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UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, BANGALORE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Course Outline for III B.Tech (Ag.Engg)
Course Title: Agricultural Structures and Environmental Control
Course No. and Credit Hrs: AFE 305 & (2+1)
Sl No
Lectures
1
Planning and layout of farmstead. Physiological reactions of livestock to solar
radiations and other environmental factors, livestock production facilities, BIS.
Standards for dairy, piggery , poultry and other farm structures
2
Design, construction and cost estimation of farm structures, animal shelters ,
compost pit, fodder silo, fencing and implement sheds, barn for cows, buffalo,
poultry etc.
3
Design and construction of rural grain storage system, Engineering for rural living
and development, rural roads, their construction cost and repair and maintenance.
4
Sources of water supply, norms of water supply for human being and animals,
drinking water standards and water treatment suitable to rural community.
5
Site and orientation of building in regard to sanitation , community sanitation system
6
Sewage system – its design, cost and maintenance, design of septic tank for small
family.
7
Estimation of power requirement for domestic and irrigation, source of power
supply, use of alternate source of energy , electrification of rural housing
8
Scope, importance and need for environmental
non-renewable resources and their equitable use
9
Concept of ecosystem, biodiversity and its conservation , environmental pollution
and their control
10
Solid waste management system, BOD and COD of food plant waste, Primary and
secondary treatment of food plant waste.
control,
References :
1.Principles of Agricultural Engineering Vol I- Miachel A.M and Ojha T.P
renewable
and
DESIGN & LAYOUT OF A DAIRY FARM
1. Purpose: Proper housing is an important feature in raising the production capabilities of
animals, in addition to good breeding, feeding, selection and disease control. Cattle rising and
dairying is practised in the country by various interests. Generally, these interests are. (a) An
Average Farmer who has not more than a pair of bullocks and two or three mulch animals
with their calves. (b) Rural Milk Producers normally having a total of about 20 animals
including about 12 mulch animals, their followers and a pair of bullocks; (c) Gaushalas and
other organized milk producers; and (d) Large Dairy Farms.
2. Location: (a) The shed shall be 10 cattle on dry, elevated and well-drained area with
consideration for future expansion. (b) Trees should be planted near the shed to serve as
wind- brakes and to provide shade. (c) The site shall be away from public road but easily
accessible throughout the year. (d) The site shall be such where good water supply would
be available. (e) The site shall be such that the shed could be oriented east to west in areas
where sun-heat is intense.
3. Standings (stalls): (a) For an average farmer: The standings shall be constructed in such
a way the animals are kept facing towards the wall. The manger shall be adjacent to the
wall.
4. Manger :(a) For an average farmer: The typical dimension of the manger shall be as
given in Table. The manger shall be of continuous type.
5. Drain: There shall be a drain laid just outside the shed. Its length wise slope shall be 1
in 40. The width of drain may be of 23 cm but in any case not more than 30 cm. The depth
the drain shall be 6 cm towards the standing and 7.5 cm. towards outside. The drain shall be
led to a urine pit having a depth not exceeding 40 cm. It may be circular or rectangular.
6. Paddock or yard: For rural milk producers, there shall be a paddock with the following
minimum space per animal for various categories of animals:
a) Buffalo
8 m2
b) Cow
7 m2
c) Young stock
4 m2
d) Calf
2 m2
DESIGN & LAYOUT OF A POULTRY HOUSE
Location: The poultry house shall be located on a fairly raised and properly drained
site, not liable to flooding.The poultry house shall be so located and oriented
as to avoid the western sun and heavy draughts but, at the same time, it shall
have proper, Ventilation and circulation of fresh air to keep the house dry.
The poultry house shall be located, preferably on medium or sandy loamsoil
capable of growing good herbage.
Space requirements:
• Floor space Requirement: The floor space requirement per bird shall be as
follows
Table: floor space requirement per bird
Age(weeks)
Floor space per bird (sq.cm)
Light breeds
Heavy breeds
0 to 8
700mm
700mm
9 to12
950mm
950mm
13 to 20
1900mm
2350mm
21 and above
2300 to 2800
2800 to 3700
•
The overall estimate can be done at 0.315 sq.m
Feeder space requirement: The minimum feeder space required per bird shall
be as follow:
Table: Feeder space requirement per bird
Age (weeks)
Feeder space per bird (linear cm.)
0 to 2
2.5
3 to 6
4.0
7 to 12
7.5
13 and above
10.0
DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF SHEEP & GOAT HOUSING
Procedure:
Location: The housing for sheep and goats shall be located on a dry, elevated and well
drained place. It should not be exposed to strong winds, hot or cold. A place, where there is a
longer period of shade in a day, is to be preferred.
Floor space requirement: The number of units of each type to be provided In the yard would
depend on the number of animals to be looked alter. The area of each unit shall depend upon
the minimum floor space specified for each animal and number of animals to be kept in each
unit. The minimum floor space for each type of animal shall be:
Table: minimum floor space requirement per animal
Type of animal
Floor space per animal (m2)
Eve or nanny (female sheep or female goat)
1.0
Ram or buck(male sheep or male goat )
3.3
Lamb or kid(young sheep or young goat
0.4
below one year of age)
Units for sheep kept for wool and meat production and goats kept for meat production: A yard
meant for keeping sheep for wool and meat production and goats for meat production may
have the following units:
a) Sheds
i) Flock shed
ii) Ram or buck shed
iii) Lamb or kid shed
iv) Lambing or kidding shed
v) Sick shed
b) Shearing and store room, and
c) Shepherd’s house
4. Purpose and size of different units :
FARM FENCING:
Design and construction of farm fence: Farm fences are available with greater variety of
design than any agricultural structures in the world. Design and materials of construction
have diversity in a greater length. There are limitless designs and materials of construction
throughout the world. The traditional fences have disappeared because of the other
development modern agriculture. Except for some use in landscaping home ground, soil
fences and stone walls surrounding the farms have been replaced with the new type of farm
fences. A wide variety of materials and construction methods are available which can meet
the specific needs of all classes of livestock and crop fencing. A recommendation for farm
fence construction has established by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
construction details are specified by ASAE and quality of the materials is largely based on
ASTM. For fences to be established on contract these specifications are quite useful. The
most common sizes of woven wire fencing are 1155, 1047,939,832 and 726. The first one or
two digits indicate the number of horizontal wires and the last two digits indicate the height.
For example 1047 has 10 wires (first, two digits) and last two digits indicate l194mm or 47
inch height of the fences. The vertical wires are 305mm (12 inches) on centre for 1155 and
1047andl52mm (6 inches) on centre for the others.
Following steps are taken in woven wire fence construction:
o Laying out the fence by first locating comers, ends, and gate openings.
o Setting comers and end posts and constructing necessary bracing for fences up
to a single anchored and brace assembly is satisfactory. For length of 50-200m
double bracing is recommended. For lengths over 200m intermediate braced
line posts are needed.
o Only in straight sections for contour fencing braced line posts are installed at
100m intervals. It is recommended that on rolling land braced line posts be
installed at the crest and foot of the each chill.
o Depending on equipment available and soil characteristics wood anchore posts
may be driven or set in dug holes. They should be set at least one meter deep
in either case being subjected to lifting as well as tipping forces. In order to get
enough bearing surface steel anchore. Posts and braces are set in concrete.
o Stretching a cord or a strand of barbed wire between the corner and end posts
in place to establish a straight line as a guide for setting the line posts.
FEED &FODDER STORAGE STRUCTURE :
Permanent storages: The modern permanent storage system should be selected for the safe
keeping of stored grains and other products. The modern storage structures should be selected
on the basis of first on quality and then on cost considerations. The value of stored container.
If the proper storage structure is not selected, the high loss rates may quickly erode any
capital cost savings made in the selection of poor quality storage. A good quality storage
structure may be structurally adequate, durable, and hygienic and gas sealable for fumigation.
Various forms of permanent storage structures like shed, silos have been designed and built.
They are, however, not all equal in quality or price.
Shed: Traditionally, horizontal sheds have been used to provide low-cost, large volume
storage. Very large volume sheds have also been constructed by Central Ware Housing
Corporation for storing grains and other products. Sheds are usually made of steel or
corrugated sheet construction with flat concrete or bitumen floors. Due to their shape, sheds
are relatively inefficient structures for grain storage. Grain loads on the walls have to be
supported by girts and heavy vertical butteresses designed to resist their loads in bending.
Roofs have to be supported on a network of purlins and rafters. A typical bulk warehouse
would be 15 m wide, 60m long, and 6 m high at the eaves. A building of this size would have
a storage capacity of 2,840 tonnes. The same size building for bag storage has only 1440
tonnes storage capacity.
Vertical silos : Vertical silos can be circular, hexagonal, square or rectangular. They tend to
be more expensive than sheds. But the extra cost is justifiable where high through puts
demand the provision of fully gravity discharge. In case of space limitations also, Vertical
silos are preferred because limited space precludes the use of large floor areas required for
shed. Where gravity discharge is required, it is achieved by the provision of sloping floors
with either single or multiple discharge points. But to reduce the risks of eccentric discharge
patterns and to minimise complex construction and costs, a single central discharge is
preferred.
For smooth floor surfaces, slope angles of 30 – 35 º generally give satisfactory results.
However, for very dusty or moist grains, slope of 40º will not guarantee complete discharge.
Hopper slope angle of 60-70º are necessary to achieve reliable mass flow. With normal
hopper slopes of 30-40º, where pipe flow or funnel funnel flow are more likely to occurs. In
such floes, the bottom layers of material remain static until the upper layers of material have
been discharged.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY, DRINKING OF WATER SUPPLY AND WATER
TREATMENT SUITABLE TO RURAL COMMUNITY
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological
contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce
water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking
water), but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including
meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications.
In general the methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation,
and distillation, biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon,
chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic
radiation such as ultraviolet light.
Sources of water: Groundwater: Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a
high degree of clarity and often it does not require additional treatment other than
adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as
springs, artesian, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is
generally of very high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic
protozoa are typically absent), but the water may be rich in dissolved solids,
especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium.
Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland
reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a
protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels
are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present.
Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a significant
bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved
constituents.
Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking
water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water vapour.
SANITATION, SEPTIC TANK AND SEWAGE SYSTEM :Safe disposal of all human
sewage and domestic wastes is necessary to protect the health of the community and also to
prevent the occurrence of epidemics and other diseases. For satisfactory results, such wastes
must be disposed of so that the drinking water supply is not contaminated. It should not be
accessible to insects, flies, rodents and other diseases carriers. It should not be disposed off in
stream or pond which may be used for bathing purposes. These criteria can be best be met by
the discharge of the domestic sewage into septic tank and soakage pit or into bore hole
latrines.
Sewage: sewage includes solid and liquid portions of the human excreta which enters the
septic tank in combined form.
Sludge: refers to that part of the sewage which after being acted on by the bacteria settles at
the bottom of the tank.
Scum: Scum refers to it is a partially submerged mat of floating solids that may form at the
surface of the fluid in the tank. Generally the lighter solids including fats and greases rise to
the surface and form a layer of scum
Septic tank:A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage
treatment system common in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by
local governments or private corporations.
The principle on which a septic tank works is that under suitable conditions bacteria will
liquify any organic material reducing it to liquids and gases for the most part. The residue not
liquefied will be an inert and ineffective material. The septic tank is closed water tight
container in which untreated sewage is put so that it may be acted on any bacteria.
There are three important functions that take place within the tank. First, the removal of the
solids from the sewage as it enters the tank. The solids are retained in the tank and remaining
portion is discharged. Secondly, the decomposition of the solid sewage under anaerobic
condition, that is, in the absence of the air. Thirdly, the storage of the sludge and scum in the
tank. A considerable portion of the sludge and scum are liquefied through decomposition ,
resulting in the liberation of gas into the atmosphere.
Capacity of the tank: Capacity is one of the important considerations that determines the
major dimensions of the tanks. For an average size family of five members including two
adults and three children, the tank capacity may be kept about 2.8 cu.m. For additional
members of the capacity should be increased by 0.42 cu.m per member. The capacity of the
tank should not be smaller than 2.1 cu.m.
Scope, Importance And Need For Environmental Control, Renewable And
Non-Renewable Resources And Their Equitable Use :
Environment: Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affect an
organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.
In another words “Environment is sum total of water, air and land inter-relationships among
themselves and also with the human being, other living organisms and property”.
Scope of Environment:
Environmental science is a multidisciplinary science whose basic aspects have a direct
relevance to every section of the society. Its main aspects are :
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Conservation of nature and natural resources.
Conservation of biological diversity.
Control of environmental pollution.
Stabilization of human population and environment.
Social issues in relation to development and environment.
Development of non-polluting renewable energy system and providing new
dimension to nation’s security
Importance of Environment :
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
1.
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Environment Issues Being of International Importance
Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development
Explosively Increase in Pollution
Need for An Alternative Solution
Need To Save Humanity From Extinction
Need For Wise Planning of Development
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
Power requirement for Domestic and Irrigation and Rural Electrification :
Electricity on farm : Electricity is used for illumination, mechanical work, transportation ,
heating etc. It is one of the cheapest sources of power available for these uses.It offers the
advantage of being generated at the most favourable location, such as near the river dams or
coal field, but it can still transmitted economically over long distances .
Nearly all electrical energy now generated as alternating current (a.c) is utilizing either steam
or hydraulic energy. The main reason for this is that alternating current can be generated at
high voltages and transformed to the voltages required for utilization.
Currents that flows in one direction and then in the oppsite direction periodically are called
alternating currents (a.c). AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses
and residences.
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by
sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines
of the dynamo type.
Rural Electrification :
At the time of independence of India (1947) only 3000 villages out of 6 lakhs are electrified.
At this stage , the production of electrical installed capacity was only 1500 MW. By 1983,
electrical installed capacity went up to 48,000 MW more than 70 per cent villages were
connected to power grid. By 2002, power output reached to 80,000 MW and about 90 per
cent villages may get electricity.
Power Consumption: Electricity is used in villages chiefly for pumping water for
agriculture. Nearly 2/3rd of the electrical energy consumed in villages is used up by
agricultural pumping sets. Other uses of electricity in villages is for lighting and process
industries like rice hulling, flour milling, oil pressing, cane crushing, ginning, dairy industry
etc.
About 70 % of the electrical power in India is consumed by the industries and only 10 %
power is spared for a agriculture and related activities.
Concept Of Ecosystem, Biodiversity And Its Conservation, Environmental Pollution
And Their Control :
Ecosystem:An ecosystem includes all of the living things in an area, plus their surroundings,
plus all the ways in which they interact with each other.
Ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical
and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment.
Examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, a grassland.
Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise
the field of ecosystem ecology.
Processes of Ecosystems :Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is
transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including
photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is
dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled.
Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down.
Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy.
Transformation of Energy: the transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the
input of energy from the sun. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting of
water molecules) to produce carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high energy bonds
of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.
Biodiversity : The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial,
marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part;
this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems
or
Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur.
Types of Biodiversity :
1. Genetic diversity - GD refers to the variation of genes within species. This covers distinct
populations of the same species (such as the thousands of traditional rice varieties in India) or
genetic variation within a populations.
2. Species diversity - diversity between different species Or (Species diversity refers to the
variety of species within region.)
3. Ecosystem diversity – diversity within a region
Why Biodiversity is important?
Provides food, fodder, fruit, fuel, timber, medicine
1. Commercial value : Oil, Fertilizers etc. extracted from species of plants and animals.
2. Biological value: Pollination, Soil formation and Nutrient enrichment
3. Recreational Value: Can not be measured in terms of money.
4. Aesthetic Value: Art, Poetry, Literature.
5. Scientific Value: Gene Pool, Evolution and Human Welfare, etc,.
Solid waste management system, bod and cod of food plant waste, primary and
secondary treatment of food plant wastes :
Solid Waste:
Soild or semi-solid material(including gases and liquids in containers) which are
non-soluble in nature are called as soild waste. It may be hazardous or not, includes
agricultural refuse, demolition waste, industrial waste, minimg residues, municipal garbage
and sewage sludge.
Types of solid wastes:
Solids waste are classified into different types depending upon their source, they are
1. House hold waste or municipal waste: includes food, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, glass, metal , ashes , electronic waste etc..
2. Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals, oil debris from construction site, packaging
wastes, ashes etc..
3. Biomedical waste or hospital waste : medicine bottles , expired medicines, syringes
and medical instruments like scissors , blades etc.
4. Solids waste are classified into different types depending upon their source, they are
5. House hold waste or municipal waste: includes food, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, glass, metal, ashes, electronic waste etc.
6. Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals, oil debris from construction site, packaging
wastes, ashes etc.
7. Biomedical waste or hospital waste : medicine bottles , expired medicines, syringes
and medical instruments like scissors , blades etc.,
Classification of Wastes According to Their Properties:They are classified as
Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable materials :
1. Biodegradeble material which can be degraded & includes ( paper, wood , fruits and
others)
2. Non-Biodegradeable material includes which cannot be degraded & includes
(Plastics, bottles, old machines , cans, containers and others).