca and Mg were higher in that site.
Moreover, the OC content under the Heiglig was significantly lower than
that found under other trees. Therefore, it is expected that decomposition
and release of organic acids will be low. These organic acids are
responsible for the decrease in soil pH (Jekinson, 1981; Palm and
Sanches, 1991; Porter et al., 1997).
Gindaba et al. (2005) stated that Cordia macrostachyus and C. africana
trees on farms keep soil nutrient high via protection against leaching,
translocation of nutrients from deeper to the surface layer and
accumulation of litter, which create a temporary nutrient pool in the
surface soils under their canopies.
This study found that the concentration of soluble salts tends to decrease
in the presence of trees, especially under the Neem trees. It is expected
these trees improves the aggregation of soil particles and hence this will
improve leaching of accumulated cations. Shukla et al. (2006) studied the
66
soil quality under different trees and found that soil quality for each site
was good and soil aggregation, water infiltration and SOC concentrations
were high. However, the superiority of Neem over other trees might be
due to better quality of organic acids which play an important role in the
binding capacity of the soil particles.
It is generally accepted that planting trees tend to increase soil OC. In this
study, it was found that as a general trend, tree planting increased
consistently soil OC. However, higher values of OC under the Hashab tree
might possible indicates that decomposition of the C (which was not
determined was slow). This is supported by the second experiment which
showed that dry matter remained at the end of the decomposition period
(Table 4.3) was the highest among the three species. This also means that
litter quality did not decompose rapidly and tend to accumulate as C in the
soil.
The absence of significant difference in soil TN indicates that all tree
species litters did not contribute significant amounts of N to the soil. This
might be due to many factors, chief among them are biotic and abiotic
factors.
Despite the absence of significant difference between trees species in the
contribution to soil P, which could be due to high C.V values, it was
observed that in the 20-40 cm soil depth, there was higher amount of soil
P under the Neem tree which might be due to higher initial P content
(Table 3.2). Hagos and Smit (2005) reported similar results where they
found that there were no statistical differences in soil K and P due to
planting of various types of Acacia mellifera. This results also was
67
supported by Yadaf and Tarafdar (2004) who found that among trees
phytase (an important enzyme in mobilizing P) activity was more under
Neem trees Azadriachta indica.
This study did not find any significant difference in soil K due different
tree types. However, the K content in the 40-60 cm soil depth can not be
miss-looked. This high amount of K in this depth which was found under
the Neem trees was quite linked to the highest initial content as compared
to Heiglig and Hashab. It could also be looked in different angle that K is
one of the minerals that is easily leached from the cell since it is not bind
to the cell components.
Evidence exists that soil enrichment under tree canopies is a slow process.
This is demonstrated by correlations between total C and N in soil under
tree canopies and tree girth, an index of age (Bernhard-Reversat, 1982).
This pattern of soil enrichment was also demonstrated by Belsky et al.
(1989) in a semi-arid savanna in Kenya. The results of this study, with the
highest nutrient status in soil close to the stem, thus support this observed
soil enrichment pattern. The question of source and mechanism of soil
enrichment under tree canopies remains largely unexplained. Many
theories have been presented. Stemflow and throughfall represent a source
of mineral input to soil (Williams et al., 1987; Potter, 1992). Leaf litter
from leaf fall has also been mentioned as a possible source (Bosch and
Van Wyk, 1970; Stuart-Hill et al., 1987; Belsky et al., 1989; Belsky,
1994). The total litter produced by savanna trees may consist of more than
just leaves.
The absence of quite clear effects of the Hashab tree, though it is a legume
tree is consistent with Deans et al. (2003) who reported that there were
few significant differences in soil fertility beneath the various Acacia sp.
68
Nevertheless, soil fertility beneath Azadriachta indica is more fertile than
other N fixing trees.
5.2. Decomposition and nutrients release
5.2.1. Dry matter weight loss (DMW):
The rapid initial mass loss in the second week in Hashab could be
attributed to the removal of water soluble material by rainfall, this was
supported earlier by Parsons et al. (1990). Mass loss in the early stages
involved both physical leaching and microbial (Berg and Soaf, 1981; Berg
and Wessen, 1984). A similar pattern of dry matter weight loss was
observed in study of Ahlam (2004) on assessment of rate of
decomposition and nutrient release from leaf residue of some trees
species.
5.2.2. Nutrients release
5.2.2.1. Nitrogen
For all tree litter types N was consistently and regularly released during
incubation period, except the N remained in Heiglig at 8th week was
increased from 19. 68% at 6th week to 21,38% at 8th week. This increase
in N and followed by decline was earlier observed in mango and miombo
leaves (Blair, 1988). Also Mtambanonywe and Kirchmann (1995) found
similar result of N immobilization from litter of miombo followed by a net
mineralization within 2 months. The increase in N concentration in
decomposing
litter
is
due
to
mechanisms
such
as,
microbial
immobilization of N (Koeing and Cochran, 1994), fungal translocation,
through fall and insect frass (Melillo et al., 1982).
69
5.2.2.2. Phosphorous
Phosphours release pattern from all tree litter types seemed to be erratic
and did not follow a consistent norm. The rapid loss of P observed here
after the end of the fourth week was probably due to removal of soluble P
by excessive rainfall. Many studies found that P can be leached in the
early stages of decomposition (Musvoto et al., 1999; and Tiquia et al.,
2002). However the increase of P leaching reported here at the last stages
of decomposition period which synchronized with the beginning of the
rainy season. This was also observed by other studies (Blair, 1988;
Tripathi and Singh, 1992). The increase of P content observed at the sixth
week (in three tree residue) indicates that P could be a limiting nutrient for
decomposers. Many studies showed accumulation of P as well as N during
decomposition (Staaf and Berg 1982; O,Cnnel 1988). In some cases, P
accumulates faster than N during decay of forest debris (Lambert et al;
1980) indicating that the dependence of decomposer activity for
phosphours. Other study by O, Cnnel, (2004) showed that there was four,
fold increase in the amount of P in mesh bags after decomposition for
5years. Thus, the input of P from lower strata in the litter and mineral soil,
probably through translocation in the hyphae of soil and litter fungi
(Gholz et al., 1985).
5.2.2.3. Potassium
In the second, fourth, six and eighth week of decomposition it was
observed that, the Heiglig released K faster than Neem and Hashab, but at
the 10th and last week of incubation period, the release of K seemed to be
70
steady and slower in Heiglig and faster in both Hashab and Neem . The
high potential for K leaching from plant residues in the early stage of this
study is consistent with study showing significant relationships between
plant quality indices and K release as suggested by Tian et al; (1992). The
high loss of initial K observed here was also reported earlier (Cobo 2002;
Laskowsk; and Berg 1993; Singh and Shekhar, 1989). Because K is not a
structural element, it is susceptible to high initial loss by leaching, as also
reported by Staaf (1980). Others studies also reported that, K release were
not to be affected by chemical composition because this cation is not
incorporated into the organic compounds tissue in the plant so it is easily
leached from residues (Jung et al., 1968; Bunnel and Tiat 1974; Berg
1984; Saini 1989; Reddy and Venkataiah 1989).
The slow release of K observed here might be due to the little change in
soil exchangeable cation contents, supported by the studies of (Lupway;
and Haque, 1998 Alam, 2004).
71
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1: Conclusions:
1 This study showed that, millet production grown with Neem and
Heiglig trees recorded highest dry matter both straw and yield.
2 Trees vary in their capacity to induce changes in soil pH, OC, ECe and
effects on soil K, P and N were not substantial. In this respect, the Hashab
tree was found to contribute much higher amounts of SOC to the soil.
However, due to high initial content, Neem tree could be a good source
for enriching soil with P.
3 Heiglig litter is a good source for K, due to the rapid loss of K during
the incubation period of decomposition.
4 An important aspect, Phosphorus and N release patterns from all tree
litters studies, did not show a period of immobilization indicated by a
concentration that was higher than the initial content (100%). This result
indicates that incorporation of such litters do not seem to cause P or N
starvation to accompanied annual crops.
72
6.2: Recommendations:
1.If the main aim is to increase and sustain crops production in sandy soil,
it is worth to utilize the capacity of trees in the improvement of soil
fertility.
2.For long term fertility correction (ie. Build up of soil organic matter),
combined mulch from Neem and Heiglig or application of litter from
Hashab could improve content of soil organic carbon.
3.Judicious application of mixed Heiglig or Neem with Hashab will
improve both short and long term soil fertility improvement.
4.Litter from Hashab decomposed slowly. This phenomenon increases
chances of accumulation of soil organic matter; hence, this tree might be
useful in moisture conservation in such soils. Consequently, it is expected
that the soil under such tree will be of better resilience which is important
in the reduction of soil erosion.
5.
It is suggested that further studies should look into (1) biological
effects (e.g. microbial biomass C and N, soil enzymes) and (2) soil stability
indices.
73
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