Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal Research article ETHNOMEDICINAL SURVEY OF HERBACEOUS FLORA TRADITIONALLY USED IN HEALTH CARE PRACTICES BY INHABITANTS OF DHUNDSIR GAD WATERSHED OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA Sumati Rathore1, Tiwari J K2, Zubair A Malik3* 1,2,3 Department of Botany and Microbiology, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar (Garhwal) Uttarakhand246174 3 High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre (HAPPRC), HNB Garhwal University Srinagar (Garhwal) Uttarakhand-246174 *Corresponding Author, e-mail: [email protected]; Tel. +91 9634899743 Received: 12/02/2015; Revised: 25/03/2015; Accepted: 30/03/2015 ABSTRACT The aim of the present study was to document the indigenous and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by local inhabitants in Dhundsir Gad watershed area of Garhwal Himalaya. The intensive field surveys were carried out for collection and ethno-medicinal surveys of herbaceous flora of the study area. The ethno-medicinal data was gathered through interviews and semi structured questionnaires from the local people especially from women and elderly people. A total of 79 medicinally important herbaceous species belonging to 75 genera and 32 families were recorded in the study area. The leaves were used more frequently (37%) as compared to roots (24%), whole plants (23%) and seeds (8%). The plant species were used by local inhabitants for treating various ailments like asthma, cough, cold, fever, constipation, cuts/wounds etc. The precious traditional knowledge along with the phytochemical and pharmacological investigations to find out the active ingredients in the plants used by local people, may be a step ahead towards the new drug development. KEY WORDS: Ethnobotany, Traditional Knowledge, Medicinal Plants, Garhwal Himalaya. Cite this article: Sumati Rathore, Tiwari J K, Zubair A Malik (2015), ETHNOMEDICINAL SURVEY OF HERBACEOUS FLORA TRADITIONALLY USED IN HEALTH CARE PRACTICES BY INHABITANTS OF DHUNDSIR GAD WATERSHED OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 4(4): 65–78 Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 INTRODUCTION: The term ethnobotany was coined by John W. Harsberger in 1896 and was considered as the art of collection of useful plants by a group of people and the description of the uses of plants. Over the last century, ethnobotany has evolved into a scientific discipline that focuses on the people-plant relationship in a multidisciplinary manner, incorporating not only collection and documentation of indigenous uses but also ecology, economy, pharmacology, public health, and other disciplines (Gomez-Beloz, 2002). Ethnomedicine, a branch of ethnobotany, is a set of empirical local practices embedded in the indigenous knowledge of a social group often transmitted orally from generation to generation with intent to understand social, cultural, and economic factors influencing health problems and to overcome such problems (Bussmann and Sharon, 2006). The use of plants and plant products as medicine can be traced as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The earliest record of medicinal plant use in the Himalayas is found in the Rigveda. This work was written between 4500 BC and 1600 BC, is supposed to be the oldest repository of human knowledge and describes 67 plants (Rahul et al., 2010).Total 60% of the population of world and 80% of the population in developing countries rely on traditional medicine, mostly plant drugs, for their primary health care needs (Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003). An account of 70% of the population of India is dependent on traditional plant based medicines (Singh et al., 2013). The dependence on herbal resources to cure different types of diseases is well known. It has been estimated that there are between 3,500 and 70,000 plant species that have been used around the world, at one time or another, for medicinal purpose. At least 65,000 species are used in Asia alone as home remedies for various ailments (Karkri and Williams, 1999). In India, the importance of plants as medicine has not diminished in any way in recent times, and traditional medicines are still the most important health care source for the vast majority of the population living in remote and rural areas. India has the ancient indigenous knowledge of medicinal and herbal medicines accumulated through many centuries. This knowledge of curing human illness is based on different Indian systems of medicine, practiced by various communities such as Ayurveda, Unaniand Siddha (Gadgil, 1996). It is estimated that in India, traditional healers use around 2500 plant species in the preparation of traditional medicine (Pei, 2001). Garhwal Himalaya occupies an important place in Indian subcontinent and has a peculiar topography, vegetation, people and traditions. About 80% of the total population is rural and the inhabitants are called the Garhwalis or Paharis. Due to limited means of communication, poverty, and unavailability of modern health facilities, many people, especially in rural areas, still relies on traditional medicines to treat common ailments (Tiwari et al., 2010). However, this traditional knowledge about the use of medicinal plants is vanishing day by day and young generations do not pay any attention towards this vanishing knowledge. Ethnomedicinal studies that explore and help to preserve knowledge are therefore urgently needed before traditional folklores are lost forever. During the recent time, there has been an increasing interest in the study of medicinal plants and their traditional use in different parts of the world. The documentation of traditional knowledge aids in the preservation of indigenous culture, identifies threatened species and contributes to the conservation and management of plant diversity. The precious indigenous knowledge when supplemented and validated by the latest scientific incites can offer new holistic models of sustainable development that are economically viable, environmentally benign and socially acceptable (Shinwari and Gilani, 2003). Keeping the aforesaid facts in view, the present ethnomedicinal study was carried out in a part of Garhwal Himalaya to document the indigenous knowledge about the use of medicinal plants used by local inhabitants for curing various ailments. Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area: Garhwal Himalaya occupies central part of the western Himalaya between the latitude and longitude of 30°-31° N and 78°-81° E, respectively. The present study was carried out in a watershed called Dhundsir Gad in Garhwal Himalaya (Figure 1). The watershed is extended in a geographical area of about 50.5 sq. km and is located between 30° 13’ to 30° 23’ N latitudes and 78° 44’ to 78° 49’ E longitudes with the elevation ranging from 530 m to 2350 m asl. The study area is characterized by undulating topography. Agricultural fields are often terraced with less area and with various degrees of slopes. The study area is a remote and rural area of Garhwal Himalaya. There are 22 villages in the watershed with 1325 households. The greater concentration of population is between 12001600 m asl and the minimum inhibition is in the lower altitudinal zones because of deep and narrow valleys with steep slopes. Because of the limited employment opportunities, people of this region are dependent on the adjacent forests for their basic requirements, such as fuelwood, fodder, timber, medicinal plants, small timber for agricultural implements and other non timber forest products (NTFPs). Methodology: The study area was frequently visited for collection and ethnomedicinal surveys of herbaceous flora of Dhundsir Gad watershed. The ethno-medicinal data was gathered through interviews and semi structured questionnaires from the local people especially from women and elderly people having much traditional knowledge about use of medicinal plants. The questionnaires were used to obtain information on medicinal plants with their local names, parts used, ailment treated and mode of preparation. The collected plant specimens were identified with the help of local floras (Naithani, 1984-85; Gaur, 1999) and deposited in the Herbarium, Botany Department, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar (GUH). Figure 1: Map showing the location of study area Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 RESULTS A total of 79 medicinally important herbaceous species belonging to 75 genera and 32 families were recorded in the study area (Figure 2 and 3). The complete list of the recorded plant species with ethnomedicinal properties is given in Table 1. Most of these species (86.06%) belonged to dicots and monocots were represented by only a small percentage (13.92%) as depicted in Figure 4. The most privileged family used for the curing of disease was the Asteraceae (17%) followed by Lamiaceae (7.89%), Brassicaceae (6.57%), Fabaceae and Scrophulariaceae (5.26% each) etc. (Figure 5). Although all plant parts were used in various remedies (Figure 5) however, the leaves were used more frequently (37%) as compared to roots (24 %), seeds (8%), fruit (6%) and flowers (2%, Figure 6). The plant species were used by local inhabitants for treating various ailments like asthma, cough, cold, cholera, constipation, cuts/wounds, digestive disorders, fever, eye/ear diseases, rheumatism, toothache, etc. (Figure 7). It was observed that a particular disease (e.g. digestive disorder) was cured by many different plant species and, further, many plant species were reported to cure more than one ailments (Table 1). The disease that was cured by maximum number of plants (20) was “Cuts and Wounds”, followed by fever and skin ailments (11 each), asthma/bronchitis and digestive disorders (by 8 plants each) and so on (Figure 6). The disorder of “Hair fall” was cured by minimum number of plant species (3). Figure 2: Total numbers of families, genera and species of plants having medicinal values 79 75 32 Families Genera Species Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Figure 3: Medicinal Plants in the study area 1: Anagalis arvensis, 2: Iris kumaonensis 3: Verbascum Thapsus, 4: Tridex procumbens , 5: Ajuga bracteosa, 6: Capsella bursa-pastoris, 7: Mentha arvensis, 8: Sauromatum pedatum. Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Figure 4: Percentage of various taxonomic categories of dicots and monocots in the study area Species Genera Families 86.06 86.66 Dicots 81.25 13.92 13.33 Monocots 18.75 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage (%) Figure 5: Major families used for ethnomedicinal purpose 18 16 Percentage (%) 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 Amaranthaceae Apiaceae Araceae Asteraceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Caryophyllaceae Crassulaceae Cucurbitaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Fumariaceae Geraniaceae Hypoxidaceae Iridaceae Lamiaceae Liliaceae Malvaceae Menispermaceae Oxalidaceae Papaveraceae Poaceae Polygonaceae Primulaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Saxifragaceae Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae Urticaceae Violaceae Zingiberaceae 0 Families Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Figure 6: Statistics of plant parts used 2% 24% 23% 6% 8% 37% Roots Leaves Seeds Fruit Whole plants Figure 7: Number of plants used for treating various diseases Number of Plant Species 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Diseases Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Flowers Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Table 1: List of medicinal plants traditionally used by the inhabitants of Dhundsir Gad watershed of Garhwal Himalaya, India Botanical Name of the plant Local Name Altitude Parts used Ailment used for Dicotyledons Amaranthaceae Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Bl. Bijdr. Sufed phulia 600-1000 Whole plant Urinary disorders and inflammation Apiaceae Centella asiatica L. 800-1000 Brahmi butti Asteraceae Whole plant Skin ailments Ageratum conyzoides L. Gundrya 1000-1500 Bugla 1500-2000 Cuts and wounds, skin ailments Cuts and wounds, boils 600-2500 Circium wallichi DC. Echinops cornigerus DC. Kumur, kurei Kandra Kandara 1500-2200 Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Roots Roots Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel. Gnaphalium hypoleucum DC. Basha / Bakura Buglya 500-1800 Leaves 600-1000 Whole plant Inula cappa (Buch – Ham. ex D. Don) DC. Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Manz. Senecio graciliflorus DC. Athhu / Tamagari Murang 1200-2000 Roots 1200-1800 Kikret 2500-3500 Pili - dudhi Genda 1000-3000 Leaves, roots Whole plant Leaves Flower, leaves Leaves Anaphalis adnata Wallich ex DC. Bidens pilosa L. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Tagetes erecta L. Tridex procumbens L. Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wallich ex Benth. Capsella bursa-pastoris L. Coronopus didymus (L.) J. Smith 1300-3000 500-1800 600-1000 Kumra Boraginaceae 1500-2500 Lichkura Brassicaceae 400-1800 Tuntkya - 600-1300 Cough and bronchitis Dysentery and chest pain Fever, emergence of teeth in infants Cuts and wounds Cuts and wounds, supposed to increase lactation when applied on breasts Urinary disorders Fever, cuts and wounds Insect bites, cuts and wounds Cuts and wounds Cuts and wounds Cuts and wounds Roots Digestive disorders Roots, leaves Gonorrhoea, urinary troubles, cuts and wounds Cuts, wounds and inflammation Leaves Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Raphanus sativus L. 900-2000 Muli 800-1000 1500-2500 Maula Caryophyllaceae Thlaspi arvense L. Gypsophila cerastioides Don Silene conoidea L. - D. Stellaria media L. Bakarchee 1500-2700 Tumriya – ghas Badyalu 700-2100 600-1650 Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Constipation Whole plant Leaves Boils, cuts/wounds Whole plant Boils, cuts/wounds Leaves Cuts, wounds and inflammation Fever, bronchitis and liver disorders Cuts and wounds Skin infections Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum Lam. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Hort. Trichosanthes anguina L. 800-1500 Bish Khapru Cucurbitaceae 900-1400 Kaduri 1000-1800 Chachinda Euphorbiaceae 1600-2800 Chuplya Euphorbia pilosa L. Leaves, roots, fruit Leaves, roots Diabetes, skin ailments and gonorrhoea Diarrhoea Roots, fruits Constipation Seeds, roots Seeds Constipation and blood purifier Blood purifier Seeds Young plants, fruits Diarrhoea and dysentery Abdominal pains and diabetes Leaves Cuts and wounds Roots Ophthalmia and hair fall Fabaceae Crotolaria albida Heyne ex Roth. Crotolaria juncea L. Melilotus indica (L.) Allioni Trigonella corniculata L. Fumaria indica (Haussknecht) Pugsley Geranium wallichianum Don ex Sweet D. Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex Benth Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Sprengel. Mentha arvensis L. Micromeria biflora (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) Benth. Ban-methi 1300-1700 Jhun – jhunia Ban – Methi Ban – Methi 700-1200 1200-1500 1800-4000 Fumariaceae 400-1500 Pit- papra Geraniaceae 2300-3000 Ratanjot, Laljari Lamiaceae Neelkanthi 1000-1500 Leaves Fever Gumba 1200-1500 Antidote to snake bite Pudina Ban Ajwain 500-1500 Whole plant Leaves Leaves 800-2000 Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Digestive disorders Cold and digestive disorders Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Nepeta ciliaris Wallich ex Benth. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Nueet 600-2000 Tulsi 1500-2000 Leaves, seeds Leaves Fever Gonorrhoea, cuts and wounds Dysentery, cuts and wounds Boils, cuts/wounds and joint pains Fever, cough cold, urinary disorders Malvaceae Soncheli 1500-2000 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Sida rhombifolia L. Suchi 600-1300 Leaves, seeds Leaves Bhinuli 700-1000 Leaves Cissampelos parerira L. Menispermaceae 500-2000 Pahre Roots Constipation and gastric troubles Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 1600-2700 Chalmori Leaves Cataract and conjunctivitis Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae 400-1200 Pili Kateli Seeds, roots Seeds used as narcotic, root used as wormicide and chewed in leucorrhoea Leaves, seeds Roots Abdominal pains Hair fall Leaves Cuts and wounds Roots Whole plant Roots Toothache Fever, asthma, skin ailments Ophthalmia, fever and abdiminal pains Whole plant Leprosy Leaves, fruits Leaves, fruits Diarrhoea and dysentery Malva parviflora L. Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Polygonum recumbens Royle ex Bab. Rumex hastatus D.Don. Delphinium ajacis L. Ranunculus arvensis L. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Anagallis arvensis L. Polygonaceae 1800-2700 Phaphar 1200-2800 Oglya – Jhar 600-1600 Kilmori Ranunculaceae 1000-3000 Nirbishi 1200-2500 Kirmuli Primulaceae 600-1000 Jonkmari Rosaceae Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Fock. Fragaria nubicola Lindley ex Lacaita. Bhiun – kaphal Gand – Kaphal 600-1500 1600-3500 Earache Rubiaceae Galium aparine L. Kuri, Khuskusa 1000-2700 Leaves Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Skin diseases Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Berginia ciliata Haworth Bacopa monnieri L. Saxifragaceae 1000-3000 Silpara Scrophulariaceae Ban - Brahmi 700-1200 Kickxia ramosissima (Wallich) Janchen. Mazus pumilus Burm.f. - 1500-2500 Mastyar 700-2500 Verbascum thapsus L. Akulbir 800-2800 Rhizome, leaves Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Digestive disorders and skin ailments Rheumatic pains Diabetes Burns, cuts and wounds, Abdominal pains Asthma, bronchitis Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. 1600-2200 Makoi Whole plant Piles, dysentary, diarrhoea, fever, eye ailments 1500-1800 Leaves Gonorrhoea 1000-1800 Leaves 1000-3000 Leaves Gonorrhoea, stomachache, cuts and boils Hair fall Urticaceae Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis. Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Bennett & Brown. Jhir – Kandali Urtica dioica L. Bicchu ghas Violaceae Viola biflora L. Vanafsa 2800-3000 Viola canescens Wallich Vanafsa, Kauru 2000-3000 Viola pilosa Blume. Vanafsa 2500-3000 Whole plant Whole plant Flower, leaves Cold and cough Malarial fever, bronchitis, asthma, cuts/wounds Cough, cold, headache and jaundice Monocotyledons Araceae Sauromatum pedatum Willd. Hypoxis aurea Lour. 500-1800 Bhasma – Kand Hypoxidaceae 1800-2500 Golkya Iridaceae 2000-3500 Iris kumaonensis D.Don ex Royle Tuber Cuts, wounds and inflammation Leaves Used as an aphrodisiac Rhizome Constipation Liliaceae Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Pyaz 400-1800 Lehsun 500-2100 Whole plant Bulb, leaves Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Digestive and skin ailments Respiratory and digestive disorders Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 Lilium wallichianum J.A. & J.H. Schultes 500-1800 Findura Flowers Fever Roots Roots Leaves Fever and internal injury Cuts and wounds Asthma and cholera Rhizome Digestive disorders and skin ailments Asthma, cold cough, tuberculosis. Seeds believed to cause abortion Poaceae Cynodon dactylon L. Phalaris minor Retz. Saccharum spontaneum L. Curcuma domestica Valeton Hedychium spicatum Buch. – Ham. ex J.E. Smith 400-1800 Bhoob 700-1300 Phulla 400-1200 Munj Zingiberaceae 900-1500 Haldi Ban-Haldi DISCUSSION The present study documented 79 medicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Dhundsir Gad watershed area of Garhwal Himalaya. It reveals that the denizens of the area prefer using herbal drugs for primary health care, even the health facilities are available nearby. The study has confirmed the fact that ethnomedicine presents an alternative source of healthcare for most rural dwellers. The local people have good knowledge of medicinal plants. Since such knowledge is still mostly taught orally without written records, there is need to conduct a similar survey in as many rural areas as possible. Due to the changing perception of local people and the ever-increasing influence of global commercialization and socioeconomic transformation, indigenous knowledge of plant resource use is constantly diminishing. The younger generation does not seem much interested in keeping this traditional knowledge alive. With the passage of time, knowledge about these valuable medicinal plant resources will vanish. In the future, the information will be completely lost, thereby greatly weakening traditional medical practices. Therefore, this valuable information needs to be systematically collected and documented, so that it can serve mankind for generations to come and may also conserve the precious plant resources of high economic utility. Further, phytochemical and pharmacological 1000-1800 Root investigations about the medicinal use of plants, along with the precious traditional knowledge may be a step ahead towards the new drug development. The most commonly used parts of ethnomedicinal plants in the present study comprised of leaves (37%), roots (24%), whole plants (23%), seeds (8%), fruit (6%) and flowers (2%). Bhat et al., (2013) while studying the ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in a protected area of Garhwal Himalaya, also reported that most frequently used parts of medicinal plants were leaves (32%), roots (24%), whole plants or plant (13%), followed by fruits (9%) and seeds and flowers (6% each). Based on their studies from east African equatorial country, Keter and Mutiso (2012) reported that leaves were the most frequently used plant parts (48%) followed by stem bark (16%), roots and root bark (10%), while the fruits, whole plant, and aerial parts accounted for less than 10% for each. Akhtar et al., (2013) also reported from Pakistan that the most frequently used plant parts in the preparation of herbal remedies were leaves (29%), followed by fruit (18%), roots and rhizomes (17%), and whole plants (7%). Uttarakhand state of India is the hub of medicinal plants species due to its rich biodiversity. The state has tremendous potential for medicinal plants cultivation and it can become one to the important options for Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI || Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 4, Issue 4 | April 2015 | 65–78 sustainable livelihood for the hilly area. About 300 medicinal plants species have been documented from Uttarakhand, indicating its potential as an herbal state and for strengthening herbal-based industry in this region (Kala et al., 2004). New approaches of biotechnology and conservation strategy can help preserve and utilize the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants for humankind. used by local inhabitants in a part of Western Himalaya, India. Indigenous knowledge systems are culturally valued and scientifically important. The identification of the active ingredients of the plants used by the local people may provide some useful leads for the development of new drugs. CONCLUSION The authors are thankful to the residents of study area for sharing their knowledge and cooperation during the field surveys and interviews. The study provides comprehensive information about the degrading indigenous and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants ACKNOWLEDGMENT REFERENCES Akhtar N, Rashid A, Murad W, Bergmeier, E (2013). Diversity and use of ethnomedicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed , 9:25. Ballabha R, Singh D, Tiwari JK, Tiwari P (2013). Diversity and availability status of ethno-medicinal plants in the Lohba range of Kedarnath Forest Division (KFD), Garhwal Himalaya, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., 2(4): 198–212. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW (2013). Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 9(1):1. Gadgil M, Rao PRS (1998). Nurturing Biodiversity: An Indian Agenda. 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