1. health and fitness
2. exercise

How to use the Expert Skinfold Caliper
(Fat Measurer)
For Accurate and Affordable
Body Composition Assessment
Inclusief gebruiksaanwijzing in het
Nederlands
Content
1.0
Skinfold Method ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.0
How to use the Expert Fat Measurer .......................................................................................... 5
2.1
A) Preparation for Accurate Measurements ........................................................................... 5
2.2
B) Skinfold Sites....................................................................................................................... 5
2.3
C) Taking the Skinfold Measurements ..................................................................................... 6
3.0
Estimating % fat for adults ......................................................................................................... 7
4.0
What Does My % Body Fat Mean? .......................................................................................... 12
5.0
Determining Your Recommended Weight ............................................................................... 13
6.0
Body composition and children ................................................................................................. 14
7.0
Principles of successful lifetime Weight Control ..................................................................... 17
7.1
Principle #1: Set Realistic Goals ......................................................................................... 17
7.2
Principle #2: Aerobic Exercise is the key to Weight Loss and Weight Maintenance .......... 17
7.3
Principle #3: Build More Muscle To Lose Fat ..................................................................... 18
7.4
Principle #4: Dieting Can Make People Fat ........................................................................ 18
Nederlandstalige gebruiksaanwijzing / Users manual in Dutch:...................... .............................. 20
References ............................................................................................................................................. 28
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
2
Tables and Figures
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Percent Fat estimates for Women
Percent Fat estimates for Men
Percent Fat estimates for Men
Percent Fat estimates for Women
Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Men).
Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Women).
Sum of Skinfolds’ (mm) (Calf and Tricep)Health Fitness
Standards for Boys and Girls
Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular
Skinfolds (mm) for Boys, Ages 6 - 18
Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular
Skinfolds (mm) for Girls, Ages 6 - 18
8
9
10
11
12
12
14
Table 10
Average Caloric Requirement Per Pound of Body Weight
Based on Lifestyle Patterns and Gender
19
Figure 1
Skin, Fat and Muscle
4
Figure 2
The Pinch
4
Figure 3
Placement of the Caliper
4
Figure 4
Skinfold Sites
6
Table 8
Table 9
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
15
16
3
1.0
Skinfold Method
The Skinfold Method is based on the principle that the thickness of fat under the skin is an accurate
representation of the amount of fat elsewhere in your body. Approximately half of the body’s fatty
tissue is directly beneath the skin (subcutaneous). Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the basic skinfold
measurement technique.
Figure 1 – Skin, Fat and Muscle
Figure 2 – The Pinch
Figure 3 - Placement of the Caliper
By pinching a fold of skin, you are measuring a fold of skin and a fold of fat together. It is important
that you pull the skin and attached fat away from the underlying muscle. By measuring the thickness
of skinfolds (a fold of skin and fat, not muscle) at various sites on the body, total % of body fat can be
determined.
The skinfold measurement at various sites are used in a prediction equation to estimate body density
and then are converted to percent fat. The skinfold technique has been found to be a reliable and valid
method of determining % body fat when compared to the underwater weighing method. It is
inexpensive, portable and appropriate in both laboratory and field settings such as physical education
classes, athletic teams, fitness centres, YM/YWCAs and by individuals in the privacy of their homes.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
4
2.0
How to use the Expert Fat Measurer
Prior to taking skinfold measurements you should consider the following recommendations to insure
the most accurate results:
2.1
A) Preparation for Accurate Measurements
1. Allow yourself considerable practice using the Caliper. Take measurements one at a time
at the various sites in rotational order. Repeat the measurements at each site. How
consistent are your measurements at each site?
2. Be careful to use the appropriate anatomical landmarks to locate the precise sites for
measurement.
3. If you are doing pre- and post-assessments, the measurements should be done at the same
time of day. The best time is early in the morning to avoid water hydration changes
resulting from activity and exercise. This can increase skinfold size.
4. Measurements should avoid not to be taken immediately after exercise or when an
individual is overheated. The shift of body fluid to the skin will increase the skinfold size.
All measurements are taken on the right side of the body and directly on the skin, not
through clothes.
2.2
B) Skinfold Sites
1. Abdomen
A vertical fold taken about one (1) inch to the right of the
umbilicus.
2. Axilla
A vertical fold on the midaxillary line at the level of the
xiphoid process of the sternum.
3. Biceps
A vertical fold on the front of the arm over the biceps.
4. Calf
A vertical fold on the inside (medical side) of the right lower
leg at the largest part of the calf muscle.
5. Chest
A diagonal fold halfway between the shoulder crease and the
nipple.
6. Subscapular
A fold taken on a diagonal line coming from the vertebral
border to 1-2 cm. From the inferior angle of the scapula.
7. Suprailium
A diagonal fold above the crest of the ilium (on the side of the
hip).
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
5
8. Thigh
A vertical fold on the front of the thigh, midway between the
knee and hip.
9. Tricep
A vertical fold on the back of the upper arm, half way between
the shoulder and the elbow.
Chest
Subscapular
Axilla
Tricep
Bicep
Suprailium
Abdomen
Lower back
Thigh
Calf
Figure 4 – Skinfold Sites.
2.3
C) Taking the Skinfold Measurements
1. All measurements should be taken on the right side of the body with the person standing.
2. Locate the anatomical sites.
3. Grasp a double thickness of skin firmly with the thumb and one forefinger, pulling the
fold slightly away from the muscular tissue.
4. The caliper is held perpendicular to the fold. With your thumb on the serrated portion of
the caliper, slide the caliper open.
5. Place the caliper approximately 1 cm (¼ inch) below the finger hold. Slowly allow the
caliper to close around the fold. Release the thumb so that full tension is exerted on the
skinfold.
6. Take the reading to the nearest ½ mm. For 1 to 2 seconds after the thumb has been
released.
7. Reopen the caliper to remove and carefully close the caliper. Do not allow the spring to
snap the caliper closed.
8. Each site is measured three (3) times. The readings should be taken without delay to avoid
excessive compression of the skinfold. Releasing and refolding the skinfold is required
between readings. The average of the two (2) closest readings is recorded.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
6
3.0
Estimating % fat for adults
Many equations have been developed using skinfold measurements to estimate % body fat. These
equations are termed population specific. They have been developed from homogeneous samples or
similar subjects (age. gender). Thus, the applicability of the particular equation limited to use with
similar subjects. To avoid the use of multiple equations, generalized equations have been developed
using samples varying in age and body fatness. This provides for the use of one equation rather than
several to estimate % body fat.
The following equations are generalized equations for the predicting body density of adult men and
women using the sum of seven (7) skinfolds (Jackson and Baumgartner, 1991):
Men Body Density (BD) =
1.112000 – 0.00043499 (A)* + 0.0000055 (A)2 - 0.00028826 (B)*
Women Body Density (BD) =
1.0970 – 0.00046971 (A) + 0.0000056 (A)2 - 0.00012828 (B)*
A=
Sum of seven skinfolds (Chest, Axilla, Triceps, Subscapular, Abdomen, Suprailium and Thigh)
B=
Age in years
Body density is converted to percent body fat using the following formula (Siri, 1961):
% fat
= 495
- 450
BD
Computer programs have been or could be developed to determine body density and percent
body fat after the skinfold measurement have been taken. However, research by Durnin and
Rahaman (1967) and Jackson and Pollock (1985) found that two different sums of four and
three skinfolds for males and females were highly correlated with the sum of seven (7)
skinfolds. Computer-generated tables have been developed using the 3-site and 4-site
locations to provide an easy and quick way to estimate percent body fat. Table 1 & 2 provide
percent fat estimates for women using the sum of three skinfolds (Chest, Suprailium and
Thigh) and form men using the sum of three skinfolds ( chest, Abdomen and Thigh). For
example, if the skinfold measurements for a 25 year old female are:
A) Triceps
B) Suprailium
C) Thigh
=
=
=
16
10
32
Total
=
58
The percent body fat would be 23.0 %
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
7
Table 1 – Percent Fat estimates for Women
(Sum of Triceps, Suprailium, & Thigh)
Sum of
SkinFolds
(mm)
23-25
26-28
29-31
32-34
35-37
38-40
41-43
44-46
47-49
50-52
53-55
56-58
59-61
62-64
65-67
68-70
71-73
74-76
77-79
80-82
83-85
86-88
89-91
92-94
95-97
98-100
101-103
104-106
107-109
110-112
113-115
116-118
119-121
122-124
125-127
128-130
Age of the last year
Under
22
9.7
11.0
12.3
13.6
14.8
16.0
17.2
18.3
19.5
20.6
21.7
22.7
23.7
24.7
25.7
26.6
27.5
28.4
29.3
30.1
30.9
31.7
32.5
33.2
33.9
34.6
35.3
35.8
36.4
37.0
37.5
38.0
38.5
39.0
39.4
39.8
23-27
9.9
11.2
12.5
13.8
15.0
16.3
17.4
18.6
19.7
20.8
21.9
23.0
24.0
25.0
25.9
26.9
27.8
28.7
29.5
30.4
31.2
32.0
32.7
33.4
34.1
34.8
35.4
36.1
36.7
37.2
37.8
38.3
38.7
39.2
39.6
40.0
28-32
10.2
11.5
12.8
14.0
15.3
16.5
17.7
18.8
20.0
21.1
22.1
23.2
24.2
25.2
26.2
27.1
28.0
28.9
29.8
30.6
31.4
32.2
33.0
33.7
34.4
35.1
35.7
36.3
36.9
37.5
38.0
38.5
39.0
39.4
39.9
40.3
33-37
10.4
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.5
16.7
17.9
19.1
20.2
21.3
22.4
23.4
24.5
25.5
26.4
27.4
28.3
29.2
30.0
30.9
31.7
32.5
33.2
33.9
34.6
35.3
35.9
36.3
37.1
37.7
38.2
38.8
39.2
39.7
40.1
40.5
38-42
10.7
12.0
13.3
14.5
15.8
17.0
18.2
19.3
20.5
21.6
22.6
23.7
24.7
25.7
26.7
27.6
28.5
29.4
30.3
31.1
31.9
32.7
33.5
34.2
34.9
35.5
36.2
36.8
37.4
38.0
38.5
39.0
39.5
39.9
40.4
40.8
43-47
10.9
12.3
13.5
14.8
16.0
17.2
18.4
19.6
20.7
21.8
22.9
23.9
25.0
26.0
26.9
27.9
28.8
29.7
30.5
31.4
32.2
32.9
33.7
34.4
35.1
35.8
36.4
37.1
37.6
38.2
38.7
39.3
39.7
40.2
40.6
41.0
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
48-52
11.2
12.5
13.8
15.0
16.3
17.5
18.7
19.8
21.0
22.1
23.1
24.2
25.2
26.2
27.2
28.1
29.0
29.9
30.8
31.6
32.4
33.2
33.9
34.7
35.4
36.0
36.7
37.3
37.9
38.5
39.0
39.5
40.0
40.4
40.9
41.3
53-57
11.4
12.7
14.0
15.3
16.5
17.7
18.9
20.1
21.2
22.3
23.4
24.4
25.5
26.4
27.4
28.4
29.3
30.2
31.0
31.9
32.7
33.4
34.2
34.9
35.6
36.3
36.9
37.5
38.1
38.7
39.2
39.7
40.2
40.7
41.1
41.5
Over
58
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.5
16.8
18.0
19.2
20.3
21.5
22.6
23.6
24.7
25.7
26.7
27.7
28.6
29.5
30.4
31.3
32.1
32.9
33.7
34.4
35.2
35.9
36.5
37.2
37.8
38.4
38.9
39.5
40.0
40.5
40.9
41.4
41.8
8
Table 2 – Percent Fat estimates for Men
(Sum of Chest, Abdominal, & Thigh Skinfolds)
Sum of
SkinFolds
(mm)
8-10
11-13
14-16
17-19
20-22
23-25
26-28
29-31
32-34
35-37
38-40
41-43
44-46
47-49
50-52
53-55
56-58
59-61
62-64
65-67
68-70
71-73
74-76
77-79
80-82
83-85
86-88
89-91
92-94
95-97
98-100
101-103
104-106
107-109
110-112
113-115
116-118
119-121
122-124
125-127
Age of the last year
Under
22
1.3
2.2
3.2
4.2
5.1
6.1
7.0
8.0
8.9
9.8
10.7
11.6
12.5
13.4
14.3
15.1
16.0
16.9
17.6
18.5
19.3
20.1
20.9
21.7
22.4
23.2
24.0
24.7
25.4
26.1
26.9
27.5
28.2
28.9
29.6
30.2
30.9
31.5
32.1
32.7
23-27
1.8
2.8
3.8
4.7
5.7
6.6
7.6
8.5
9.4
10.4
11.3
12.2
13.1
13.9
14.8
15.7
16.5
17.4
18.2
19.0
19.9
20.7
21.5
22.2
23.0
23.8
24.5
25.3
26.0
26.7
27.4
28.1
28.8
29.5
30.2
30.8
31.5
32.1
32.7
33.3
28-32
2.3
3.3
4.3
5.3
6.2
7.2
8.1
9.1
10.0
10.9
11.8
12.7
13.6
14.5
15.4
16.2
17.1
17.9
18.8
19.6
20.4
21.2
22.0
22.8
23.6
24.4
25.1
25.9
26.6
27.3
28.0
28.7
29.4
30.1
30.8
31.4
32.1
32.7
33.3
33.9
33-37
2.9
3.9
4.8
5.8
6.8
7.7
8.7
9.6
10.5
11.5
12.4
13.3
14.2
15.1
15.9
16.8
17.7
18.5
19.4
20.2
21.0
21.8
22.6
23.4
24.2
25.0
25.7
26.5
27.2
27.9
28.6
29.3
30.0
30.7
31.4
32.0
32.7
33.3
33.9
34.5
38-42
3.4
4.4
5.4
6.3
7.3
8.3
9.2
10.2
11.1
12.0
12.9
13.8
14.7
15.6
16.5
17.4
18.2
19.1
19.9
20.8
21.6
22.4
23.2
24.0
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.1
27.8
28.5
29.2
29.9
30.6
31.3
32.0
32.6
33.3
33.9
34.5
35.1
43-47
3.9
4.9
5.9
6.9
7.9
8.8
9.8
10.7
11.6
12.6
13.5
14.4
15.3
16.2
17.1
17.9
18.8
19.7
20.5
21.3
22.2
23.0
23.8
24.6
25.4
26.1
26.9
27.6
28.4
29.1
29.8
30.5
31.2
31.9
32.6
33.2
33.9
34.5
35.1
35.8
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
48-52
4.5
5.5
6.4
7.4
8.4
9.4
10.3
11.3
12.2
13.1
14.1
15.0
15.9
16.8
17.6
18.5
19.4
20.2
21.1
21.9
22.7
23.6
24.4
25.2
25.9
26.7
27.5
28.2
29.0
29.7
30.4
31.1
31.8
32.5
33.2
33.8
34.5
35.1
35.8
36.4
53-57
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
8.9
9.9
10.9
11.8
12.8
13.7
14.6
15.5
16.4
17.3
18.2
19.0
20.0
20.8
21.7
22.5
23.3
24.1
25.0
25.8
26.5
27.3
28.1
28.8
29.6
30.3
31.0
31.7
32.4
33.1
33.8
34.5
35.1
35.7
36.4
37.0
Over
58
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.4
12.4
13.3
14.3
15.2
16.1
17,0
17.9
18.8
19.7
20.5
21.4
22.2
23.1
23.9
24.7
25.5
26.3
27.1
27.9
28.7
29.4
30.2
30.9
31.6
32.3
33.0
33.7
34.4
35.1
35.7
36.4
37.0
37.6
9
Table 3 – Percent Fat estimates for Men
(Sum of Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular & Suprailium Skinfolds)
Skinfolds
(mm)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
Males (Age in years)
16-29
4.8
8.1
10.5
12.9
14,7
16,4
17.7
19.0
20.1
21.2
22.2
23.1
24.0
24.8
25.5
26.2
26.9
27.6
28.2
28.8
29.4
30.0
30.5
31.0
31.5
32.0
32.5
32.9
33.3
33.7
34.1
34.5
34.9
35.3
35.6
35.9
-
30-39
12.2
14.2
16.2
17.7
19.2
20.4
21.5
22.5
23.5
24.3
25.1
25.9
26.6
27.2
27.8
28.4
29.0
29.6
30.1
30.6
31.1
31.5
31.9
32.3
32.7
33.1
33.5
33.9
34.3
34.6
34.8
-
40-49
12.2
15.0
17.7
19.6
21.4
23.0
24.6
25.9
27.1
28.2
29.3
30.3
31.2
32.1
33.0
33.7
34.4
35.1
35.8
36.4
37.0
37.6
38.2
38.7
39.2
39.7
40.2
40.7
41.2
41.6
42.0
-
50+
12.6
15.6
18.6
20.8
22.9
24.7
26.5
27.9
29.2
30.4
31.6
32.7
33.8
34.8
35.8
36.6
37.4
38.2
39.0
39.7
40.4
41.1
41.8
42.2
43.0
43.6
44.1
44.6
45.1
45.6
46.1
-
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
Table 3 & 4 provide
percent fat estimates for
women and men using the
sum of four (4) skinfolds
(Biceps, Triceps,
Subscapular &
Suprailium). For example,
if the skinfold
measurements for a 35
year old male are:
(a) Biceps =
10
(b) Tricep =
11
(c) Subscapular =
17
(d) Suprailium = 22
Total =
60
The percent body fat
would be 23.5 %.
(Durnin and Womersley,
1974)
10
Table 4 – Percent Fat estimates for Women
(Sum of Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular & Suprailium Skinfolds
Skinfolds
(mm)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
Females (Age in years)
16-29
10.5
14.1
16.8
19.5
21.5
23.4
25.0
26.5
27.8
29.1
30.2
31.2
32.2
33.1
34.0
34.8
35.6
36.4
37.1
37.8
38.4
39.0
39.6
40.2
40.8
41.3
41.8
42.3
42.8
43.3
43.7
44.1
-
30-39
17.0
19.4
21.8
23.7
25.5
26.9
28.2
29.4
30.6
31.6
32.5
33.4
34.3
35.1
35.8
36.5
37.2
37.9
38.6
39.1
39.6
40.1
40.6
41.1
41.6
42.1
42.6
43.1
43.6
44.0
44.4
44.8
45.2
45.6
45.9
46.2
46.5
-
40-49
19.8
22.2
24.5
26.4
28.2
29.6
31.0
32.1
33.2
34.1
35.0
35.9
36.7
37.5
38.3
39.0
39.7
40.4
41.0
41.5
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.4
45.8
46.2
46.6
47.0
47.4
47.8
48.2
48.5
48.8
49.1
49.4
50+
21.4
24.0
26.6
28.5
30.3
31.9
33.4
34.6
35.7
36.7
37.7
38.7
39.6
40.4
41.2
41.9
42.6
43.3
43.9
44.5
45.1
45.7
46.2
46.7
47.2
47.7
48.2
48.7
49.2
49.6
50.0
50.4
50.8
51.2
51.6
52.0
52.4
52.7
53.0
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
11
4.0
What Does My % Body Fat Mean?
Now that you have determined your percent body fat, what does it mean? Table 5 presents
classification standards by gender and age. This table also identifies the health fitness and
high physical fitness category for individuals who wish to do moderate to vigorous physical
activity without undue fatigue.
For example, the recommended health-fitness standard for a 35 year old female is 29 % or
less. The high physical standards for her would be between 19 % and 24 %.
You may be somewhat below the high physical fitness standard It is uncommon for highly
trained males and females to be as low as 3 % and 12 % (sometimes lower, but perhaps
unhealthy) respectively. Remember that 3 % essential fat for men and 12 % for women seem
to be lower limits in order to maintain health. Going below these percentages can result in the
serious impairment of normal physiological function. A little storage fat (over the essential) is
better than none at all.
Table 5 – Body Composition According
to percent Body Fat (Men).
Age
19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50
Excellent*
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
Good*
12.1-17.0
13.1-18.0
14.1-19.0
15.1-20.0
16.1-21.5
Moderate**
17.1- 22.0
18.1- 23.0
19.1- 24.0
20.1- 25.0
21.1-26.0
Overweight
22.1- 27.0
23.1- 28.0
24.1- 29.0
25.1- 30.0
26.1- 31.0
Obese
27.1
28.1
29.1
30.1
31.1
Table 6 – Body Composition According
to percent Body Fat (Women).
Age
Excellent*
Good*
19
17.0
17.1- 22.0
20-29
18.0
18.1- 23.0
30-39
19.0
19.1- 24.0
40-49
20.0
20.1- 25.0
50
21.5
21.1-26.0
*
High physical fitness standard.
**
Moderate**
Obese
22.1- 27.0
27.1-32.0
23.1- 28.0
28.1-33.0
24.1- 29.0
29.1-34.0
25.1- 30.0
30.1-35.0
26.1- 31.0
31.1-36.0
Health fitness standard.
Excellent
32.1
33.1
34.1
35.1
36.1
From: Hoeger, W.K. and Hoeger, S. (1999) Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness,
Morton Publishing Company, Englewood, Colorado.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
12
5.0
Determining Your Recommended Weight
Before you can determine your recommended weight, you must select the desired health or
high physical fitness fat percentage for your age and gender. You must make this decision
based on your current percent fat and personal fat and personal health fitness objectives.
1. To determine your pounds of body weight in fat (FW), multiply body weight by
your current percent fat (%F) expressed in decimal form:
FW = BW x %F
2. Determine lean body weight (LBW) by subtracting the weight in fat (FW) from
your body weight in fat (FW) from your body weight (BW):
LBW = BW - FW
3. Select your desired body fat percentage (DFP) based on the standards in Table 5.
4. Compute recommended body weight (RBW) using the following formula:
RBW = LBW ÷ (1.0 - DFP)
For example, a 35-year-old female weights 170 pounds and is 32% fat. What
would her recommended body weight (RBW) be at 24%?
Gender
Age
Body Weight (BW)
female
35
170 lbs.
%F
32% (.32 in decimal form)
Step 1:
FW = BW x %F
FW = 170 x .32 = 54
Step 2:
LBW = BW - FW
LBW = 170 - 54 = 116
Step 3:
DFP: 24% or .24 in decimal form
Step 4:
RBW = LBW ÷ (1.0 - DFP)
RBW = 116 ÷ (1.0 - DFP)
RBW = 116 ÷ (.76) = 152.6
RBW AT 24% FAT WOULD BE 152.6 lbs.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
13
6.0 Body composition and children
Childhood obesity increased during the 1980’s (National Children’s Youth Fitness Today
(NCYFS, 1985). The prevalence of obesity was higher in the 1980s than it was in the 1960s.
In order tot reverse this trend, assessing body composition using the skinfold method is a
major effort today by physical educators to help children learn to maintain body fatness in an
appropriate range. Adult obesity and the subsequent risk factors of coronary heart disease
(CHD), stroke and diabetes have their roots in childhood obesity. For this reason, skinfold
tests are included in most of the national health-related youth fitness tests (e.g. Fitnessgram
and Physical Best).
The Health-related Physical Fitness Test, introduce by the American Alliance of Health,
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) in 1981 was the first national test to
include skinfold measurements. The Tricep and Subscapular sites were measured and
percentile ranks for the sum of the two skinfolds were established by gender and age (5 years
through college) Table 8 & 9, present percentile norms for boys and girls established during
the 1980s. Norms indicate how an individual compares to others of his or her age and gender.
Norms are a means of comparison and not a health-fitness standard. Because pre-pubescent
children are chemically immature (higher water and lower bone mineral content than adults),
previously discussed adult equations to estimate % body fat are inappropriate for children.
Thus the sum of two skinfolds provides the health fitness standards.
The Subscapular site was not easily measured in females without their undressing or wearing
loose clothing. In order to establish less invasive procedures, the Calf and the Tricep sites
were compared with the Subscapular and Tricep. It was found that the results were very
similar. In 1988 Physical Best (AAHPERD, 1988) was published with health fitness criterion
standards using the sum of the Calf and Tricep skinfolds. These health fitness standards
indicate a sum of skinfold range that a child should fall within in order to maintain a level of
health that will help to prevent health problems, now and in later life. Table 7 presents the
health fitness standards by gender and age for the sum of the Tricep and Calf skinfolds.
Measure your children. Teach them the importance of body composition and health.
Table 7 – Sum of Skinfolds’ (mm) (Calf and Tricep)
Health Fitness Standards for Boys and Girls
Ages
Males
Females
5 yrs to 18 yrs.
12-25 mm
16-36 mm
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
14
Fattest
Percentiles
Leanest
Table 8 –Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds
(mm) for Boys, Ages 6 - 18
age
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
99
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
7
7
8
8
8
95
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
90
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
85
10
10
10
10
11
12
10
10
10
11
11
11
80
10
10
10
11
11
12
11
11
11
11
11
12
75
11
11
11
11
12
12
11
12
11
12
12
12
70
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
65
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
12
12
13
13
13
60
12
12
12
13
13
14
13
13
13
13
13
14
55
12
12
13
13
14
15
14
14
13
14
14
14
50
12
12
13
14
14
16
15
15
14
14
14
15
45
13
13
14
14
15
16
15
16
14
15
15
16
40
13
13
14
15
16
17
16
17
15
16
16
16
35
13
14
15
16
17
19
17
18
16
18
17
17
30
14
14
16
17
18
20
19
19
18
18
18
19
25
14
15
17
18
19
22
21
22
20
20
20
21
20
15
16
18
20
21
24
24
25
23
22
22
24
15
16
17
19
23
24
28
27
29
27
25
24
26
10
18
18
21
26
28
33
33
36
31
30
29
30
5
20
24
28
34
33
38
44
46
37
40
37
38
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
15
Fattest
Percentiles
Leanest
Table 9 –Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds
(mm) for Girls, Ages 6 - 18
age
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
99
8
8
8
9
9
8
9
10
10
11
11
12
95
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
12
13
14
14
15
90
10
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
15
16
16
16
85
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
16
17
18
18
80
12
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
17
18
19
19
75
12
12
13
14
14
15
15
16
18
20
20
20
70
12
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
19
21
21
22
65
13
13
15
15
16
16
17
18
20
22
22
23
60
13
14
15
16
17
17
17
19
21
23
23
24
55
14
15
16
16
18
18
19
20
22
24
24
26
50
14
15
16
17
18
19
19
20
24
25
25
27
45
15
16
17
18
20
20
21
22
25
26
27
28
40
15
16
18
19
20
21
22
23
26
28
29
30
35
16
17
19
20
22
22
24
25
27
29
30
32
30
16
18
20
22
24
23
25
27
30
32
32
34
25
17
19
21
24
25
25
27
30
32
34
34
36
20
18
20
23
26
28
28
31
33
35
37
37
40
15
19
22
25
29
31
31
35
39
39
42
42
42
10
22
25
30
34
35
36
40
43
42
48
46
46
5
26
28
36
40
41
42
48
51
52
56
57
58
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
16
7.0
Principles of successful lifetime Weight Control
Most of us want to maintain recommended body weight (RBW) for either health or
appearance reasons or both. Once you have established your current % body fat, desired %
body fat, and body weight, you must follow some very important principles to lose fat and
successfully control it for the rest of your life. We will identify some of those principles. For a
more detailed and complete discussion of weight control principles and strategies, please refer
to Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness by Werner W.K. Hoeger and Sharon
A. Hoeger (Morton Publishing Compan, 1999).
7.1
Principle #1:
Set Realistic Goals
Be realistic as you set your own target weight. If you are above the moderate body fat
category or health fitness standard in Table X you should set your goal to bring your body fat
down and stay in this category for health reasons. Attaining the excellent category can be
extremely difficult for some and perhaps more difficult to maintain. Ask yourself if you are
willing to make a commitment to a vigorous lifetime exercise program and permanent dietary
changes. The moderate category may be more realistic. Usually a weight problem is the
product of a number of years. However, too many individuals want to lose weight in a very
short time. A successful lifetime weight control program can only be established by
implementing new lifetime exercise and eating habits. This will take time. Your log term goal
may be to reduce your body fat from 30% to 20%. Your short/term objective may be to
decrease body fat 1% each month. This will encourage regular body fat assessment (skinfold
technique) and help maintain motivation and renewed commitment to your long-term goal.
7.2
Principle #2:
Aerobic Exercise is the key to Weight Loss and Weight
Maintenance
Fat is the primary fuel of muscles. In order for muscle to use fat efficiently as fuel, it requires
oxygen (aerobic). The secret to fat burning is to exercise at the right level to utilize stored fat.
If you exercise too hard or not hard enough you will utilize body sugar for fuel and not fat.
Aerobic exercise done correctly will burn fat and improve the ability of enzymes to burn more
fat as you increase intensity. Bailey (1994) defines aerobic exercise as the following:
1. Lasts at least twelve minutes without stopping.
2. Gets you breathing deeply but not out of breath.
3. Uses the muscles in the thighs and buttock (p. 73).
Consult your local fitness expert for an exercise prescription or choose an activity you enjoy
and get moving.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
17
7.3
Principle #3:
Build More Muscle To Lose Fat
Muscle tissue uses more energy (fuel) than fat at rest. As muscle size increases, so does the
amount of fuel an individual uses at rest to sustain resting metabolism. Remember the primary
fuel of muscles is fat. If you increase the size of muscle tissue, more fat will be used at rest
and during exercise. Even small increases in muscle mass will have an effect.
Loss of muscle mass is associated with increased % of body fat as we age. As we lose muscle
our resting metabolism does not need as much fuel and thus we retain more fat. Thus,
participating in a strength-training program along with aerobic exercise is important in
preventing and reducing excess body fat.
7.4
Principle #4:
Dieting Can Make People Fat
For years we assumed that the key to weight loss and maintenance was the energy-balancing
equation. This stated that as long as calorie input equalled calorie output, a person would not
gain or lose weight. If caloric output exceeded input, a person would lose weight. While
logical and simple, the equation does not work for everyone because of genetic and lifestylerelated individual differences which determine the number of calories required to maintain or
lose weight. The most common explanation for individual differences in weight loss and
weight gain has been the variation in human metabolism. However, many experts questioned
whether this factor alone could account for all the variation. In response the setpoint theory
was proposed.
Research studies have identified a weight-regulation mechanism (WRM) in the hypothalamus
of the brain that regulates how much the body should weigh. It is thought that this mechanism
has a setpoint that controls both appetite and the amount of fat stored. Setpoint is
hypothesized to work like a thermometer for body fat. Some people have high settings and
others have low settings.
Everybody has his or her own certain body fat percentage that the body attempts to maintain.
Our instinct to survive tells the body that fat storage is vital and sets an acceptable level of fat.
Poor lifestyle habits may cause the level to gradually climb
Under strict caloric reduction the body may make extreme metabolic adjustments in an effort
to maintain its setpoint for fat. The amount of energy the body needs to maintain life at
complete rest may drop rapidly and the individual may be on a plateau for days or even weeks
without losing much weight. Dietary restriction alone will not lower the setpoint, even though
you may lose weight and fat. Your survival mechanism will activate in response to your nearfasting diet and lower your metabolism. You are able to function at a much lower rate. When
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
18
you go back to a normal caloric intake or even slightly reduced intake, you will quickly regain
the fat loss as the body strives to regain a comfortable fat store.
Low calorie diets will not alter the setpoint, but will slow down the resting metabolic rate and
actually increase body fat. Such diets will also deprive the body of basic daily nutrients
required for normal function.
Table 9 offers some general guidelines for estimating daily caloric intake according to
lifestyle patterns. These are estimates and serve as a starting point form which individual
adjustments can be made. Under no circumstances should a person go on a diet that calls
below 1200 and 1500 calories for women and men respectively.
The important question is how can I lower my setpoint so the body will feel comfortable at a
lower fat percentage. It appears that the only way to lower the setpoint is by the following:
1. Aerobic exercises and;
2. A diet high in complex carbohydrates (grains and potatoes) and low in fat.
The preceding represents the four (4) main principles of a successful weight control program.
Successful lifetime weight loss, maintenance and recommended body composition can only
be attained with a moderate reduction in caloric intake combined with an aerobic and
strength-training program.
Table 10 –Average Caloric Requirement Per
Pound of Body Weight Based on Lifestyle
Patterns and Gender
Calories Per Pound
Women*
12.0
Men
Sedentary - Limited physical
13.0
activity
Moderate physical activity
15.0
13.5
Hard Labour - Strenuous physical
17.0
15.0
effort
*
Pregnant or lactating women add three calories to these values.
(From: Hoeger, W.K. And Hoeger, S. 1999. Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and
Wellness, Morton Publishing Company, Englewood, Colorado)
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
19
Gebruiksaanwijzing Expert Skinfold
Caliper
(Huidplooidiktemeting)
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
20
1.0
Huidplooi methode
De Huidplooi Methode (huidplooidiktemeting) is gebaseerd op het principe dat de hoeveelheid vet
onder de huid een accurate indicatie geeft van de hoeveelheid vet elders in het lichaam. Circa de helft
van het vetweefsel in een lichaam bevindt zich direct onder de huid (onderhuids).
Figuur 1, 2 en 3 illustreren de basishandelingen van de huidplooidiktemeting.
Figuur 1 – Huid, Vet en Spier
Figuur 2 – Knijpen
Figuur 3 – Plaatsing van de Caliper
Wanneer u een huidplooi meet is het belangrijk dat de plooi wordt weggetrokken van het
onderliggende spierweefsel. Op deze wijze meet u een plooi welke bestaat uit huid en vet en niet uit
spierweefsel (deze plooi wordt verder aangeduid met huidplooi). Door de dikte van de huidplooi op
diverse plaatsen van het lichaam te meten kan men het totale percentage (%) lichaamsvet bepalen.
De resultaten van de metingen op diverse plaatsen worden gebruikt in een formule welke de
lichaamsdensiteit1 / lichaamsdichtheid voorspeld. Deze uitkomst kan vervolgens geconverteerd
worden tot lichaamsvetpercentage. De huidplooidiktemeting wordt gezien als een betrouwbare
methode om het lichaamsvetpercentage te bepalen. Hiernaast is het een relatief goedkope, niet
plaatsgebonden en uitermate geschikte methode welke toepasbaar is voor vele doeleinden.
1
Densiteit is de concentratie van materie uitgedrukt in massa per volume-eenheid
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
21
2.0
How to use the Expert Fat Measurer
Voorafgaand aan de huidplooidiktemetingen dient u de volgende aanbevelingen in acht te nemen om
zo de meest accurate resultaten te behalen:
2.1
A) Voorbereidingen voor accurate metingen
1. Stel uzelf in staat de caliper meerdere malen uit te proberen. Neem diverse malen
metingen op verschillende huidplooimeetpunten en vergelijk de uitkomsten en
controleer hoe consistent deze zijn.
2. Zorg dat u bekend bent met de juiste plaatsen waar de huidplooi gemeten dient te
worden (zie verder paragraaf 2.2.).
3. Wanneer u meermalen over tijd meet, zorg ervoor dat de metingen worden gedaan
op een gelijk tijdstip. Het beste is vroeg in de morgen.
4. Metingen dienen niet direct na inspanning te worden gedaan. De
vochtverplaatsing naar de huid zal de huidplooi vergroten.
5. Alle metingen moeten aan de rechterzijde van het lichaam worden gedaan, direct
op de huid (niet door de kleding).
2.2
B) Huidplooi meetpunten:
1. Buik
Een verticale plooi circa 1,5 / 2cm. rechts van de navel.
2. Oksel
Een verticale plooi in het midden, recht onder de oksel ter
hoogte van de tepel.
3. Biceps
Een verticale plooi aan de voorzijde van de arm op de biceps.
4. Kuit
Een verticale plooi aan de binnenzijde van het
rechteronderbeen ter hoogte van het breedste punt van de
kuitbeenspier.
5. Borst
Een diagonale plooi halverwege de schouder en tepel.
6. Schouder
Een diagonale plooi op de bovenrug, onder het laagste punt
van het schouderblad. Neem de plooi 45 graden
(diagonaal) in het verlengde van de onderkant van het
oplopende bot.
7. Heup
Een verticale plooi aan de bovenzijde van het darmbeen (aan
heupzijde).
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
22
8. Dij
Een verticale plooi aan de voorzijde van de dij, halverwege de
knie en heup.
9. Tricep
Een verticale plooi aan de achterzijde van de bovenarm,
halverwege de schouder en elleboog.
Borst
Schouder
Oksel
Triceps
Biceps
Heup
Buik
Onderrug
Dij
Kuit
Figuur 4 –Huidplooi meetpunten.
2.3
C) Werkwijze Huidplooidiktemeting;
1. Alle metingen dienen genomen te worden aan de rechterzijde van het lichaam in
staande positie.
2. Lokaliseer elk van de meetpunten.
3. Grijp stevig een plooi tussen duim en wijsvinger. Trek de plooi weg van het
spierweefsel.
4. De Caliper dient loodrecht ten opzichte van de plooi te worden gehouden. De Caliper
kunt u met uw duim (op het geribbelde deel) openen.
5. Plaats the Caliper circa 1 cm onder de vingergreep. Sluit de Caliper langzaam om de
huidplooi. Laat uw duim los zodat de volledige spanning van de Caliper zich op de
huidplooi begeeft.
6. Lees de Caliper af, neem hierbij de dichtstbijzijnde ½ mm. Wacht met aflezen echter
wel 1 a 2 seconden nadat u uw duim heeft losgelaten van de Caliper.
7. Heropen de Caliper en verwijder deze van de huidplooi.
8. Elk punt dient driemaal te worden gemeten. Hierbij dient u de Caliper wel van de
huidplooi af te halen en de meting in zijn geheel opnieuw uit te voeren. Het
gemiddelde van de twee meest overeenkomende metingen wordt als resultaat van de
meting gebruikt.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
23
3.0
Schatten van lichaamsvetpercentage van
volwassenen
Er zijn vele formules ontwikkeld welke op basis van huidplooimetingen het lichaamsvetpercentage
bepalen. Deze formules zijn echter veelal populatiespecifiek. Ze zijn ontwikkeld voor homogene
groepen (gelijke leeftijd, geslacht of vetpercentage). Het gebruik van deze formules beperkt zich
zodoende tot deze specifieke groepen. Om niet per geval te bepalen welke formule geschikt is, zijn er
algemene formules opgesteld welke ongeacht leeftijd, geslacht en vetpercentage toepasbaar zijn.
De volgende formules zijn gestandaardiseerde formules om lichaamsdensiteit te bepalen voor zowel
mannen als vrouwen door gebruik te maken van zeven (7) huidplooimetingen (Jackson and
Baumgartner, 1991):
Lichaamsdensiteit Mannen (BD) = 1.112000 – 0.00043499 (A)* + 0.0000055 (A)2 - 0.00028826 (B)*
Lichaamsdensiteit Vrouwen (BD) = 1.0970 – 0.00046971 (A) + 0.0000056 (A)2 - 0.00012828 (B)*
A=
Som van zeven huidplooimetingen (Borst, Oksel, Triceps, Rug, Buik, Heup en Dij)
B=
Leeftijd in jaren
Lichaamsdensiteit wordt geconverteerd naar lichaamsvetpercentage d.m.v. de volgende formule: (Siri,
1961):
% vet = 495
- 450
BD
Er zijn diverse computerprogramma's ontwikkeld om de lichaamsdensiteit en het percentage
lichaamsvet te bepalen nadat de huidplooimetingen zijn genomen. Echter, onderzoek door Durnin en
Rahaman (1967) en Jackson en Pollock (1985) concludeert dat er twee verschillende opsommingen
van vier en drie huidplooimetingen voor mannen en vrouwen sterk zijn gecorreleerd met de som van
zeven (7) huidplooien. Naar aanleiding hiervan zijn Computergegenereerde tabellen ontwikkeld om
met behulp van de 3 of 4 huidplooimetingen op eenvoudige en snelle wijze om het
lichaamvetpercentage te schatten. Tabel 1 (Pag. 8) en 2 (Pag. 9) bevatten lichaamvetpercentage
schattingen voor vrouwen met behulp van de som van drie huidplooimetingen (triceps, heup en dij) en
voor mannen met behulp van de som van drie huidplooien (borst, buik en dij). Bijvoorbeeld, als de
huidplooi metingen voor een 25 jarige vrouw zijn:
A. Triceps
B. Heup
C. Dij
Totaal
=
=
=
16
10
32
=
58
Het vetpercentage zal dan 23.0 % zijn.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
24
Tabel 3 (Pag. 10) en 4 (Pag. 11) bevatten lichaamvetpercentage schattingen op basis van de som van
vier huidplooimetingen (biceps, triceps, rug en heup). Bijvoorbeeld, als de huidplooi metingen voor
een 35 jarige man zijn:
(a) Biceps =
(b) Triceps =
(c) Rug =
(d) Heup =
Totaal =
10
11
17
22
60
Het vetpercentage zal dan 23.5 % zijn.
Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide
25
References
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