1. education
2. english as a second language

Министерство Высшего и Среднего Специального
Образования Республики Узбекистан
Каракалпакский Государственный Университет
имени Бердаха
Кафедра английского языка
Лекция: по «Теоретической фонетике» для
магистрантов
Составил:
доц. Г.А.Нурымбетова
Нукус—2009/2010
1
Introduction
The present manual is intended for Masters of special departments of philological
faculty of KSU. Its structure differs greatly from of the ordinary textbooks used by
anglicists in pedagogical institutes. It’s main purpose is to give as concise and clear idea
as possible of the constituents of English as a separate national seminological system —
a natural human language, and as an ordered plan of systematically introduced parts of it
to Master’s Degree students. Therefore, it is not divided into lessons or fractionated so as
to suggest a step by step introduction to the different parts of the whole.
This manual is primary concerned with the phonetic system of English which
consists of the following four components: speech sounds, the syllabic structure of
words, word stress, and intonation (prosody). These four components constitute what is
called the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of English.
All the four above-mentioned components of pronunciation are treated from the
point of view of their articulatory or acoustic aspects and linguistic functions.
The course is based on the type of English pronunciation which is known as
‘Receive Pronunciation’ (RP). Received Pronunciation is, in a way, an abstraction, an
ideal. It seems to stand above all kinds of English pronunciation within or without Great
Britain. But the fact that it has been thoroughly described in linguistic literature, and
seems to be easily understood throughout the English-speaking world.
Phonetics may be considered the grammar of pronunciation. To succeed in
making English sounds and intonation perfect you will need to know exactly how to
make them.
A learner of English must also form a new habit of syllabic formation, weakeing
of unstressed vowels in connection with particular speech rhythms and only of individual
words but also of entire and even syntactic wholes.
Standard English falls into a number of functional styles having, of course, some
central points of resemblance. The difference between functional styles brings about
quite distinct types of pronunciation which primary affects the system of intonation. We
are firmly convinced that the study of pronunciation requires a stylistic approach. No
piece of English fiction, for instance can be reproduced aloud in a manner typical of the
so-call ‘Weather-in-England’ style of English prosody.
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Lecture 1
1. Sounds
English as a natural human language exists in two forms — the oral and the
written ones. The study of the oral form of language begins with s o u n d s .
Organic basis. Every language has certain general tendencies which control its
organic movements and positions, constituting its organic basis of articulation. A
knowledge of the organic basis is a great help in acquiring the pronunciation of a
language.
The general character of English speech depends on the following peculiarities of
its organic basis:
The tongue is broadened, flattened, drawback from the teeth (which it scarcely
ever touches), the fore part of it is hollowed out, which gives a dull sound, especially
noticeable in [l].
Rounded (labial) sounds, such as [u], [u:] in whom, who, are formed without any
pouting of the lips.
In unrounded vowels, such as [a:], [i], the lips have a passive, neutral position. In
the formation of front vowels as [i:], [e], there is no ‘chinking’ or spreading out of the
corners of the mouth, by which in other languages their sound is made clearer.
These peculiarities of the English organic basis are of primary importance for the
Karakalpak learner whose native basis of articulation is drastically different from the one
he is supposed to master. In contrast with English, the organic basis of Karakalpak is
constituted by the following general tendencies.
1. The tongue is narrowed and advanced, the front and the middle part of it being
arched and raised. This is the tongue position for the entail and palatalized sounds of
Karakalpak. This results in a greater activity of the tongue which gives Karakalpak
sounds their ‘clear’ character (as compared with the ‘dull’ resonance of English Speech).
2. The tendency towards ‘clear’ pronunciation is further enhanced by the fact that
in Karakalpak lips are active. The articulation of Karakalpak sounds is regularly
accompanied either by the pouting of the lips (such as [o], [y]) or the spreading of the
corners of the mouth (such as [u]).
It follows from what has just been said that the Karakalpak learner of English
should begin by concentrating on the peculiarities of the English organic basis.
So much then for a comparison of the English and the Karakalpak organic bases.
But this is only the very general basis. Very mush more must be learned before the
pronunciation of English sounds (especially sound-sequences) is fully understood. Thus,
for example, the general comparison of English and Karakalpak articulation bases tells us
nothing about the pronunciation of resonants [l], [m], [n]. In contrast with Karakalpak
[л], [м], [н], they have much more volume — are so much more ‘resonant’. This is
particularly noticeable when these sound occur in final position and within final clusters.
Thus, for example: He arrived by the five-o’clock train—the word ‘train’ with final [n] is
the last stressed word in the sentence and is pronounced with a falling tone. The extreme
sonority of [n] is even more apparent when the word carries a rising tone: Did he arrive
by the fife-o’clock train?
Here are some other examples: How old is your son? — He is ten. If you want to
master English sounds, you must understand that each of them has to be drilled. You
shouldn’t mumble when you learn to speak a foreign language.
The contrastive description of the two articulation bases should also include
another highly important peculiarity of English pronunciation — the fact that it requires a
3
greater amount of breath than Karakalpak. What matter in Karakalpak is whether the
vocal chords vibrate or not. When English is spoken, it is most of the time a question of
inhaling a sufficient of air.
This is particularly noticeable in the glottal fricative [h] which has counterpart in
the Karakalpak phonological system the English [h] as Karakalpak [ҳ] is articulated in
the glottis. The air is expelled from the lungs with considerable pressure; the strong air
stream passing through the glottis results in a special kind of friction identified as the
‘glottal fricative’ [h] which has counterpart in the Karakalpak phonological system. The
English [h] as [ҳ] is articulated in the glottis. The air is expelled from the lungs with
considerable pressure; the strong air-steam passing through the glottis results in a special
kind of friction identified as the ‘glottal fricative’ [h].
Here are some examples: However hard it might be, I shall have to know the
whole truth about this matter. Here, however, another highly important point has to
made. How are we to get top of the hill now that he has hurt his ankle? The girl was
holding here father’s hand. You must have your hair cut.
The glottis also takes part in the pronunciation of strong plosives [p], [t], [k]
because in strong positions they are aspirated. Aspiration is a puff of breath which
accompanies their articulation. Thus, for example: Pour yourself another cup of tea.
Put your toys away and come up to me, I want to talk to you. The paper was published
ten years ago, and it is still of current importance.
Text 1
Single out the proper names. Mark all the phonological oppositions on which
the difference between them is based.
Yesterday Mrs. Mitter invited me to a rea-party at her place in Park Lane. As
usual there was Mr. Bitter, the archaeologist, Mrs. Chitter and her niece, Ms. Ritter, Mr.
and Mrs. Ditter with their son, a musician, the old Mrs. Litter and her companion, Ms.
Titter. Mrs. Mitter introduced me to Mr. Pitter, a well-known literary critic, and two
young ladies: Ms. Pitter, his daughter, and her friend, Ms. Hitter. The friend was very
good-looking, the daughter — plain. Mrs. Mitter had specially asked me to be nice to
Mr. Pitter as he was going to write an article about her husband’s new book. So I tried
to do my best and, lavishly prayed Mr. Pitter’s latest essay on Homer.
Following Mrs. Mitter’s instructions, I was just about to say something nice to Ms.
Pitter. When I learned from her father that one of the ladies had recenttly published her
first book of poems which as he said was a great success. Unfortunately, probably
because I was not attentive, I could not understand which of the girls he meant — Ms.
Pitter, his daughter, or Ms. Hitter, her friend. Now I could not very well ask him: ‘Did
you say Pitter or Hitter ?’—the way the Cheshire Cat asked Alice ‘Did you say ‘pig’ or
‘fig’?’ So I turned to the pretty young lady and began to talk about poetry. As I praised
what I thought was Ms. Hitter’s poetry, I noticed that the impression my of words had on
Mr. And Ms. Pitter was quite unexpected. I suddenly realized that I had forgotten about
the promise. I had made to Mrs. Chitter about being nice to the Pitters, and immediately
tried to put things right by turning to Mr. Pitter’s daughter: ‘As far as I know, Ms. Pitter,
you are very good at arranging flowers. You won the first at the flower-exhibition last
week, didn’t you?’ She answered pointedly: ‘I’m afraid, Mr. Fitter there is some
mistake. Arranging flowers has never been in my line. What I’m chiefly interested in is
poetry’.
4
2. Phonemes and phonological oppositions.
Phonemes and phonological oppositions. So much, then, for the English
articulation basis. Let us now turn to English sounds as such and see what are the
problems which arise in this section of phonetics.
The First point to be made here is that there are sounds the difference between
which serves to distinguish between words and morphemes and does not depend on the
position of these sounds in the word. These sounds are called phonemes. Thus, for
instance, [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] are phonemes because the difference between the
two words bit and pit. The position of sounds in both cases is the same (they occur at the
beginning of words), the remaining sounds being identical ( [i] and [t] ).
The same can be said of [e] in [set] –set and [æ] in [sæt] – sat, [i] in [lid] –lid and
[i:] in [li:d] –lead, [m] in [mait] - might and [n] in [nait] - night, etc. In these cases and
similar cases we deal with phonological oppositions.
It follows from what has just been said that phonemes are u n f l a t t e r a l units
(бир тəреплеме бирликлер) because they do not mean anything by themselves. They
serve to distinguish between the sound-shapes (сес қабығы) of words and morphemes.
There are 20 vowels and 24 consonants in English. The English vowels monophthonges
— are distinguished according to the three rows (үш қатар) front, central, back and the
elevation of the tongue: high, mid, low. The following table presents the system of
English vowels as based on the resulting nine positions:
Front
HIGH
Central
Back
u: (9)
i: (1)
u (8)
i (2)
ə: (11)
MID
e (3)
LOW
HIGH
MID
LOW
ə (12)
o: (7)
a: (5)
(4)
Front
i:
i
e
(10)
Central
o (6)
Back
Diphthongs. The term ‘diphthong’ is used to denote those vowels which from a
glide within one syllable. They may be said to have a first element (the starting point)
5
and a second element (the point in the direction of which the glide is made). According
to the direction of the glide English diphthongs are divided into:
1. the centering diphthongs, where the tongue glides in the direction of the mouth
cavity, the position of the English neutral vowels: [iə], [uə], [εə];
2. the narrowing diphthongs, where the tongue glides towards a more narrow
sound: [ei], [ai], [oi], [ou], [au].
Consonants. English consonants are distinguished according to the place and
manner of articulation.
According to the manner of articulation the classification depends on he degree of
closure of the air-passage;
a) completely closed (plosives and nasal resonants)
b) incompletely closed (fricatives, medial and lateral resonants); or
c) complete closure of the air-passage is accompanied by incomplete closure
(affricates)
There is another very important phonological distinction as far as English
consonants are concerned — force/weakness of articulation. English consonants are
distinguished by the degree of breath and muscular effort involved in their articulation.
The main division lies between (or lenis) and strong (fortis) consonants.
Strong consonants are those the articulation of which requires greater muscular
energy—[p], [t], [k], [f], [s], [∫], [t∫], [h]. This is manifested, for example, in aspiration
— a relatively strong puff of breath which accompanies the articulation of initial strong
plosives [p], [t], [k] before a stressed vowel. Thus, for instance, [p] in people, [t] in take,
[k] in character.
Weak consonants are those which are articulated with relatively less muscular
energy — [b], [d], [g], [v], [z], [з], [dз], [r], [l], [m], [n], [η], [w], [j]. Thus, for example,
English during the translation from the plosive to the following vowel that vocal chords
begins to vibrate and voice is produced—as, for instance, in [buk]—book, [gou]—go,
[d l ]—dull.
3. Phonemes and variants of phonemes.
So much, then, for phonemes which serve to distinguish words and morphemes,
and whose differences do not depend on position alone. When the difference between
two sounds depends on phonetic environment, (the sounds which precede and follow
them) then the two sounds are not different phonemes, but variants of one and the same
phoneme. Thus, for example, [l] in [lait] – light is more palatized than [I] in [fil] – fill;
[i]in [bit] – bit isshorter than [i] in did – a weak one (d). Let us now turn to the following
text:
The most striking differences between reading aloud and actual conversation are
probably to be found at the phonetic level. Among these differences are the highly
strandarized prosodic contours which areregular used when a written text (especially the
one which belongs to intellective prose) is transposed into its oral form.
From the point of view of phonemic composition this text can be analysed
into its constituent phonemes. Thus, for example, the first sentence. The most striking
differences between reading aloud and actual conversation are probably found at the
phonetic level, consists of the following phonemes. First, comes the dental weak fricative
[ъ] then the neutral short central vowel number 12 [ ] (which together from [b ]); then
bilabial resonant [m], the diphthong [ou] and the apical-alveoral strong plosive fricative
[s], followed by the apical-alveolar strong ficative [s], apical-alveolar strong plosive [t],
the post-alveolar weak resonant [r], the diphthong [ai], the velar strong plosive [k], the
6
front short vowel [i] (which is high, but wider than narrow [i:]) and the velar nasal [ ]
(which together) from [straiki ]. Then follow the apical-alveolar resonant [r], then the
neutral central vowel [ə], the apical-alveolar stronfricative [s], vowel number 2 [i], and
the apical-alveolar weak fricative [z] (which together results in [’difrensiz]), - and so on
andso forth till you come to the last sound of all in the opening sentence. The analysis
along these lines could be continued and cover the whole text.
In the actual flow of speech, however, the sound we have singled out described by
one “vollide” and undergo some under the influence of the immediate phonetic
environment. There is always anticipation of the next sound as well as the lingering effect
of the preceding one.
Thus, for example, the first sentence – which phonological can be presented (with
the help of the Board Phonetic Transcription) as [ ə moust “strai ” ‘difrə
nsizbitwin:n’ri:di əulaudəd kt∫ul’konvə’sei∫m ə’prob ə bli’faund ə t əfou’netik’lev
əl]- in the actually flow of speech maysound as [əms|straiki , ’difr əsizbitwi:n ‘ri:di
əlaud ənd kt∫ul’konv ə’sei∫nə’probəbli’faundət’Ъənetic’levəl]. A speechevent like this
is within the phonetic norm of present-day English. If we study these two variants, we
shall immediately come very important linguistic observations.
First of all, the definite article which opens the utterance is pronounced
practically without vowel number 12. The dipthong [ou] in ‘most’ has undergone a
complete reduction. The final cluser [st] of the same word has merged with the intial
cluster of the word ‘striking’, which results in what might be described as a prolonged
[s] at the juncture of the two words. The diphthong [ai] in the word ‘striking’ is
emphatically long in spite of the fact that it occurs before a strong velar plosive [k].
Vowel number one [i:] in the word ‘between’ is so short that it is comparable in
length with vowel number 2 [ i] when it occurs in unstressed position before strong
consonants (as in ‘it’, for example). This is particularly noticeable when contrasted with
the emphatically long [ i]in ‘reading’ which immediately follows. The apical-alveolar
lateral [I] in ‘aloud’ occurs before a vowel (the diphthong [au]), and is, therefore, slightly
palatalized (in contras with unpalatalized [ I] in ‘actual’ where it occurs in final
position). The same differences can be observed between the intial [ I] in ‘level’ the last
word of the sentence.
The conjunction ‘and’ is pronounced without vowel number 12 so that there
remains only consonant cluster [nd] with slightly prolonged nasal [n].
The strong velar plosive [k] in ‘catual’ is imposive before the strong palatoalveolar affricate [t∫] and, therefore, differs from the strongly [k] in ‘conversation’ where
it occurs before a stressed vowel, as well as from the final [k] in ‘phonetic’ where its
articulation is considerably weakened (which results in its being pronounced prasctically
without aspiration).
Vowel number twelve [ə] in ‘probably’ daiappears. As a result, the two the two
weak bilabial plosives [b] occur in immediate succession, the first one becoming
implosive. Vowels [ə] and [ i] in the unstressed words ‘to’ and ‘be’ are extremely short,
while [ə] in ‘at’ and ‘the’ indergoes a complete reduction. As a result, the final consonant
cluster [nd] (in ‘found’) with the dominating prolonged resonant [n] merges with [t] ([d]
becoming implosive because of the following plosive). This sequence is immediately
what is actually pronounced here is a specific kind of consonant cluster [ndtЪf] which
appears at the juncture of these words as a result of reduction in the flow od speech.
Points for discussion:
1.What are the main peculiarities of the English organic basis as opposed to those
of the Karakalpak organic basis?
7
2. Why is the knowledge of the English organic basis so important for the
Karakalpak learner of English?
3. What is it that makes English resonants so different from their Russian
counterparts?
4. Why do we speak of ‘breath’ (inhaling a sufficient amount of air) as a highly
important peculiarity of English pronounciation?
5. What is meant by ‘phonemes’?
6. What are the main phonologival distinction as for as English vowel are
concerned?
7. What are the main phonological distinction as for as English consonants are
concerened?
8. How is the all-important opposition – force/weakness of articulation –
connected with the functioning of breath in English pronounciation?
9. What is the difference between ‘phonemes’ and ‘variants of phonemes’?
10. What happens to English sounds in the actual flow of speech?
8
Lecture 2.
Syllable Structure
1. Syllable formation
A syllable is a speech unit consisting od a sound or a sound sequence one of which
is head to be prominent that the others. The most prominent sound being the peak or the
nucleus of a syllable is called syllabic. Syllabic sounds are generally vowels
(monophongs, diphthongoids and diphongs) and sonorants. The latter become syllabic
when joined to a preceding consonant. A syllabic sonorant is marked by the sign [ ‘ ] eg
[I], [n], [m], if it is necessary to show in phonetic transcription.
A word consisting of only one vowel sound represents a separate syllable, egI [ai];
are [a:]; or [o:]; awe [o:]. In the case of a diphthong the peak of the syllable is formed by
its nucleus.
Among sylibbic sonorants we find [I, n] and less commonly [m],*
Apple [‘ pl], trouble [‘tr bl], puzzle [‘p zl], middle [‘midl].
Many words in English such as parcel, level, special, person and the like could be
pronounced with the neutral vowel before the sonorant thus making it non-sylabic:
[‘pa:səl], [‘levəl], [‘spe∫əl], [pssən].
In all these words the second prominent sound or the peak is formed by [ə]
corresponding to some vowel letter in an instressed position before the
sonorant.Moreover some words in English not having any vowel-letter before the final
sonorant may also be pronounced in both ways, cf
Puzzle [‘p zl], - [‘p zəl]; ruffle [‘r fl] – [‘r f əl].
On the eother hjand many words having a vowel letter before the final sonorant
are pronounced without the neutral vowel, whereby the sonorsny is syllabic, eg garden
[‘ga:dn]; lesson [‘lesn]; pupil [‘pju:pl].
The words with the sonorant [m] blossom [‘blosm], rhythm [‘ribm] are more
often pronounced with the neutral vowel [‘blosəm], [‘ri əm].
So if a sonorant is preceded by a vowel sound it loses its syllabic character and the
syllable is formed by the vowel.
There are some words in English which can be pronounced with either the syllabic
or non-syllabic [I] and [n], cf
[‘drizl] – [‘drizli ] or [‘drizli ]
[ retn] – [ retni ] or [ retni ]
But such cases are not numerous. To make sure that the abovemrntioned sonorants
aresyllabic, consult Table 12.
2. Syllable division
Syllable formation and syllable division rules appear to be amatter of great
practical value to the language learner. They are especially important when it is
necessary to know the number of syllables for the purpose of picturing a word or a
sentence on the staves, or for finding a convenient place to put a stress mark in phonetic
transcription. One must know the rules to define the syllable boundaries to makecorrect
syllabic division may cause misunderstanding, eg a nice house [ə ‘nais ‘ha s];
a nice house [ən ‘ais ‘ha s];
When the first sequence is pronounced with the syllable boundary between the
sounds [n] and [ai] a phonological mistake is made as in this case the meaning is
________
*The sonorants [w, j, r, nbl] are not syllabic.
9
different.
It is not difficult to count how many syllables a word contains by noticing the
peaks or the prominent sounds in it 9vowel and the sonorants [I, n, m]), but it is not
generally easy to determine precisely the syllable boundary.
Sometimes the beginning of a syllable is marked by a stress, eg create [kri’eit];
concern [kən’s:n].
In other cases the transition from one vowel sound to another indicares the
separation of syllables, eg seeing [‘si: ]; bluish [‘blui ].
But there are cases when it is almost impossible to determine the syllable
boundary, eg extra [‘ekstrə]. It is quite evident that there are two syllables in the word as
there are two peaks (the vowels [e] and [ə]) in it. But the syllable division may be
marked like this: [‘ek-strə] or [‘eks-trə].
In most general terms syllable division rules can be defined as follows:
1) An intervocalic consonant tends to belong to the following syllabic sound, eg
about ə-[‘ba t]; writing [‘raiti ].
This rule holds true for cases when a consonant is preceded by a long vowel or
adiphthong, as they are always free at the end and there is no need to close the syllable,
eg music [mju:-zik]; skating [‘skeiti ].
But in case of a short stressed vowel followed by a consonant there are three
viewpoints concerning the syllable oundary:
a) the intervocal consonant belongs to the short vowel preceding it (to make the
short vowel checked), eg pity [‘pit-i], coffe [‘kof-I’], better [bet-ə];
b)
the intervocal consonant belongs to the vowel following it, eg pity [‘pi-ti],
coffee [‘ko-fi’], better [be-tə];
c) the syllable boundary goes through the consonant, eg [‘piti], [‘kofi’], [betə];
In this case the sounds [t] and [f] belong structurally both to the preceding and the
following vowels. The last point of view seems to be convenient for pedagogical
expredience as a stressed vowel being covered by a consonant vecomes checked.
2) Intervocalic combinations of consonants belong to the following syllabic
sound, if such combinations are typical of English, eg naturally [‘n t - rə-li].
It is reasonable to admit that the syllable boundary is placed in this word between
[ ] and [r] as [ t ] and [rə] are possible word final and initial sequences, white the
word final [ ] and initial [t rə] do not occur in English, eg latch [l t ], extra [ekstrə].
Recommendations. 1. Make vowels in stressed syllables cheked by passing over to
the articulation of the following consonant as quickly as possible.
2. See that you make correct syllable division at the junction of words, cf:
They lived in an ice house [ ei/ lived in ən ‘ais ha s]
They lived in a nice house [ ei/ lived in ən ‘nais ha s]
Points for discussion
1. What is a syllable?
2. What sounds can from the ‘peak’ of a syllable?
3. What sonorous sounds are syllabic?
4. What are the two possible ways to pronounce a word with a vowel-letter
preceding a sonorant?
5. When does asonorant lose its syllable boundaries in a word?
6. Where does the syllable boundary go in words with an intervocalic consonant?
7. Why is it important to know the syllable boundaries in a word?
10
8. What is the peculiarity of the syllable boundary in a word with an inter
vocalic consonant preceded by a vowel?
9. How would you find the syllabic boundary in a word with intervocalic
combinations of consonants? Give examples.
10. What is the generakized formula of a syllable structure?
11. What pronounciation habits of Russians can interfere with correct syllable
division in English?
11
Lecture 3.
Word stress
Prominence may be achieved by means of 4 factors: Loudness (force), picth,
sound quantity (length) and sound quality. One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word
have greater prominence than the others. Such syllables are said to be accented or
stressed.
In English any or all of four factors – loudness (force), pitch, sound quantity
(length) and sound quality may render a syllable more prominent than the others. In
similar phonetic contexts a vowel is perceived as a more prominent one if it is louder,
longer and more distinct than the unstressed one. Even vowels of full formation in the
untressed position are not so distinct as their stressed counterparts. The pitch component
of word stress manifests itself in the fact that the stressed syllable is always that on which
there is a potential change of pitch in the phrase though the stressed syllable is not
necessarily higher than the unstressed one, of compound (n) [‘kompa nd] and compound
(v) [kəm’pa nd].
Vowels of unstressed syllables are definitely not so long tend to be reduced in the
unstressed position.
The effect of word stress in Russian is achieved by the same factors, the main
difference being connected with the quantity and the quality of the vowel sound. Though
English vowels are shorter in the unstressed position the difference between historically
long and historically short vowels remains quite distinct. In Russian variations of vowel
length are only due to the degree of stress. Russian vowels are regularly longer in
stressed syllables than in unstressed ones. As to quality all Russian vowels are qualitively
reduced in the unstressed position, eg кoмар, помидор.
Word stress arranges syllables in words thus fulfilling the constitutive function. Its
distinctive function can be traced in the opposition of words consisting of the, orphemes
the meaning of which is differentiated by word stress, eg object (n) [‘obd ikt] – object
(v) [əb’d ekt]; ч’удная – чуд’ная; б’арлық – бар’лық.
2. The degrees and the position of word stress
In English there are three degrees of word stress: stressed syllables (primary
stress), half-stress syllables (secondary stress) and weak or unstressed syllables. A large
group of polysyllabic simple words bear both the primary and the secondary stresses, eg
conver’sation.
In Russian there are only two degrees of word stress, stressed and unstressed
syllables.That is why Russian learners of English must be particularly careful not to omit
secondary stress in English words since the interference of Russian pronounciation habits
is very strong in this case, cf, organi’zation –организа’ацияю
There are several large groups of words in English with two equally strong
stresses. These words consists of two morphemes. The use of the second strong stress is
caused by the semantic significance of both equally stressed elements of the word, eg
‘re’write; ‘four ‘teen.
The position of wiord stress
Word stress in English as wel as in Russianis free, in the sense that the primary is
not tied to any particular syllable in all the words. But it always falls on a particular
syllable of any given word, eg ‘finish, re’sult, edu’cation; м’оре, лун’а, быстрох’одный.
12
The position of word stress in English is the product of its historical
development. It has been by the combination of different tendencies. The oldest of them
is known as the recessive tendency, according to which the root syllable i.e. the semantic
unit of the word is stressed. So the majority of words of Germanic orgin have stresses on
the first root syllable, eg ‘clever, ‘body, ‘water, ‘singing.
If words are formed with the prefixes with no referential meaning the stress is
shifted onto the root syllable, which is not initial in this case, eg be’fore, be’gin, mis’take.
The second tendency is the result of the mutual influence of Germanic and
French accentual patterns. It is known as the rhythmic tendency which manifests itself in
stressing the third syllable from the end, eg ‘situate, ar’ticulate.
Most disyllabic English words have recessive stress, eg ‘finish, ‘maffiage, be’hing,
re’sult.
Some disyllabic French borrowings retain the primary stress on the last syllable,
eg ma’chine, po’lic.
According to both tendencies words of three syllables generally have stress on the
first syllable (which is the third from the end), eg ‘cinema, ‘enemy, ‘afterwards,
‘recognize, ‘situate (but un’certain, re’lation).
Words of four syllables may have either recessive or rhythmic stress, eg ‘archirect,
‘criticism, ‘characterize, ‘re’markable, ar’ticulate.
Rhythmic stress is especially common for verbs with the suffixes –ate, -fy, -ize,
eg ‘situate, ‘centralize, ar’ticulate, per’sonify.
Some four-syllable words tend to have a three-syllable accentual pattern, eg
dictionary [‘dikənri], laboratory [‘l brətri].
Words with primary and secondary atress
The secondary stress is manifiested in polysyllabic words with the primary stress
on the third or on the fourth syllable from the beginning, eg popu’lartly, re’sponsibility.
In words with the primary stress on the third syllable the secondary stress usually
falls syllable, eg, deco’ration.
If the primary stress falss on the fourth or fifth syllable the secondary stress is very
commonly on the second syllable, eg, ar’ticu’lation, ex’perimen’tation.
Consequently the position of the secondary stress is often that of the primary stress
in the original word, i.e. in the word from which the derivative word is formed, cf
‘possible –‘possi’bility, ap’preciate-ap’preci’ation.
In some cases the position of the secondary stress is connected with the type of
the suffix which can influence the accentual pattern.
Words with two primary stresses
The following groups of words have two primary stresses:
1. Polysyllables with separable prefixes having a distinct meaning of their own.
Negative prefixes un-, dis-, non-, non-, in-, (and its variants ir-, il-, im-), eg
‘un’able, ‘un’known, ‘unem’phatic, ‘un’prepared, ‘disap’pear, ‘discon’nect, ‘disbe’lief,
‘non’smoker, ‘non’final, ‘inar’tistic, ‘il’legal, ‘ir’regular.
Re – (meaning repetition), eg ‘re’write, ‘re’write, ‘re’organize.
Mis – (meaning wrong), eg ‘misunder’stand, ‘mis’print, ‘mis’count.
Pre-(meaning before, earlier), eg ‘pre’paid, ‘pre’war’ ‘prehis’toric.
Ex- (meaning former), eg ‘ex’minister, ‘ex’champion, ‘ex’husband.
13
Under-, sub- (meaning subordinate), eg ‘under’charge, ‘sub’conscious,
Inter- (meaning among), eg ‘inter’course, ‘inter’view.
Out-, eg antifascist, vice-president, ultra-fashionable, out-spread.
Stress in compound words
Words composed of separable root morphemes are called compounds.
The spelling of compound words differes. They may be spelled as one word, with
a hyphen or as two separate words. Among compound words we find nouns, adjectives,
verbs.
Words stress in compounds depends on the semantic weight of the elements.
When the first element determines, restricts the second one or introduces some contrast it
is stressed while the second ekement of the compound remains unstressed though the
stressed vowel of the second element retains its qualitative andquantitative prominence.
This is the case with the majority of compound nouns. They are usually singlestressed, eg ‘reading-room, ‘writing-table, ‘apple-tree, suitcase, ‘raincoat.
This type of word stress in compound nouns differentiates compounds fromword
combinations in which everywword has a stress, cg:
‘blackbird – дрозд
‘blackboard – классная доска
‘goldfish – золотая рыбка
‘black’bird – черная птица
‘black’board – черная доска
‘gold’fish – рыба золотистого цвета
Double stressed compound nouns are comparatively rare. In such compounds both
elements are equally important, eg ‘gas-‘stove, ‘gas-‘ring.
Word stress and rhuthm
All the above-mentioned words with two equally strong stresses are subjected to
the influence of English rhythm in connected speech.
Thus in a double-stressed word the first element is weakened if it is preceded by
another stressed syllable or the second stress is likewise lost if it is followed by a stressed
syllable, eg:
- How many students are there in your group?
- Thir, teen.
- Find ‘room thir’teen
I have /looked through ‘thirteen, books today or an absent-mindedman but so
absent-‘mindedan unknown land but:
Quite un, known.
The distinctive function of word stress
A relatively small number of words of the samemorphological structure differ in
the position of words stress. In this case opposition of accentual structures differentiates
the meaning. The shifting of word stress may not cause change in the second quality oe
quantity, cf accent (n) [‘ ksənt], accent (v) [ək’sənt] or [ k’sənt].
The opposition of the primary stress is capable of differentisting the parts of
speech, eg
14
Noun/Adjective
Vebr
Combine [‘kombain]
Conduct [‘kondəkt]
Export [‘ekspot]
Progress [‘prsugres]
Subject [‘s bd ikt]
[kəm’bain]
[kən’d kt]
[eks’po:t]
[prə’gres]
[səb’d ekt]
Similar examples may be found in Russian: здорово (наречие) and здороао!
(междометие).
The actualmeaning of some words may be differentiated in the same way, eg artist
[‘a:tist] (a painter) but artiste [a:’tist] (a person skilful at doing something), or in Russian
молод’eц but м’олодец.
Points for discussion
1. What factors create the effect of stress in the English words torment (n) [] –
torment (n) [to:’ment] – concert (n) [‘kosət] and in Russian words вода-водовоз?
2. How is pitch component manifested in English word stress?
Give a series of examples to illustrate the fact that the qualitative modifcation of
unstressed vowels is not obligatory in English.
4. What it the main difference between English and Russian in respect of degrees
of word stress?
5. Define word stress of the words below in respect of its position: finish, malice,
family, qualify, agitate, apologise, remarkable, educated, intersting, demonstartion.
6. Compare the accentual patterns of the words unusual and unshaven. What is the
difference between them due to?
7. Illustrate the use of the accentual pattern with two primary atresses with a set of
words. Give not less than five examples for each group. Transcribe and read them. Make
up sentences with these words. Intone them. Sshow how the accentual pattern is modified
under the influence of the rhytmic structure of the phrase, eg wel-known:
His books are well-known.
He is a well-known writer.
This is quitewell-known.
8. Suppose your fellow-student does not pronounce the verbs with the suffixes
–ize, -are, -fy with rhythmic word stress. What kind of exercise would you recommend
him to eliminate this error?
15
Lecture 4.
Sentences stress
Manifestation of sentences stress
In a sentence or an intonation group some of the words are of greater importance
than the others. This largely depends on the situation or context. Words which provide
most of the information are brought out in speech by means of sentence-stress. Thus
sentence-stress is a special prominence given to one or more words according to their
relative importance in a sentence.
The main function of sentence-stress is to single out the communicative center of
the sentence which introduces new information. The promunence is realized by variations
of pitch, force length and quality. The syllables of the words marked by sentence-stress
are pronounced with possible changes in pitch, greater force, greater length of vowels and
their full quality, that is the stressed words are pronounced more distinctly. The most
prominent part of a sentence is the last stressed word which takes the nuclear tone. It in
dicates the nucleus of the communicative centre. The second in weight is the first stressed
word which often has the highest pitch an is fairly loud, eg:
The/doctor ‘says it’e not serious.
The adjoining unstressed words are called proclitics when they precede the
stressed words and enclitics when they follow they follow the stressed words. English
unstressed syllables generally tend to be inclitics. Stressed words pronounced in one
breath withproclitics and enclitics form rhytmic group.
The distribution of stresses in a sentence depends on the semantic value of words
and is closely connected with the lexical and grammatical structure of the sentence. The
ability syllables between them forms the basis of a good natural English accent. In most
languages there is a natural tendency to subordinate form-words content words in stress.
This is especially the case in English.
Types of sentences-stress
We differentiate three types of sentence-stress:
1. normal (syntactical) sentence-stress,
2. logical sentence-stress,
3. emphatic sentence-stress.
1. Normal stress affects content words which convey the necessary information to
the listener, eg:
We have ‘plenty of time
Normal sentence-stress is used to arrange words into sentences or intonation
groups phonetically. Together with the lexical and grammatical means expresses the
general idea of the sentence and indicates its communitive centre. The niclear syllable is
generally assiciated with the last content word of the intonation group.
Stntence-stress in English is related to rhythm. It substantiates the rhytmical
structure of the sentence. To make the intervals between the stressed segments regular
content words often lose their normal stresses (but never have weak forms) as a tendency
to avoid two consecutively stressed syllables is found in English. For the same reason
form-words mayreceive stresses. This realization of normal stress is called rhytmic stress,
eg:
He is/very’well-to-do. He is ‘quite ‘well-to-do.
16
If’father is, in/we’ll, speak to him.
‘If father is, in/we’ll speak to him.
2. The position of the last sentence-stress determines the place of the
communicative centre. By shifting the position of the stress we can change the place of
the nucleus of the communicative centre, eg:
Nelly ‘spoke to him, yesterday.
Nelly ‘spoke to ‘him, yesterday.
‘Nelly ‘spoke to him, yesterday.
‘Nelly ‘spoke to him, yesterday.
Logically different messages are expressed in the givensentences. Each shifting of
the stress modifies the meaning of the sentence, the type of sentence-stress which gives
special prominence to a new element in a sentence or an intonation group is called logical
stress. The word which is singled out by the logical stress is the most important in the
sentence. It is the communicative centre (or the logical centre) of the sentence which
bears the terminal tone, cf:
I/knew what was ‘going to say
I ‘knew what was ‘going to say.
The first sentence is said in an ordinary wat, with the nuclear syllable on the last
content word say. In the second sentence the final stress with the terminal tone is shifted
and falls on the word knew. This shifting makes the word knew stand out and sound most
important. All the following words are of less importance. They are therefore laft
unstressed or half stressed and are pronounced on a low level. The two principal
components of intontion, stress and voice pitch are in fact very intimately connected. An
increase of stress is generally accompanied by a modification in the voice pitch.
The communicative centre of the sentence marked bylogical stress introduces
something new to the listener (a new object, person or their new quality), while the other
words of the sentence convey what is already known to him, something which has
already been mentioned in the discourse or is clear from the situation. The words
following the logical stress unstressing, eg:
They didn’t want trouble, that crowd. I had their promise, their, written promise …
(A. Cronin. “The Citadel”).
The example above show that logical stress in one of the most expressive means
of oral speech.
Ane word in the sentence including form-words, personal and possessive
pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs may become the nucleus of the communicative
centre of the sentence and may be logically stressed as carrying new onformation, eg:
She said slowly: If, you don’t/ nobody does. (J.Galsworthy. “The White Monkey”)
It is ‘not a good, of/but it is a ‘job.
(M.Schubiger).
Due to agreat number of analytical forms of many grammatical categories in
English logical stress on auxiliary, modal and link verbs is much more frequent than in
Russian where the grammatical cetegories of tenses and aspect are mostly formed
synthetically. Singling out the link-verb, auxiliary or modal verb conveys the idea of
confirmation in statements. In question it gives a note of curiosity or puzzid wonder, eg:
George ‘said that if ‘anything was, broken/it was broken, /which are/flection
‘seemed to comfort him. (J.K.Jerome. “Three Man in a Boat”).
ROLE: You ‘ought to be just, Jill.
JILL: I am just. (J. Galsworthy. “Plays”)
17
The attitude of the speaker underlined by logical stress in English, is
expressed with the help of the lexical means in Russian, namely the words таки,
действительно, же and others, cf:
For, give me, Hank, /but you have changed.
Извини меня, Хенк, но ты действительно изменился.
The logical stress very often increases the elements of contrast in the sentence or
the situation, eg:
It isn’t my shirt/ - it’s yours!
(J.K.Jerome. “Three Man in a Boat”)
4.
Most human utterances express not only the speaker’s thoughts, but also his
feelings and attitudes to reality and to the contents of the sentence. Both normal and
logical stress can be unemphatic or emphatic. Emphatic stress increases the effort of
expression. It may strengthen the stressedword making it still more prominent. Emphatic
stress manifets itself mainly on the High Fall or the Rise Fall of the nuclear logical and
emotional prominence of words in a phrase, eg:
They were de’lighted to see dear Soames after this ‘long, ‘long time; and/so this
was A nette! You are ‘so pretty, my dear; almost ‘too, young and pretty for dear Soames,
aren’t you?
In the analysis of intonation means we sometimes mention sentence-stress being
only decentralized or dispetsed, when all the content words are normally stressed, and
centralized or concentrated when the utterance is marked with one reinforced sentencestress.
1. In what way are the words in a sentence made prominent?
2. How is the prominence of words realized?
3. What is the main function of sentence-stress?
4. Whish is the most prominent word in a sentence?
5. Tell the difference between normal and logical stresses.
6. Whe is the word if stressed in the sentence: If you stay you’ll meet him?
7. Whe is the personal pronoun I stressed in the reply: “Who has done this? – I
have”. What do we call this type of sentence-stress?
8. Which words are the communicative centres of the following sentences:
The|girl has ‘broken the cup.
The ‘girl has broken the cup.
18
Lecture 5.
Suprasegmental phonetics
So much, then, for segmental aspect of language – English phonemes and their
modiaications in the actual flow of speech. But this brief summary of the state of things
in the field of phonits will not be complete if we do not include some of the problems
which arise in connection with the suprasegmental phenomena of sound, i.e. prosody.
The five basic parameters of suprasegmental phonetics are: pausation, pitchmovement, tempo, loudness and diapason. They are all-important because without a
proper appreciation of their functioning speech becomes unitellingble. It goes without
saying that intelligibility is the first and the most vital requirement in so far as human
communication by means of language is concerned.
1. Pausation is the meaningful cessation of phonation, as in, for example:
How many vowels and consonants are there in the English language? – In English
there 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
In this example there are two cases of cessation of voice (or two pauses). The first
one occurs at the end of the question (‘How many vowels and consonants are there
twenty vowels and twenty-four consonants?’). The second pause marks the the end of the
answer and separate it from whattever utterance may follow.
2. Pitch-movemet is the functionally meaningful transition from higher to lower or
lower to higher pitch-level. Thus, for instance:
Does that mean that stress and tone exist/separatelt?
Stress and tone always go to/gether. A melodic curve always occurs within
a stressed/syllable.
In this example the transition from lower to higher pitch level occurs on the
word “separately”. This kind of transition is functionally meaningful, because it shows
that the utterance is a question. In the two sentences which follow we come across other
variety of pitch-movement – the transition from higher to lower pitch levels. It occurs on
the final eords ‘together’ (within the last two syllables ‘gether’ beginning with the
stressed one) and ‘syllable’. This kind of transition is also functionally meaningful: it
shows that the sentences are statements (and not questions).
3. Tempo is relative speed of enunciation. It should be specially emphasized that
when we speak of tempo we mean not the absolute speed (not the number of wordsa per
minute), but the functional change in the speed of enunciation. Thus, for e[ample:
The letters of traditional orthography, as we all know very well, are an
faster
imadequate and unsarisfactory way of senoting phonemes.
In this example the speed of enunciation changes on ‘as we all know very well’.
This part of the utterance is said much more quicly than the preceding or the following
part of the main part of the utterance which is pronounced more slowly.
4. Loudness is the relative prominence and intensity of voice which is
funvtionally important. Again it should be specially pointed out that we are not
concerned with the acoustic aspect of loudness. Our task is not to measure this or that
kind of loudness in decimels. What we are primarily interested in is the function this or
that change in loudness performs. Let us, for example, turn to the same sentence:
5. By diapason we mean the distance between the highest and the lowest note
possible of the human voice. Within it for purposes of syntactic prosody we single out
the part which is most frequently and normally used by the speaker. Within this part we
distinguish between the three pitch-levels: high, mid, and low.
19
Thus, for example, the sentence Stress, and tone always go to gether is
pronounced normally within the part of the diapason which is most frequently used by
the speaker (i.e. the one which is neither too high, nor too low). The stressed (and
unstressed) sullables of the sentence are distinguishedamong the three pitch-levels:
‘stress’ is pitched on the high level (the following unstressed and being joined to it in
pitch), ‘Tone’ is said between the high and mid levels, ‘always’ is pitched on the mid
level, ‘do’ – between the mid and the low levels (together with the first unstressed
syllable [tə] of the following word ‘together’). The low-falling tone whichis pronounced
within the last two syllables [-ge ə] of the final word ‘together’, begins than the
preceding syllable [tə] and goes down very low. The fact that this distinction is
functionally meaningful can be illustrated by the following example:
All the now existing orthographies (even the most con/sistent/ones) present a
distorted picture of what actually happens in speech.
It
this example the words which are enclosed in brackets (‘even the
mostconsistent ones’) are shifted to the low pitch-level. This change in pitch-level is
functionally relevant because, together with the already described changes in loudgess
and tempo, it helps to single out the parenthetical insertion and separate it from the
precceding and the following parts of the utterance.
1. Pausation
As has alreadybeen explained (seed above, p.18) pausation is phonation
accompainied and enhanced by the prolongation of the preceding sound. Pauses split a
piece of connected discourse into smaller portions: paragraphs, sentences, sensegroups. A
pause at the end of a sentence, which in its turn is longer than the one within a sentence.
It should be specially emphasized that it is the relative length of pauses which is
functionally significant, not their absolute length.
Let us consider the following text:
‘It goes without saying, [that the basic notions of pausation], pitch-movement,
tempo, [loudness], and diapason are well-known to everyone. At the same three is one
more aspect of prosody, which so far has not received all the attention it deserves. It does
not mean of course that the concept of rhythm has never been mentioned at all. Generally
speaking, rhythm is not unknown to the students of syntactic phonetics. Nevertheless, its
actual importance, its scope affairs may probably be accounted for by the fact, that many
people, who are conscious of producing acceptable English, wrongly believe that they do
it without the aid of rhythm…
In this text there is one particularly long pause which marks the end of a parafraph
(after the word ‘unclear’). In the written form of speech this kind of pause corresponds to
an indented line (for details see p. I. ch. 5.).
There are also several long pauses which separate sentences from each other (after
‘everyone’, ‘deserves’, ‘all’, ‘phonetics’, ‘rhythm’). In the written form of speechthis
kind of pause corresponds to a full stop (for details see p. I, ch. 5.).
At the same time there ale also several pauses which are considerably shopter and
which occur within sentences after ‘saying’, ‘pausation’, ‘pitch-movement’, ‘tempo’,
‘loudness’, ‘prosody’, ‘speaking’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘importance’, ‘fact’. In the written form
of cpeech this kind of pause is marked by commas (for details see p. ch. 5).
Let us now turn to some more texts and study them from the point of view
ofpausation.
20
2. Pitch –movement
Pitch-movement is one of the most important parameters whose modulations
affect the intelligibility of speech. It has already been made clear (see above, p. 18) that
by pitch-movement we mean the functionally relevant transition from higher to lower, or
lower to higher pitch-level.
There are, therefore, the two basic kinds of ‘tones’ in English – the falling and the
rising one-with the help of which we can distinguish between finality and non-finality,
questions and answers. It is on these all-important oppositions thatintelligibility depends.
Falling tones are usually associated with the expression of finality or
“completeness of thought”. This means that if something is said with a falling tone, the
intention of the speaker is to convey the idea of ‘completeness’ or ‘finality’ to the
listener.
Thus, for instance:
‘Stress and tone always go to/gether. They never exist/separately. A melodic curve
always occurs within a stressed/sullable. This should never be ig/nored.
In this text a falling tone is used four times – on the words ‘together’, ‘separately’,
‘sullable’, and ‘ignored’. In all these cases it marcs the end of a sentence and indicates
that the utterance is a “complete” statement.
3. Tempo
It has already been explained (see p. 19), that by tempo we mean the relative
speed of enunciation. It has also been made clear that we are not intersted (at this stage of
our study) in the absolute values of tempo (such as the exact number of words per
minute, for example). What we are mainly concerned with is, first and foremost, the
functionally relevant changes in the speed of enunciation. It should also be pointed out in
this connection, that functional modifications of tempo do not depend on the individual
peculiarities of the speaker’s tempo. As is well known, the average tempo differs from
one person to another.
Nevertheless, whatever the individualpeculiarities of every speaker’s tempo may
be, we can speak of basic meaningful modifications of tempo, which are actually
usedand distinguished by everybody. These are: normal tempo, quick tempo, and slow
tempo. In so far as intelligibility (as the all-important requirement of human
communication) is concerned the functionally relevant modifications of tempo are: 1)
those which help to distinguish between parenthetical insertions and the main part of the
utterance, and 2) those which are used to mark the end of a paragraph and the beginning
of the following one.
Let us now turn to a text study it is terms of these semiologically relevant varities
of tempo.
It is usually assumed that somewhere (where exactly nobody has so far been able
fFaster
faster
to show) there is a line divides the rest of speech-events from those which have a specific
aesthetic, or, as is sometimes said ‘literary’ value.
faster
In this text functionally relevant changes of tempo occur several times. The text
begins with a slightly increased tempo (on the opening words ‘It is usually assumed’). It
21
can be accounted for by the fact that this is the beginning of a paragrapg. Then the
tempo returns to normal. When we get to the words ‘where exactly nobody has so far
been able to show’ (printed in brackets), the tempo increases, be-cause this is a
parenthetical insertion. The fact that it is said more quickly helps us (together with) some
modification of loudness and diapason – see p. 18-20) to separate the parenthetical clause
from the main part of the utterance.
After that the tempo again becomes normal up to the words as is sometimes said
(which are enclosed in commas). On these words the tompo is increased again, because
this is also a case of parenthesis. On the last two words of the utterance (‘literary value’)
the tempo again becomes normal.
In the following text we come across all the three basic modifications of tempo
(normal, quick and slow) which perform the two main functions:
A systematic course of phonetics is the indispensable foundation of all linguistic
Faster
research. It goes without saying, that one cannot learn a foreign language (its vocabulary,
syntax, the particular division into registers, etc), uncless one begins by cultivating
faster
one’s ability to observe, to analyse, and further on to synthesize the flow of speech
in the language in question.
More slowly
From the point of view of the mechanism of their production most speech
faster
sounds are formed by the flow of air which is expelled from the lungs and variously
modified in the throat and the mouth.
At the beginning of the text the tempo is slightly increased (on the words ‘A
systematic course in phonetics’), for this is the beginning of the paragraph. Then the
tempo slows down to normal – up to the parenthetical insertion ‘ts vocabulary, syntax,
the particular division into registers’, which ‘unless’ the tempo returns back to normal.
On the words ‘in the language in question’ the tempo slows down. These are the final
words of the paragraph, and the fact that they are pronounced slowly shows that is its
end.
The sentence begins with a sloghtly increased tempo (‘From the point of view of
mechanism of their production’). This mars the beginning of a new paragraph. Then the
tempo again becomes normal.
4 . Loudness
It has already been explained (see above, p. 18-19) that loudness is the relative
prominence and intensity of voice. As in the case of tempo, it is the functionally
meaningful modifications of loudness that are important, not their absolute values (in
decibers).
The basic modifications of loudness which are semiologically relevant are:normal,
loud and soft. Intelligibility in terms of loudness is primarily based on those distinctions
which enable the speaker 1) to divide the parenthetical insertions from the main part of
the utterance, and 2) to mark the end of one paragraph and the beginningof the other.
Let us now turn to the text which we have already analysed in ch. 3, and study it in
terms of these modifications. At the beginning of the text (‘It is usually
assumed’)loudness is slightly increased to mark the beginning of the paragraph. Then it
22
becomes normal. The parenthetical insertion (‘where exactly nobody has so far been
able show’) is pronounced softly (which, together with increased tempo, helps to separate
it from the preceding and the following parts of the sentence). Then loudness again
becomes normal and remains so up to the next parenthetical clause (‘as is sometimes
said’) where it diminishes and, thus, together with an increase of tempo, enables us to
divide it from the rest of the utterance. Then loudness returns to normal.
We may subject one more text (the second one we have already discussed in ch.)
3) to analysis along the same lines. This text shows how the three essential modifications
of loudness are used in terms of greater intelligibility.
The whole text (after the opening words ‘A systematic course of phonetics’ which
require a slightly increased loudness to indicate the beginning of the paragraph) is read
with normal loudness with the exception of the parenthetical insertion (‘its vocabulary,
syntax, the particular division into registers’), which is said more softly than the end of
the paragraph loudness diminishes (the words ‘in thelanguage inquestion’ are said
sometwhat more softly than the preceding part of the sentence). The beginning of the new
paragraph is marked by an increase in loudness; the words ‘From the point of view of the
mechanism of their production’.
5. Diapason
As has already been pointeds out (se p. 19-20), by diapason we mean the distance
between the highest and the lowest note possible of the human voice. It has also been
explained that it is functionally important to single out the part of the diapason which is
normally frequently used by the speaker, and within it to distinguish the three pitchlevels: high,mid and low.
It has been shown that the functional relevance of the distinction between the three
pitch-levels is most clearly revealed when we consider different utterancespronounced
according to the laws of syntactic prosody within the contour of the Descending Scale.
It has also been made clear that the distintion between the pitch levels is most
important in those cases when deal with parenthetical insertions. Let us now return to the
already adduced example and study it in greater detail:
All the now – existing orthographies (even the most consistent ones) present a
Faster
Distorded picture of what actually happens in speech.
The opening part of the sentence (‘All the now-existing orthographies’) is
pronounced with the Descending Scale prosodic contour, all the syllables
beingdistributed among the three pitch-levels (beginning fairy high on “All” and getting
gradually down to the last stressed word ‘orthographies’ which is said with a low rising
tone). Thus, we may conclude that the first part of the utterance covers practically the
whole part of the diapason which is normally by the speaker.
Next comes the parenthetical insertion (‘even the most consistent one’), where the
picture changes drastically, because, as has already been shown (see p. 20), all these
words are shifted to the falling tone (on ‘consistent’) which begins low and goes down
stilllower, and a low-rising tone (on ‘ones’). The following part of the sentence (‘presents
a distorted picture of what actually happens in speech’) begins again in a high pitchleveland the sentences goes on from high to low pitch-levels as in the opening part.the
only difference between the beginning of the sentecne and its final part consists in the
possibility of the Descending Scale being interrupted after ‘picture’ the word ‘what’
beginning on a higher pitch than the word ‘picture’.
23
As a result, the parenthetical insertion being shifted to the low pitch-level, it is
said within a very narrow range (practically a monotone, which is relivied only by
thefalling tone on ‘consitent’). This, together with the increase in tempo and diminished
loudness helps to separatethe parenthetical insertion from the preceding and the following
part of the utterance.
The distinction between the pitch-levels is also relevant when we deal with the end
of one paragraph and the beginning of a new one. It has already been pointed out that
loudness and tempo descrease at the end of a paragraph and increase at the beginning of a
new one.
This distinction is further enhanced by the relative change in the pitch-levels. The
end of a paragraph is usually marked off by the low pitch-level which characterizes the
pronounciation of the final words. The opening words of the new paragraph are usually
raised to the high pitch-level. Let us turn to the text which has already been discussed in
connection with tempo and loudness (see p. 16):
A systematic course of phoneties in the indispensable foundation of all linguistic
faster
research. It goes without saying that one cannot learn a foreign language (its vocabulary,
syntax, the particular division into registers, etc.), unless one begins by cultivating one’s
ability to observe, to analyse and further on to synthesize in the flaw speech in the
language in question.
faster
From the ‘point of view of the mechanism of their production most speech
faster
sounds are formed by the flow of air which is expelled from the lungs and variously
modified in the throat and the mouth.
The last words of the firstparagraph (‘in the language in question’) are shifted
down to the low pitch-level. This change in the pitch level is accompanied by the
slowing down of tempo and diminshed loudness.
The opening sentence of the new paragraph begins on a fairy high note-the words
‘From the point of view of the mechanism’ are raised to the high pitch-level and form a
Descending Scale from high to mid level (from which the fall on ‘mechanism’ begins).
As has aiready been mentioned (see p. 28-29) loudness and tempo slightly increase here
to mark off the beginning of a new paragraph.
Points for discussion:
1. What are the basic parameters of suprasegmental phonetics?
2. What are the main functional distinctions as far as the relative length of pauses
is concerned?
3. What are the basic kinds of ‘tones’ in English and the functionally relevant
oppositions they express?
4. What are the main functionally relevant distinctions as far as the parametr of
tempo is concerned?
5. What are the basic functionally meaningful modifications of loudness?
6. Why is the distinction between pitch-levels functionally relevant?
24
Lecture 6
Phonostylistics
Phonostylistics is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and processes
from the stylistic point of view. It cropped up as a result of a certain amount of functional
overlap between phonetics and stylistics, thereby there is no full agreement as to whether
it is to be related to the former or the latter. Another approach is to phonostylistics an
independent status. Despite the recent dramatic increase of interest in the subject, too
little empirical work has been done for any well-grounded ‘theory of phonostylistic’ to
emerge as yet. The attemps made so far have resulted in a general recognition of the
existence and the importance of this linguistic domain, but its contrours have not been
more or less definitely outlined.
In dealing with the objectives of phonostylistics, it should be taken into
accountthat it bears on quite a number of psycholinguistics, sociology and
sociolinguistics, dialectology, litarary criticizm, aesthetics, information theory, etc. since
they are confronted with certain overlapping issues and there are no rigrons functional
boundary lines to be drawn, it can be inferred that phonostylistic has an interdisciplinary
status.
The more one examines speech in its full interactional context, the more one finds
examples of utterance where the primary determinants of the speaker’s identity and
pyrpose, and of the listener’s response, are phonostylistic. ‘Say it as if you meant it’,
‘You don’t sound as if you were a diplomat’, and the unavoidable ‘It wasn’t what he said,
but the way that he said it’ provide a clear insight into the essential characteristic of
phonostylistics, i.e. it is concerned with how a persontalks about something rather than
what he talks about. This problem plays a peripheral role in phonetics, but it describe in
receives high priority consideration in phonostylistics. To solve the problem one has to
describe in minutest detail stylistically marked modifications of vowels, consonants,
vowel-consonant sequences, syllabication, stress, intonation, as well as all the nonlinguistic features of utterance*. However, it should be borne in mind that the problemin
its entirety is nowhere near solution.
Now we shall attempt to defineate the range of issues that are integral to
phonostylistics.
1. The Phonetics Norm and Deviation (or Variation).
A phonostylistician is usually interested in deviations from norms rather than in
norms themselves, although the norms have to be determined before deviations from
them canbe noted and interpreted. The norm is regarded as the invariant of the phonetic
patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time**. Deviations from
these patterns may be great but they become uncrecognizableor misleading, as in the case
of a very strong foreign accent.
_______________________
*An oral text, recorded on a magnetic tape or its graphical representation ‘or paper’, is the source of phonostylistic
information. In belleslettres such information is indicated in an explicative manner (eg. Stage directions, italies, a
special text arrangement, ideographic devices, etc).
**It is interesting to note that the norms represent to a certain extent the ideals of speech behaviour cherished by a
community, they do not always coincide with the actual speech behaviour used. On’, ‘g’by-good-bye’, ‘awreddyalready’, ‘don’t-cha-don’t you’, ‘prob’ly-probably’, ‘t’day-today’, ‘s’pose-suppose’, etc. This involves the study of
reduction and assimilation processes, sound elision and ecthlipsis, as well as phonetic distinctions neutralization.
Variants of words, differing in accesnt placement, should also be classified as phonetic synonyms, eg. ‘hospitablehos’pitable’, ‘formidable-for’midable’, ‘interesting-inte’resting’, ‘ciga’rette-cigarette’, ‘kilo’metre-ki’lometre’,
‘adult-a’dult’ and the like.
25
2. Phonetic Synonyms, i.e. utterance variations, conditioned by numerous
situational (extra-linguistic) factors, for instance, ‘lemme-let me’, ‘gonna-going to’,
‘c’mon-come.
3. Euphonology (Gk. ‘eu’-well; ‘phone’-a sound; ‘logos’-a word), dealing with
characteisation of speech sounds from a euphonic point of view. Euphony presupposes
pleasantness or smoothness of sound, assimilation of the sounds of syllables to facilitate
pronunciation and to please the ear.
The fact that different sounds may be agreeable or disagreeable to the ear is a
matter of common knowledge; it does not take a trained ear to detect that differences
exist. For example, it has been noted that in Russian [ ]; [з] and [c] are dry, sibilant
sounds.
Euphonology also treats arrangement of sounds which has a certain aesthetic
value, eg alliteration assonance, rhyme and other types of sound repetition.
4. Sound Symbolism. It is based on the assumption that separate sounds due to
their specific features are able to evoke certain ideas, emotions, perceptions and images.
For seriousness, while [ii] produces the feeling of joy. However, it is realistic to
generalise only if such information is privided and supported by statistics, otherwise it is
a matter of individual perception and therefore subjective.
Besides, sound symbolism manifests itself in a combination of speech sounds
which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by people, by things or by animals, eg
splash, giggle, bang, purr and so on. It is noteworthy that members of different with the
phonological systems of their languages (see the table on page 215 which exemplifies the
use of words to imitate sounds produced by animals, in Russian, English, Spanish,
Danish and Japanese).
5. Stylistic Devices Coded or Carried by Phonetic Expressive Means (eg. Irony,
repetition, climax, inversion, etc).
The following example illustrates the use of intonation for emotional climax:
Hall: Then we will drink.
Sandra: All right-we’ll drink-where’s your glass?
Hall (delighted): That is produced here at the expense of the gradual increase in
emotional evaluation of the words good, magnificent, knock-out, pronounced on a
gradually rising pitch-level (the Low Fall, the Mid Fall and the High Fall respectively).
6. Genres of Speech in the Context of Oral Literature.
For example, the so-called ‘folk-tale’ style is always phonetically identified, as in
the following utterance:
Once upon a TIME there lived a GIRL, who lost her father and MOTHER when
she was quite a tiny CHILD.
(“Spindle, Shuttle and Needle”)
7.
Phononetic Functional Styles. These styles are related to social setting or
circumstances in which languages is used. It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a
person speaks differently on different occasions (eg. When chatting with intimate friends
or talking to official persons, when delivering a lecture, speaking over the radio or giving
a dictation exercise). In other words, the choice of a speech style is situationally
determined.
The problem of speech typology and phonetic differences conditioned by such
extra-linguistic factors as age, sex, personality traits, status, occupation, purpose, social
identity (or ‘class dialect’) and the emotional state of the speaker also bear on the issue.
Suuming up, phonostylistics is concerned with a wide range of correlated issues.
Our knowledge of many of them is, however, still very defective.
26
This part focuses on phonetic styles, with the main emphasis being laid on
intonation.
Points for discussion.
1.
Speak on linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. What is the difference
between them?
2. How did phonostylistics come into existence?
3. What does the term ‘phonostylistics’ suggest?
4. Speak on the status of phonostylistics.
5. Why is there no general theory of phonostylistics so far?
6. What is the essential characteristic of phonostylistics?
7. Give a definition of the phonetic norm.
8. What is the correlation between the norms and the actual speech behaviour used?
9. Give examples of phonetic synonyms.
10. What is the scope of evphonology? Why is it important?
11. Speak on sound symbolism. Give examples of your own.
12. Give examples of stylistic devices conveyed by phonetic expressive means.
13. Why does a person speak differently on differently on different occasions?
14. What determines the choice of a speech style?
27
Lecture 7
Rhythm
There are two kinds of speech rhythm: syllable-timed rhythm and stress-timed
rhytnm. Every language in the world is spoken with kimd of rhythm of with the other.
Each language has developed its own characteristic speech rhythm. French and Japanase,
for example, are syllable-timed languages, they depend on the principle that all syllables
are of equal value. In these languages the syllables follow each other with fairly equal
length and force: and we feel an even rhythm, based on the smooth flow of syllables
without a strong contrast of stress. To an English-speaking person this kind of rhythm
sounds mechanically regular. English pronounced with such a rhythm would be hard to
understand.
Rhythm in English, Russian and some other stress-timed languages is based
primarilyon the alteration of strongly and weakly stressed syllables. Within each
intionation group the stressed sylables occur at fairy equal intervals of time,
eg. One, Two, Three, Four.
This means that if there are any unstressed syllables between stressed ones, they
have tobe fitted in without delaying the regular, beat,
Eg: One, Two, Three, Four
One and Two and Three and Four
One and a Two and a Three and a Four
The unstressed syllables, whether many of few, occupy approximately the same
time between the stress. The greater number of unstressed syllables thereis between the
stressed ones the more weakly and rapidly they are pronounced. The unstressed vowels in
this case have a noticeably different quality-they are shortened and weakened,
Eg: The strudents are interested in improivng their speech rhythm. [ ə stju dənts ər
ə spiit ri m]
intrəstid in impruivi
In English as well as in Russian words of more than one syllable have one or more
stressed syllables. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and it can not be
changed. The correct stressing of polysyllabic words helps to secure the requrrence of
stress which with the other factors, results in correct speech rhythm.
The difference between rhythmicality in English and Russian lies in the following.
In Russian almost all the words of an intonation group are stressed,
Eg: Все наши студенты поехали в стройотряд.
In English the rhytmic structure is different-all the notional words are stressed, the
form-words are fitted in between the stressed ones.
The pronunciation of intonation groups is based upon rhytmic groups which are
forned by one or more words closely connected by sence and grammar, but containing
only one strongly stressedsyllable. The unstressed syllables are attached either to the
preceding or to the following stressed one depending on their semantic or grammatical
relationshio.
A rhythmic group may consist of a single word,
Eg: yesterday; or it may contain several words,
Eg: I’ve read it, or Thank you.
If there are any initial unstressed syllables, they are attacked to the first rhythmic
group. The unstressed syllables preceding the stressed ones are pronounced very quickly,
the vowels and them are shortened (obsured),
Eg: He works. He can work he was at work.
28
The unstressed syllables that follow the stressed ones are pronounced rather
quickly. They form a cluster with stressed syllables. And it takes equal time to pronounce
the stressed syllable plus any given number of the following unstressed syllables before
the next stress,
Eg: six, sixtieth.
Recommended literatures
1. Абдуазизов А.А., Дустбобоева Д.У., Рахмонбердиева У.Х., Аскарова М.А.,
Камбаров Н.М. Инглис тили Амалий фонетикаси.Т., 1992
2. Selesnev V. Exercises in intonation of colloquial English. M., 1970
3.Абдуазизов А.А. Хозирги инглис тили назарий фонетикаси (инглис тилида).
Е., 1992
4. Васильев В.А. Инглистили фонетикаси. Назарий курс (инглис тилида). Т.,
1970
5. Соколова М.А. ва бошқалар. Инглис тили назарий фонетикаси (инглис
тилида). М., 1992
6. Швейцер А.Д. Америка ва Англиядаги адабий инглис тили. М., 1971
7. Gimson A.C. Introduction to the pronounciation of English. Lnd. 1969. New
edition. 2001
8. Ladefoged P.A. Course in phonetics. N.Y. 1982
9. Kenworthy J. Language in action. An introduction to modern linguistics.
10. Rouch P. English phonetics and phonology. Cambridge University press. 1998
11. Cook W. Active intonation. Lnd. 1968
Leontyeva S.F. A theoreticval course of English. M. 1988
12. Лфнциельсон С.Д. Типология языка и речевое мышление. Л., 1972
13. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков. Л.,
1979
14. Матусевич М.А. Введение в общую фонетику. Л., 1980
15. Зиндер Л.Р. Общая фонетика. М., 1980
16. Jones D., Everyman’s English pronouncing Dictionary. Lnd. 1977. New edition,
2001