1. education
2. english as a second language

International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies Vol:1, Issue: 3
Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language
Teaching?
Masoud Mahmoodzadeh
Sheikhbahaee Universit y
Isfahan, Iran
Abstract
In an endeavor to reflect on the advent of Applied ELT paradigm pio neered by
Pishghadam (2011) in the area of second language education, this article delves into the
unexplored nature of this emerging paradigm via a contemporary co mplexit y-driven vo ice.
The crux o f the argument addressed in this article suggests that Applied ELT is a
pragmat ic manifestation o f complex adaptive system o f language teaching. To set the
grounds expressly for such enquiry, first ly it draws on both premises and axio ms
associated with complexity theory and its existing literature in the circle of second
language research. It then tracks down the evo lutionary course of the new developed
paradigm o f Applied ELT wit hin the realm o f second language educat ion and also
elaborates the cornerstone and manifo ld tenets of this paradigm sufficient ly. Finally, the
article attempts to crit ically elucidate and rationalize the recent emergence of Applied ELT
paradigm through the lens o f co mplexit y theory. To broaden our thinking and
understanding about the potential and mult i-directio nal influence of ELT field, the article
ends by calling for a reshaped educat ional direction for ELT posit ion in second language
education.
Key words: ELT, Applied ELT paradigm, chaos/complexit y t heory, complex adapt ive
system
Suggested Citation:
Mahmoodzadeh, M. (2013). Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Co mplex Adaptive
System of Language Teaching? . International Journal of English Language &
Translation Studies Vol-1, Issue-3 , 58-74. Retrived fro m http://www.eltsjournal.org
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Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
1. Introducing Chaos/Complexity Theory in Second Language Education
In the prolegomenon of chaos/complexit y theory, it should be noted that generally what
makes so insight ful for scientists is attributable to its ways of unfo lding the mystery of
what appears to be pure rando mness. As such, it gives a new perspect ive demo nstrating
the existence of deeper explanat ion for the mult i-faceted world in which we live. In this
approach, the questions related to natural systems that have been discarded because of
appearing to be unso lvable have begun to be answered.
By definit io n, complex systems are co mposed of mult iple agents that interact with and
adapt to one another and the environment while co-evolving and self-organizing wit hout
any central control (Kauffman, 1993, 1995). Also, a complex system may itself be a
complex system, which attains energy fro m its environment to self-organize/reorganize
itself (Larsen-Freeman, 2002; Mercer, 2011). Another related notion in this regard is
complex adaptive systems which consist of mult iple variables that are constantly in
interact ion. In other words, they co mprise “multiple agents dynamically interact ing in
fluctuating and co mbinatory ways” (Rogers et al., 2005, p. 3). As each variable “affects all
the other variables contained in the system and thus also affects itself” (Van Geert, 1994,
p. 50). The dynamic interact ion o f the interdependent variables in the system hammers out
an inherent potential for instabilit y and also, inevitably, change over t ime. Also any
change is done via adaptation, which is evo lut ionary in its orientation.
Concerning the dichotomy o f chaos and co mplexit y in applied linguist ics, researchers
usually do not draw a distinct ion between chaos and co mplexit y referring to them as
chaos/co mplexit y (see Larsen-Freeman, 1997; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron 2008a). As
Mallo ws (2002) remarks, "chaos is understood in an interestingly paradoxical way as
order without predictabilit y. We cannot predict individual mo ments in the life o f a system,
but the end results of its seemingly rando m mo vement are discernable order" (p. 3).
According to Larsen-Freeman (1997), chaos/complexit y scient ists have ident ified a
number of describing features for a complex system. The main features of these complex
systems are known to be “dynamic, nonlinear, chaotic, unpredictable, sensitive to initial
conditions, open, self-organizing, feedback sensitive and adaptive” (p. 142). To clarify the
characterist ics o f chaos in this theory, McAndrew (1997) also assigns three features to this
concept: "a) chaos is characterized by a sensit ive dependence on init ial condit ions or what
has become known as the butterfly effect; b) chaotic system is aperiodic or never
undergoes a regular repetit ion of values: no repeat system; c) strange attractors (attract
and repel)" (p. 39).
Drawing on the prevailing emergence o f co mplexit y paradigm in so me social sciences,
there seems to be a relat ively recent line of research acknowledging the mult idimensio nal
aspects of non-linearit y and co mplexit y sustaining in SLA and SLT (Cameron, 1999; De
Bot, Lowie & Verspoor, 2005; Hadidi Tamjid, 2008; Hodge, 2003; Larsen-Freeman,
1997; 2007; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008b). However, Larsen-Freeman (1997) was
the first SLA researcher who pointed out the emergence of co mplexit y paradigm in SLA
and ushered in groundbreaking direct ions in thinking about language learning processes.
Larsen-Freeman (2002) argues that the chaos/ complexit y theory advocates a social
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Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
participat ion view o f SLA wit hout excluding the psycho linguist ic perspect ive. In ho lding
learner and context as inseparable, this theory views language learner and co mplex
teaching context as unpredictably co-evo lving and co-adaptive dynamic (sub) systems
nested within other interacting co mplex systems. Likewise, the learner agency is
empowered and the learner creat ivit y is ent irely respected in co mplexit y perspect ives. In
this way, learners are not any more restricted to roles as language learners who make
errors but are language user who innovate (Larsen-Freeman, 2012a).
Concerning second language pedagogy, a number of researchers have also contended that
classroom practices can be manifested in a relat ively predictable manner as far as only
linear teaching methods are invo lved. That is, when unforeseen and unident ified factors
have an unpredictable impact, the classrooms and the participants in them are in a state of
flux and thus linear cause and effect descript ions cannot comprehensively account for the
pedagogical constraints and ecological challenges observed in ELT contexts (see Burns &
Knox, 2011; Finch, 2001; Hodge, 2003; Mahmoodzadeh, 2012a; Tudor, 2001).
In this sense, the ‘organic’ entit y of language learning acquisit io n system is not a temporal
and seems to be always in flux and dynamic relat ive stabilit y, never reaches static
equilibrium, alt hough it undergoes a kind o f anarchy called the edge of chaos (see
Waldrop, 1993 for further characteristics of the edge of chaos) in which maximum
learning can occur. In fact, these periods are considered as phases of maximum creat ivit y
where the systems operate between order and chaos/ randomness and attempt to bring
them into a special kind o f balance via the emergence o f new attractors (strange
attractors). Attractors refer to “states or particular modes of behaviors, which the system
prefers” (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008a, p. 49). In this respect, dynamic systems
mo ve through space/t ime, fo llowing a path called an attractor, i. e., the state or pattern that
a dynamic system is attracted to (Mercer, 2012). Furthermore, although the cycle o f an
attractor repeats, it does not follow the same path or overlaps with any other cycle. As
such, the addit ion of a strange attractor enables the system to keep an underlying order
while st ill self-organizing in an infinite number of ways (Larsen-Freeman, 1997; 2002).
What is co mmo n to all strange attractors, however, is that they have fractal shape such
like “a geo metric figure that is self-similar at different levels o f scale” (Larsen-Freeman,
1997, p.145). As a case in this point, an example can be the tree; notwithstanding the
different shapes o f trees, we can easily dist inguish a tree fro m other objects (Hadid
Tamjid, 2008). Furthermore, while being a non-reductionist view reaching for ho lism, it
should be noted that chaos and/or complexit y is erratic and nonlinear in that the effect is
not proportional to the cause; a minor change can cause a great change in t he who le
system leading to the creation of butterfly effect (Alemi, Daftarifard, & Patrut, 2012).
However, a few crit ics of the complex view of language learning (see, for instance,
Benson & Hunter, 1993) have purported that since learning is so stochastic, chaotic, and
unpredictable; teaching cannot be sufficient ly sustained and must therefore be o f no avail.
In response to this fallacious assumpt ion, Harshbarger (2007) argues that complex system
behaviors, not in the least, are random and unfatho mable. In the light of such idea,
Harshbarger (2007) considers the natural phenomenon of hurricane as a metaphorical
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International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies Vol:1, Issue: 3
Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
example to explain t his issue. He states that "a hurricane is a co mplex system that can’t be
direct ly controlled, but contextual influences such as prevailing winds and temperature
different ials over land and water produce tendencies that guide these storms to move and
develop in roughly predictable ways" (p. 12). In defense o f the complexit y paradigm in the
area of language teaching methodology, he also asserts that the complexit y perspect ive is
not inimical to any method or approach.
2. ELT Applied in "Applied ELT": A Change of Scope
Pishghadam’s seminal paper (2011) on the changing scope of ELT has virtually brought to
light winds of change in thinking about second foreign language studies and has probably
caused ELT domain to regain a well-timed mo mentum for a reconceptualizat ion of its own
educational nature. Given the fact that ELT has been studied as a branch o f applied
linguist ics thus far, Pishghadam (2011) claims that it is perhaps t ime to reopen the agenda
of applied linguist ics and ELT. In this regard, he maintains that “ELT has grown in
maturit y over years, establishing an independent ident it y for itself. It does not play second
fiddle to applied linguist ics any more” (p. 9). Thus, he introduced a new notion of Applied
ELT in hopes of breathing new life into the field of English language teaching and learning
via a reflect ion on the changing wave of priorit y seen in the educat ional scope of ELT
classes.
A key tenet of Applied ELT is that today ELT ho lds an autonomous status or tendency to
contribute to rather than be contributed by other disciplines such as psycho logy and
sociology, granting it a more life-centered precedence (Pishghadam, 2011). In actualit y,
the inclusio n o f learners’ other characterist ics such as motivat ion, emotional abilit ies,
thinking st yles, and values in language teaching programs does not cause a problem, nor a
stumbling blo ck for language teaching and learning, but this may act as a real strength
instead (Pishghadam, Zabihi, & Norouz Kermanshahi, 2012). In a similar vein o f
argument, inspired by the life-giving attribute of Applied ELT, Ghahari (2012) discusses
that in addit ion to different aspects o f people’s lives including their ways o f thinking,
innate abilit ies, emotions, attitudes, creativit y, intuit ion reason, other values such as
compassio n, harmony, generosit y, and kindness may be optimist ically pre-planned to be
enriched in ELT classes. Unt il now few studies, however, have been carried out to espouse
and operationalize the applicabilit y and efficacy of this new educat ional perspect ive. For
instance, the field o f psycho logy has yielded so me interest ing and useful implicat ions fro m
ELT in order to reinforce so me psycho logical traits of learners such as emotional
intelligence (Hosseini, Pishghadam, & Navari, 2010), crit ical thinking abilit ies (see, e.g.
Halvorsen, 2005; Ishikawa, Sasaki, & Yamamoto, 2007; Pishghadam, 2008; Rear, 2010),
and their nat ional/ho me and cultural ident it ies (e.g. Pishghadam & Saboori, 2011).
In the light of this new-fledging paradigm, however, language teachers need to adopt a
new creat ive and dynamic role to come to grips with possible challenges; they are thus
expected to beco me educational language teachers, that is, experts who try “to improve
other domains of knowledge which, direct ly or indirect ly, affect learners’ idiosyncrat ic
lives” (Pishghadam, Zabihi, & Norouz Kermanshahi, 2012, p. 895). In this sense,
Pishghadam, Zabihi, and Norouz Kermanshahi (2012) have recently argued that language
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Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
teachers need to expand their knowledge of other disciplines to perceive the psycho logical,
emotional, social, econo mic, religious, moral states and needs o f their learners, and
reflective teaching is not enough for them and does not suffice to optimize second
language pedagogy:
Language teachers should not be limited to but should be empowered to move
beyond, reflect ive language teaching towards gaining the relevant and
sufficient caliber required for extending their professio nal identit ies by taking
into account and trying to improve other domains of knowledge which,
direct ly or indirect ly affect learners’ idiosyncrat ic lives. (p. 895)
In a similar line o f argument, Pishghadam (2011) proposed a pertinent and equally
important notion, called life syllabus which is subsumed in Applied ELT paradigm. Based
on life syllabus, for a language course to be as efficient as possible, it should "incorporate
the issues o f concern in learners’ life into the ELT curriculum, highlighting these aspects
as well as the enhancement of learners’ language proficiency” (Pishghadam, Zabihi, and
Norouz Kermanshahi, 2012, p. 895).
In a later extensio n of the theory of Applied ELT, Pishghadam and Zabihi (2013) have
introduced English for Life Purposes (ELP) as a new concept in English language
teaching. They argue that the focus o f teaching English as a second/foreign language has
shifted again fro m considering learners’ specific needs in study or work situations, as was
seen in ESP classes, to enhancing their life qualit ies by o ffering a diversit y o f subjects for
discussio n which can enable the learners to compare their ho me culture with other cultures
and pro ject their unique ident it ies. It not only mit igates the learners’ anxiet y, depressio n or
other negative aspects of life but it would also enable the teachers to enhance the learners’
emotional, intellectual, and motivat ional abilit ies while teaching them a second/foreign
language. According to Pishghadam (2011), the focus has shifted away fro m a language
syllabus (i.e. language-and-life classes) towards life syllabus (i.e. life-and-language
classes) wherein language hinges on the policy of education for life and is thus at the
service of enhancing life qualit ies in the classroom.
In addit ion, Pishghadam and Zabihi, (2012) call attention to the new and expanding
funct ions and also the added ro les with which ELT practit ioners should co me to terms.
They contend that language teachers should give the top priorit y to learners’ life issues
and then to teach the desired language. But it does not at all mean that language learning
should be marginalized in English language classes. It merely suggests that “language
learning should not be considered the end product of ELT classes” (p. 23). In do ing so, as
discussed by Pishghadam & Naji (2012), ELT can be a constructive discipline to help
periphery countries (i.e. the oppressed) reduce dependency on center countries (i.e. the
oppressor) and have a vo ice in the age o f glo balization where English language plays a
significant role (as cited in Ghahar, 2012).
In addit ion, Pishghadam (2011) has likewise proceeded to claim that Applied ELT can
contribute to the revival o f local/ho me cultures and ident it ies. So, efforts en route for
characterizing this novel paradigm might be considered as an optimal react ion to
linguistic/cultural imperialism (Phillipson, 1992) or communicative imperialism
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(Phillipson, 2009 for a synopsis) leading to enculturation of learners as opposed to the
vexing notion o f cultural hegemony (see, e.g. Canagarajah, 1999; Crystal, 1997;
Pennycook, 1998; Phillipson, 1992, 2009 for a comprehensive discussio n on the issue).
Therefore, Applied ELT seems to promote L2 learner enculturat ion instead of simply
prevent ing L2 learner deculturation in ELP contexts. In general, it can be implied that
prevent ion can be the best remedy in this particular case. In other words, as Pishghada m
and Naji (2012) stress that
Awareness o f linguist ic imperialism helps us to turn ELT into the benefit o f
our own local context. If teachers are cognizant of the potential threats of
linguist ic imperialism, they can prevent deculturation o f learners. Localizing
ELT material in favor of one’s nat ive culture can be a good solut ion not only
in thwarting the cultural imperialis m brought about by ELT, but also in
enculturing students. (p. 48)
In the same vein, Pishghadam and Naji (2012) discuss that ELP textbooks should be
“culturally authent icated” (see Sifakis & Sougari, 2003) not linguist ically. In line wit h the
idea o f “World Englishes” (Kachru, 1982), and in contrast with the notion of ‘native
speakerism’ (see Ho lliday, 2005; 2006 for further details), by incorporating the lo cal
culture and texts written in English based on local materials, Applied ELT allows learners
to speak with any accent they are more co mfortable wit h, as lo ng as it is co mprehensible.
Using the learners’ mother tongue can also be used in case of necessit y. Overall,
Pishghadam and Naji (2012) conclude that
Certainly, we cannot iso late ourselves fro m the global village or deny the
important role o f English in today’s world. What we can do is turn ELT into
our own service. This will be a great step in reducing dependency on center
countries and having a vo ice in the globalized field of ELT. (p. 49)
As ment ioned earlier, Pishghadam (2011) belie ves that having gained an independent
status, ELT is now ready to be applied to other fields of knowledge. In essence,
notwithstanding the ascribed field- related autonomy, it should be likewise noted that ELT
is not disaffiliated with or entirely disentangled from Applied Linguist ics and is st ill
recognized wit hin this scient ific field of study. The aim is merely to make researchers of
other disciplines revisit the magnitude o f ELT, trying to emplo y its findings in their
studies. In this sense, granted that applied dimension of ELT has almost received short
shrift fro m L2 researchers, more promising enterprise, then perhaps, is to disengage ELT
fro m the superordinate mainstream o f applied linguist ics and take a step towards
empowering ELT to stand independent ly rather than aligned with Applied Linguist ics.
Earlier, Schmitt (2002) has echoed that ELT teachers should not be so lely consumers of
the findings of other disciplines. By the same token, today through some endeavors
embracing the findings o f other fields o f study, the mainstay of ELT in Applied ELT
paradigm is more directed at the pract ical level in the sense that it privileges an
independent producer agent rather than a dependent consumer agent. In what the near
future holds for ELT in the 21st century, ELT can be notably in the service o f other
disciplines in order not only to enrich them directly but also to step up efforts to develop
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Applied ELT: A Paradigm Justifying Complex Adaptive System of Language…… Mahmoodzadeh, M.
its own educational sphere of influence in this way. In this sense, as compared with the
contributing disciplines in applied linguist ics field which helps ELT mushroom, ELT itself
should not also fall behind, being deprived of any educat ional grounds for a reciprocal
tillage. Furthermore, the disciplines at issue not only can benefit a rather small share of
this mutual explo it but ‘a lio n’s share’ because today Applied ELT brings to bear on many
of our educational concerns.
In this case, the researcher truly approves of such init iat ive enterprises because as Tracy
(2003) discusses, if what we are do ing is not moving us towards our goals, then it is
perhaps mo ving us away fro m our goals. So, in what fo llows, the author devotes the
remainder of the article to exploring and touching on Applied ELT paradigm fro m wit hin
the complexit y theory to come up with so me new insights.
3. The Crux of the Matter
To start with, it should be born in mind that “any system, whose configurat ion is capable
of changing wit h t ime, is known as a dynamic system” (Baranger, 2002, p. 7). Therefore,
ELT is not an exception in this case. As stated above, it may be perhaps safe to
acknowledge that Applied Linguist ics and the new proposed Applied ELT are not
mutually exclusive whereas, both can be equally contributory fields. Now, it begs
pondering if the pheno menon at issue can be a natural case o f co mplexit y paradigm
triggered and engendered by it s emergent complex adapt ive system. In what fo llows,
attempt will be done to hight light the accountabilit y force o f co mplexit y t heory in L2
research and to explain how complexit y theory can part icularly account for the argument
in quest ion.
Earlier, applied linguists studying complex dynamic systems related to complexit y theory
have o ffered helpful ways o f thinking about applied linguist ic matters (Larsen-Freeman,
1997; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008a; see also De Bot, Lowie, & Verspoor, 2007;
Ellis & Larsen-Freeman, 2006). For instance, according to Larsen-Freeman (2012b),
complexit y perspect ives on pedagogy can reflect many humanist ic principles, as they
allow us to work with, embrace, and value individual diversit y, human relationships,
contextual sensit ivit y, and the qualit y of life in the classroom for all the participants (see
also Mercer, 2013). From these co mplexit y perspectives, certain methodological principles
are also important to be considered here:
1. To be ecologically valid, including context as part of the system(s) under
investigat ion; 2. To honor the complexit y by avoiding reduct ionism, and to
avo id premature idealization by including any and all factors that might
influence a system; 3. To think in terms of dynamic processes and changing
relat ionships amo ng variables, by considering self-organizat ion, feedback, and
emergence as central; 4. To take a complexit y view o f reciprocal causalit y,
rather than invoking simple, proximate cause–effect links; 5. To overcome
dualist ic thinking, such as acquisit io n versus use or performance versus
competence, and to think in terms of co-adaptatio n, soft assembly, and so
forth; 6. To rethink units of analys is, ident ifying collect ive variables (those
variables that characterize the interaction amo ng mult iple elements in a
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system, or among mult iple systems, over time); 7. To avoid conflat ing levels
and t imescales, yet seek linkages across levels and t imescales, and include
thinking heterochronically; and 8. To consider variabilit y as central, and
investigate both stabilit y and variabilit y in order to understand the developing
system. (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008b, p. 206)
Given the afore-ment ioned principles within complex adaptive system, thus “it is
unproductive to iso late individual variables as a way of describing a system. Rather, the
trajectory of co mplex adapt ive systems can be best mapped by the descript ion o f emergent
patterns of behaviors” (Burns & Knox, 2011, p. 7). However, the current paper, in
particular, focuses on the influence of second language instruction which, as LarsenFreeman (1997 cited in Hadidi Tamjid, 2008) argues, is one o f the themes that can be
illuminated further by probing chaos/complexit y theory alo ng with so me other issues such
as mechanisms o f acquisit io n, definit io n o f learning, the instabilit y and stabilit y o f
interlanguage, and differential success. Further, Mercer (2013) has quite recently argued
that an implicit understanding o f the complexit y inherent in the language learning-teaching
processes can be witnessed in many o f the recent developments in applied linguist ics such
as appropriate methodology, postmethod pedagogy, exploratory practice, learnercenteredness, reflect ive practice.
Now turning back to the alternat ive course of correspondence between the two fields of
Applied Linguist ics and ELT, where the reverse route opposed to the norm has been
suggested, culminat ing into a new paradigm called “Applied ELT” (Pishghadam, 2011),
the researcher will engage in pursuit of searching out the whys and wherefores of such
shift o f paradigm in L2 research through the lens of co mplexit y paradigm. Addit io nally, in
terms of defining ‘paradigm’, the researcher basically subscribe to the idea advocated by
Van Lier (1997) that a paradigm “need not be seen as Kuhn's ‘closed box’, but can
profitably be construed as an open system, or ecology” (p. 95).
To account for such change o f thinking patterns, complexit y theory generally sets forth
that while there may be periods of relative stabilit y, there will also be t imes when the
system beco mes disturbed by the appearance of new influences, which thrust the system to
prefer new undertakings in various unpredictable direct ions (Burns & Knox, 2011). So, in
second language area two related fields of applied linguist ics and ELT likewise have
probably maintained to endure for such change of rationalit ies. In this sense, it can be seen
that ELT domain has increasingly been enriched to the po int that it can now export its
educational insights and influence to other disciplines. By imparting such knowledge, ELT
has mo ved towards some favorable expansio n that can gradually change into a new
developing field such as Applied ELT. As such, in a metaphorical analogy, the prior image
of ELT encapsulated within applied linguist ics might be considered as a single scio n
transplanted wit hin the cult ivated ‘field’ o f Applied Linguist ics, but its novel image in
future may be more like a mult i-rooted banyan tree (a metaphor earlier used by LarsenFreeman, 2011) with ever-growing limbs branching out around its trunk and gradually
taking on more and more land of the science ‘field’ in this way.
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Granted the fact that language development is a complex, adapt ive system in which its
stabilit y only beco mes possible through dynamic and constant change and adaptation
(Larsen- Freeman, 2012b). ELT seems to have remo lded its educat ional construct due to
its growing sphere o f influence permeat ing and spreading through so me other disciplines
such as psycho logy, socio logy so as to adapt real-time contextually-oriented processing
and thus reach the dynamic stabilit y o f its system. In principle, this assumpt ion seems to
have led to the development of a recent paradigm called Applied ELT in second language
education. This "micro-paradigm" exist ing within the "macro- paradigm" of co mplexit y
might perhaps move towards creating a new attractor state in second language educat ion
system very soon. In this sense, L2 co mplex adaptive system will be more likely to prefer
and be attracted to this altered state when it co mes to English language teaching; however,
this argument still cannot be vo iced firmly. In fact, in what the future holds, certainly
further studies are needed to justify and thus welcome this co mplexit y-driven shift of state
in ELT domain.
On the other hand, closely related to this co mplexity-driven argument, is the derivat ives o f
disciplinary knowledge in which disciplinarity, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinarity are considered like “four arrows shot from but a single bow:
knowledge” (Nico lescu, 1999, p. 3). Given these disciplinary variat ions drawn heavily
fro m Larsen-Freeman (2012b), the author shortly brings into focus their force and
importance in the developmental course of ELT in second language educat ion.
In hindsight, the twentieth century was marked as the golden age o f disciplines, each born
with its own theories and methods (see Halliday, 1991). With the emergence of mult iple
disciplines, disciplines became hermetic by the virtue of “the principle of disjunction” (see
Morin, 2007). But, disciplinary mo vement heading for high internal growth of knowledge
generated by a fie ld can gain only limit ed worth for its outside influence (Klein, 1998).
However, progressively researchers came to understand that disciplinary knowledge is
always partial and interim and disciplines are not as self-contained as they perceived in
nature (Widdowson, 2005). In case of second language area, researcher have also
embraced the idea and merged several disciplines to come up wit h a new hybrid discipline
called Applied Linguistics with a particular focus on practical aspects of language use.
Drawing upon research in psycho logy, socio logy, anthropology, and cognit ive science,
applied linguist ics develops and enriches its own theoretical models. Thus, following the
reject ion o f the principle o f disjunction, the boundaries enclo sing disciplines have been
removed, allowing the fields meet each other through adopting a mult idisciplinary
approach instead of merely a disciplinary approach. However, this approach still suffers
fro m one unmit igated drawback, that “the contribution of disciplines is addit ive wit h no
interact ion amo ng them result ing in litt le or no subsequent modificat ion of views amo ng
the contributory disciplines” (Larsen-Freeman, 2012b, p. 2).
In a similar fashio n, another derivat ive o f disciplinary knowledge came into vogue named
crossdisciplinary approach which mo ves across discipline boundaries, merging two
disciplines together to gain more educational strength. Examples o f this approach can be
sociolinguist ics, psycho linguist ics, and neurolinguist ics. However, the major shortcoming
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with this approach is that even though both disciplines keep their identit y and integrit y,
one of the two disciplines tends to rule over, so that any adaptation done might be biased
(Widdowson, 2005). For example, Fishman (1972) has discussed that the field of
sociolinguist ics has failed to take into account sufficient ly the ideas fro m socio logy.
Likewise, in neurolinguist ics field, recent ly Mahmoodzadeh (2012b, 2012c) has stressed
the inconsequential pract ical contribut ion of neuroscience to linguist ics for well over a
decade.
Given the problems associated with the two variatio ns o f disciplinary knowledge at issue,
another variat ion, namely interdisciplinary knowledge came to light which has been
widely acknowledged and ascribed to the Applied Linguist ics field. Wit hin this approach,
unlike mult idisciplinary approach, disciplines are seen both as addit ive and interactive
(Kramsch, 2000). But, for Widdowson (2005) interdisciplinary is not yet possible for
Applied Linguist ics because no interaction o f disciplines will leave those disciplines intact
and thus disciplines can influence each other. On the other hand, as Larsen-Freeman
(2012b) maintains, one clear problem wit h this altered approach envisaged for Applied
Linguist ics is that “aside fro m linguist ics, there has been litt le discussio n of the nature of
the relat ionship among the disciplines that inform it, other than to acknowledge their
contribution to theoretical aspects” (p. 3).
However, to resolve the above dilemma, one so lutio n might be to distance wit h disciplinebased concepts in so far as mo ving towards thematic knowledge through the
trandisciplinary approach (Halliday, 2001; Larsen-Freeman, 2012b). In principle, as
Nico lescu (1999) argues, while mult idisciplinary or interdisciplinary inquiry may focus on
the contribut ion o f disciplines to an inquiry, transdisciplinary inquiry tends to focus on the
inquiry or issue it self. While not a new discipline or a new superdiscipline,
transdisciplinarit y is yet nourished by disciplinary research; in turn, disciplinary research
is clarified by transdisciplinary knowledge in a new, fertile way. In this sense, disciplinary
and transdisciplinary research are not antagonistic but complementary. According to
Ortega (2013, p. 3), the goal of transdisciplinarit y is "to generate a theoretical unit y o f
knowledge beyo nd any o ne o f the disciplines or perspectives invo lved". In fact,
transdisciplinarit y is globally open and creative and it is a way of self-transformat ion
oriented towards knowledge o f the self, indicat ing the unit y o f knowledge. This new
theme o f knowledge, supported greatly by co mplexit y theory, is clearly materialized in
Applied Linguist ics now (Larsen-Freeman, 2012b).
Interestingly, Ortega (2013) recently has cast a glance at the increasing disciplinary
progress made in SLA field over the last 15 years and has optimist ically signaled the
potential o f SLA contributing knowledge for it s neighboring fields by discussing the
transdisciplinary relevance o f SLA. In general, transdisciplinary relevance is about SLA
research co mmunit ies being able to ask themselves what SLA can do for the other
language sciences. In fact, SLA researchers have been very good at asking what the other
language sciences can do for SLA. However, as the field enters the 21st century, it is t ime
now to ask what SLA can do for the other language sciences. In effect, SLA can also avail
itself, being placed outside the confines of the field and contributes to overall knowledge
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about the human capacit y for language. In particular, he contends that "reframing and
embracing the study of L2 acquisit io n as the study of late bi/mult ilingualism would help
SLA research communit ies to generate knowledge that contributes to overarching research
goals in the study of language ontogeny." (p. 17).
In case o f ELT, the researcher similarly assumes that through some transdisciplinar y
endeavors, ELT and its affiliated disciplines under the umbrella rubric of Applied
Linguist ics seem to have co-adapted through constant interaction while reversing the
orthodox direct ion of their reciprocal causalit y to come up with a new emergent strange
attractor. That is, in Applied ELT paradigm (Pishghadam,2011), the route of the invo lved
agents is not one-sided like applied linguist ics and therefore, disciplines such as
psycho logy, cognit ive science, and sociology might be enriched by ELT as well (to study
the influences, see for example, Hosseini, Pishghadam, & Navari, 2010; Pishghadam,
2008; Pishghadam & Naji, 2012; Pishghadam & Saboori, 2011). Therefore, as Brown
(1991) argues, generally English teachers have a missio n of helping everyone in the world
communicate with each other to solve the glo bal problem. This is certainly because o f the
global status of the English language (see also Maley, 1992). For example, Nkwet isama
(2011) has called for integration of environmental education in language teaching in
Cameroon which entails teachers' eco-applied linguistic awareness in this regard. He
maintains that EFL/ESL teaching should not only be limited to the improvement of
learners’ language proficiency but also to enable them develop crit ical thinking strategies
that can be particularly useful in environmental sustainabilit y. So, English language
teaching professio n can also be used in promoting environmentally friendly behaviors
among cit izens.
Fo llowing the above argument within the complexit y framework, as Larsen-Freeman
(2012a: 305) says, "while a system’s potential might be constrained by it s history, it is not
fully determined by it. Innovat ion emerges in open systems". Hence, it seems that specia l
attention needs to be given to the possibilit y of freedo m within the fields of science
because emerging inno vat ions may occur like Applied ELT that is consonant with what
proponents of co mplexit y theories issue in SLA area. As such, Applied ELT, a reshaped
form o f ELT, might be considered as emergent, dynamic, and co-adapting educat ional
subsystem nested within the sweeping complex system o f education.
From co mplexit y perspectives, the development of this fie ld can be a natural and aperiodic
reacting pheno menon which has not been built into any one element or agent, but rather
has arisen and grown from their constant interactio ns over t ime. One major co mplexit ydriven pattern witnessed in this field is related to its "logic o f freedo m" which allows the
system to develop and expand itself alo ng "alternative trajectories" (Osberg, 2007, p.10).
Therefore, the researcher believes that the learner agency and autonomy can be highly
respected only when the act ivit y circle of the field (ELT) is not fixed, pregiven, closedended, and restricted. Indeed, providing such promising avenue for language learners
might also enable them more, as Larsen-Freeman says (2012a, 2013), to emancipate and
thus actively transform their linguist ic world, instead of merely conforming to it or
exporting their learning through intact transfer.
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4. Conclusion
In this article, attempt has been made to suggest that the emerging "micro-paradigm" o f
Applied ELT can be seen as a tangible manifestation of the creative "macro-paradigm" of
complexit y which affords its dynamic stabilit y through resourceful and unpredictable
changes, adapt ing and self-organizing/reorganizing in order to transform its elements into
new forms of act ivit y. By the virtue of self-extricatio n, ELT in the Applied ELT paradigm,
indeed, has virtually sought to move towards autono my and should not be seen as solely a
contributed field, but a contributing field itself. Today, it may be perhaps safe to
acknowledge that Applied Linguist ics and the Applied ELT are not mutually exclusive
whereas, both can be equally contributory fields. All in all, it seems that Applied ELT
might breathe further co mplex life into the system o f L2 development and thus might
serve as good evidence to justify and support the emergence and influence of co mplexit y
trends in second language educat ion.
Acknowledgments
I am very grateful to my discussant, Sarah Mercer, for her helpful co mments on the earlier
versio n o f this paper. Also, I would like to thank Diane Larsen-Freeman, Professor
Emerita of Education and Linguist ics fro m Universit y of Michigan, for her init ial feedback
on the complexit y theme of the discussio n developed through the paper. However, all
errors or shortcomings are ent irely my own. A final word of thanks goes to Mohammad
Zabetnia for his help with the process of publicat ion.
About the Author:
Masoud Mahmoodzadeh is a TEFL lecturer and an EFL instructor in Mashhad. He has 8
years o f teaching experience. He is, at the mo ment, pursuing to get his Ph.D. in TEFL. He
has also published various research articles in different internat ional journals. His main
areas of research interest include- English language teaching methodology; eco logical and
cultural aspects of second language teaching; complexit y theory in SLA research; and
contrastive studies (esp. between Persian & English), and also neurolinguist ic studies.
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