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HAPPY SPRING
March 20 2015 22:45 UT
5:45 PM CDT
Sunrise 7:05A
Sunset 7:12 P
allegancd
Svalbard, Norway
3/20/15
The Guardian
SCARCE METALS: Crustal abundance < 0.1 wt %
Base Metals:
Precious Metals:
Ferroalloy Metals:
Special Metals:
Cu
Au
Ni
Be
Pb
Ag
Mo
Bi
Zn Sn Hg Cd
PGE's
Cr W V Co
Cs Ga Ge Zr Li REE....
>99.9 wt % of these elements occur in solid-solution in common minerals
Pb++ for K+ in feldspar
Ni++ for Mg++ in Forsterite
Only small amounts of the natural inventory (<0.1 wt%) occur in ore minerals,
which require high concentrations to form
Mineralogical Barrier
Skinner, 1986 p. 99
Above barrier, ore minerals can form as localized concentrations,
especially as sulfides or oxides
When an ore mineral is present, can beneficate (produce concentration)
BASE METALS Cu Pb Zn Sn Hg Cd
Had "low value" to medieval alchemists, who attempted
to convert them into precious metals.
Actually, base metals have special & important properties
ABUNDANT METALS
Al
$ 0.80
Fe (scrap)
$ 0.14
8.2 %
5.6 %
FERROALLOY METALS
Ni
$ 6.17
Mo
$ 8.24
75 ppm
1.5 ppm
BASE METALS
Cu
Pb
Zn
Sn
Cd
Hg
55 ppm
13 ppm
70 ppm
2 ppm
0.2 ppm
80 ppb
$ 2.59
$ 0.78
$ 0.91
$ 7.78
($ 3.70)
($ 7.89)
PRECIOUS METALS
Ag
$
235
Au
$ 17,094
Pd
$ 11,197
Pt
$ 16,423
70 ppb
4 ppb
10 ppb
5 ppb
($ 16.13/oz)
($ 1171/oz)
($ 767/oz)
($ 1125/oz)
LME, IndexMundi,Bloomberg.com March 2015
Copper (2008)
Tin (2009)
indexmundi
Lead (2007)
Zinc (2009)
indexmundi
Mercury (2009)
Cadmium (2009)
indexmundi
Copper
$/mt
$3985
Oct08
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
indexmundi
BASE METALS METAL ELEMENT MINERAL
FORMULA
% METAL
Copper
Chalcopyrite
Bornite
Covellite
Chalcocite
Cuprite
Malachite
CuFeS2
Cu5FeS4
CuS
Cu2S
Cu2O
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
34.6
63.3
66.5
79.8
88.8
57.5
Zinc
Sphalerite
ZnS
67.1
Lead
Galena
PbS
86.6
Cadmium
Greenockite
CdS
77.8.
Tin
Cassiterite
SnO2
78.8
Mercury
Cinnabar
HgS
86.2
COPPER Red metal
Historically Important:
Copper Age ~4000 BC Malleable: weapons, tools, ornament....
Modern: Wire, pipes
Electrical conductivity only exceeded by Ag
Production = 11.2 x 106 tons 1995
Reserves = 500 x 106 metric tons,
Chile & USA most important, but 60 producing countries
Resources: Manganese Nodules (to 1-2% Cu) ~ 109 metric tons
equal to all on-land resources
OCCURRENCE: 0.0055 wt % in crust
Ore grade ~ 0.5 wt % = 90x concentration factor
Ore minerals (mostly sulfides)
Hydrothermal Veins, e.g., Butte MT
Porphyry Coppers
M-Vein, Casapalca, Peru
Ag Pb Cu Zn sulfides
Craig et al. 2001
Porphyry Cu Deposits: > 60% of world production
Metallic province (Ring of Fire)
esp. western margin of North & South America
Copper Quadralateral
Granite porphyry intrusions
shattered w/ small veinlets & disseminated metal (0.25 - 2 wt % Cu)
Mostly chalcopyrite; also Mo veinlets; Mo porphyries also exist
Huge: to 1 billion tons of ore, $ billions
Amenable to open pit mining (to >106 tons/day)
Used since 1899, DC Jackling & RC Gemmell proved bulk mining of
low grade materials was feasible
Oxide cap (Gossans): primary sulfides weather to Cu oxides
e.g. cuprite Cu2O) and Cu carbonates (e.g. malachite); sometimes rich ore
Supergene blanket- secondary enrichment @ water table; again very rich zones
Bingham Canyon, UT: World's largest pit- inverted mountain!
3.5 x 2.5 x 1 km
Mining to 100,000 tons/day of ore @ 0.3 wt % Cu, w/ 3:1 stripping ratio
Zonal alteration patterns
San Manuel-Kalamazoo ore body
COPPER QUADRALATERAL
Lamey 1966 p. 258
Morenci Pit from Markeen Mtn.
Criss
Blast Hole Drill with 180 t Haul Truck, 50 benches
12 Air Hammer 50 Hole in 20min
Criss
Morenci Mine
30 cu yd bucket and D9 CAT
Criss
180 ton
Criss
Conveyer, Morenci
Criss
Morenci smelter
Criss
Morenci dump
Criss
Chase Ck near Clifton AZ
Morenci Smelter in background
Melchiorre
Morenci tank house
Criss
SWEX Copper Sheets
200 lbs
Criss
Supergene
Enrichment
Faure 1991
Lowell & Guilbert 1970
Late
Cretaceous
San Manuel-Kalamazoo
Deposit, Arizona
Today
Lowell & Guilbert 1970
Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits: ~12% of world production
Products of submarine hot springs
"Black Smokers" along mid-ocean ridges, > 1500 m depth
350°C brines derived from seawater
Unusual fauna- tube worms, clams
Very rich: Pyrite Chalcopyrite Sphalerite Chimneys
3 AE to Present e.g. Cyprus (root word for copper)
Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Deposits: ~20% of world production
e.g. Kupferschiefer (Permian bituminous calcareous shale, unmetamorphosed;
~250 Ma Northern Europe, e.g. near Mansfeld, Germany
20 cm thick; >6000 km2 to 3% Cu (England to Poland)
Bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, pyrite
Syngenetic deposit- formed at or shortly after sediment deposition
=> Adsorption of elements from seawater?
=> Deep brine, replacing sedimentary pyrite ? (most likely idea)
Also Zambia; Zaire
Pb-Zn syngentic deposits- Mount Isa & Broken Hill, Australia
Byproduct Cu: Most of the rest of world production
In situ Cu: now prod. @ Casa Grande (S of Phoenix); San Manuel AZ; etc.
Use pH 2 water in injection wells
47°57 N
129°6 W
Cu, Zn sulfides
WHOII
Tube Worms, EPR 9°50 N
WHOI
LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS:
Pb: Batteries, Solder, Type
Paint & Tetraethyl lead (phasing out..Toxic!)
Zn: Galvanizing; also pigments, ointments, alloys, brass
OCCURRENCE: China, Australia, USA, Peru, Canada
Pb 0.0013 wt % ( = 10 ppm) in crust
Ore grade ~ 4.0 wt % = ~3000 x concentration factor
Mostly Galena PbS
Zn 0.0070 wt % in crust (70 ppm)
Ore grade ~ 2.5 wt % = ~360 x concentration factor
Mostly Sphalerite ZnS
Hydrothermal Veins
Mississippi Valley Type (MVT's)
Most important type- replacement of limestone breccias
Occur very far from igneous intrusions
Solutions expelled from sedimentary basins- transport over huge distances
MO- 3 world class districts: Old Pb Belt, Viburnum trend, Tri State District
Brines flowing above basement highs in Bonneterre limestone
Sediment - Hosted Stratiform Deposits:
again, Kupferschiefer; Sullivan BC; Broken Hill & Mt. Isa, Australia
Fletcher Mine
Missouri Rept Inv #58
Nonconformity
Cambrian dolostone
on Precambrian rhyolite
Taum Sauk powerplant, Missouri
Criss
Brushy Creek Mine
headframe
Melchiorre
Bonneterre Mine
Criss
Cobaltian Calcite
Bonneterre Mine
Galena
Brushy Creek Mine
Melchiorre
Galena PbS
ASARCO
ASARCO
Ball and Rod Mills
Criss
Flotation Cells and Rod Mill
Brushy Creek Mine
Criss
Glover Smelter
ASARCO
ASARCO
Pb tailings near Deslodge 8/10/96
pH 12-13
Criss
Monsanto Lake
Criss
NEW TECHNOLOGY!
FLUBOR process
Dissolve lead in fluorboric acid solution,
followed by electrowinning
Eliminates atmospheric release of lead and SO2
No slag
Engitec Inc.
StL PD 3/21/10 Lead Shot Tower
St. Louis
Hawker 1992 p. 205
Discontinued Uses of Lead
GM s Tetraethyl lead
Pb (CH2CH3)4
Ethyl Gasoline
Craig et al. 2001
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/leadtet/leadh.htm
Toxicity of Lead
Suspected by Greeks & Romans
Romans- lead pipes ( Plumbum ), dishes, cosmetics, coins
Benjamin Franklin (1724) Typesetters/hand washing connection
You will observe with Concern how long a useful Truth may
be known, and exist, before it is generally receiv d and practis d on.
Pb Poisoning: Blindness; Neurological damage; Cancer; Death
esp. children- Lowered IQ; Learning disabilities; Hyperactivity;
reduced attention span ….
CDC definition BLL ≥ 0.1 ppm
~ 1921 TEL GM, Standard Oil & DuPont
GM V.P. Charles Kettering & Engr. Thomas Midgley
After about a year s work in organic lead I find that my lungs have been affected
and that it is necessary to drop all work and get a large supply of fresh air.
Legacy: 7 million tons of Pb released in gasoline in USA, 1920-1986
World Lead: 300 - 500 x natural levels
78% drop in blood Pb levels 1978-1991
!
CADMIUM DEPOSITS
USES Plating; Batteries; Pigments
OCCURRENCE:
Cd 0.000018 wt % in crust = 180 ppb =0.18 ppm
Byproduct of Zn mining
Korea & China dominate production
NICKEL DEPOSITS: depleted in crust/ enriched in mantle
OCCURRENCE: Ni 0.0072 wt % in crust = 72 ppm
Ore grade 1% => 130x concn. Factor
Layered Igneous Complexes: Mafic & Ultramafic rocks
Sudbury, Ontario Meteorite impact site
Voisey s Bay near Nain, Labrador $3 billion US
110 million tons ore reserves, Ni Cu Co
=> 270 x106 lbs Ni and 200 x106 lbs Cu/y
Economical deposit: large, near surface, near coast
Nickel Laterites: form on nickeliferous peridotite
Craig et al. 2001
Nickel Laterite, New Caledonia
Park & MacDiarmid 1975
TIN DEPOSITS
Sn: Solders (35% of use) Bronze, pewter
Non-corrosive= tin cans,
OCCURRENCE: Sn 0.0002 wt % (=1.5 ppm) in crust
Ore grade ~ 0.2wt % = ~1000 x concentration factor
Mostly Cassiterite SnO2 (dense, stable mineral)
China, Indonesia, Bolivia, Peru, Malaysia
Placers (most important); Pegmatites; Skarns; Greisen Deposits
MERCURY DEPOSITS
Hg: Batteries (55%); Alloys= amalgams (Ag-Hg -dental) also switches; lab
OCCURRENCE: Hg 80 ppb in crust
Ore grade ~ 0.2wt % = ~25,000 x concentration factor!
Mostly Cinnibar HgS soft, red mineral
China (Spain, USA) = >90% of total
Reserves, resources small
Hydrothermal veins: Vapor deposition- opalites