1. art and entertainment
2. visual art and design
3. design

Goal
11
Improving Comprehension
in Fiction and Nonfiction
Understanding Vocabulary
and Figurative Language
• Why is this goal important?
A reader’s ability to understand vocabulary and language in a text has been empirically
linked to reading comprehension, which is why instruction around words and language
deserves such a prominent place in our classrooms (Baumann and Kame’enui 1991;
Becker 1977; Stanovich 1986; Beck, McKeown, and Kucan 2013). Vocabulary is one of
five core components of reading instruction that are essential for successfully teaching children how to read (National Reading Panel 2000). Vocabulary knowledge helps
students access background knowledge, express ideas, communicate effectively, and
learn about new concepts. “Vocabulary is the glue that holds stories, ideas, and content
together . . . making comprehension accessible for children” (Rupley, Logan, and
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Nichols 1998/99). In fact, research shows that if students are truly to understand what
they read, they must be able to understand, not only decode, upward of 95 percent of
the words (Betts 1946; Carver 1994; Hsueh-chao and Nation 2000; Laufer 1988).
Given the research on the link between comprehension and vocabulary knowledge, many schools have rushed to implement vocabulary programs. Although some
students learn words this way, research actually suggests that most word learning
occurs unconsciously and through normal reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Miller 1999; Nagy, Anderson, and Herman 1987; Krashen 2004; Baumann,
Kame’enui, and Ash 2003). Therefore, teachers can do a lot to support their students’
vocabulary goals by creating a classroom in which children read a lot, are encouraged
to notice when words are new, learn strategies for figuring out what those words may
mean, and are encouraged to use those words when they write and speak.
In their new book, Cobb and Blachowicz (2014) note that there are multiple aspects
of comprehensive vocabulary instruction—fostering word consciousness, teaching
individual words, providing rich and varied language experiences, and teaching wordlearning strategies. Most of the strategies in this chapter will help students with the
first and final aspects—fostering consciousness (or monitoring for meaning as they
read to notice when a word or phrase the author uses is new) and learning new words
and phrases by figuring them out when they encounter them in their reading. Some
strategies in this chapter are also to help encourage students to use the word(s) once
they figure out their meanings, as research has shown that this is an important part of
getting the words to “stick” and become a part of the child’s own vocabulary.
• How do I know if this goal is right
for my student?
There are a few ways you can determine that a focus on vocabulary and figurative language would best benefit a given student. One is to assess a student’s overall
word knowledge. You can use a standardized word knowledge assessment to gather
whether the student’s word knowledge is appropriate for his or her age or grade.
What’s also important in determining this to be a worthy goal is to ask a child to define
and/or explain the meaning of a previously unknown word that you highlight in a longer
text passage. You’ll want to choose to ask about words and/or phrases with appropriate
contextual support—words that are defined within the text or words whose meaning can
be figured out by looking closely at or reading an illustration or text feature. The intention here is not to assess a child’s existing vocabulary knowledge, but rather his or her
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ability to read for clues and details, and to infer or deduce the meaning of the word. A
student whose general vocabulary knowledge isn’t great, but who can figure out meanings on the run through use of context will develop a richer vocabulary by continuing to
do what he or she does and by increasing his or her overall volume of reading.
Evaluate what the student tells you or writes about when asked to explain the
meaning of a word or phrase. A student who has a misunderstanding, or one who
gives a simple yet accurate “gist” of a definition, may benefit from this goal. Students
who are able to describe or explain the meaning of a word or phrase with detail from
the text are usually solid in this area. See the sample rubrics for level O (Figures 11.A
and 11.B); level-specific rubrics can be found in Independent Reading Assessment
series (Serravallo 2012, 2013a). Keep in mind that the depth of student responses
should vary depending on the level of the text, the complexity of the words, and the
amount of contextual support provided.
What does it mean in
this scene when the
nurse is “cool as a
cantaloupe”?
(from Chocolate Fever
by Robert Smith
[2006]—
Level O)
Exceptional
Proficient
Approaching
She stays calm and
tells everyone what
to do and where to go
when the others are
panicking.
All calm, relaxed.
She’s really cool; like,
kids like her.
(Synthesizes the larger
context to explain the
meaning of a word or
phrase)
(Uses immediate
context to accurately
define the word or
phrase)
(Demonstrates a
partial understanding;
may borrow language
directly from the text)
Figure 11.A Rubric for Evaluating Responses to Vocabulary and Figurative Language Questions
in Fiction (Independent Reading Assessment: Fiction series [Serravallo 2012])
Exceptional
Explain what
antibodies are.
(from Germs Make Me
Sick! by Melvin Berger
[1995]—Level O)
Proficient
Approaching
Antibodies are
something that are in
your body all the time.
They look like plants.
They attack germs so
you don’t get sick.
A special protein that
protects you from
germs.
Antibodies don’t
always get rid of the
germs.
(Demonstrates
deep understanding
of the term using
information from
across multiple parts
of the text; explains
and/or describes the
meaning)
(A precise, accurate
definition using
information from one
portion of the text)
(Shows a partial
understanding and/
or language borrowed
directly from the text)
Figure 11.B Rubric for Evaluating Responses to Vocabulary and Figurative Language Questions
in Nonfiction (Independent Reading Assessment: Nonfiction series [Serravallo 2013a])
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Strategies for Understanding Vocabulary
and Figurative Language at a Glance
Strategy
Levels
Genres/
Text Types
11.1 Retire Overworked Words
E and above
Any
Word choice, inferring, using words in
a correct context
11.2 Say It Out Loud
E and above
Any
Decoding, word recognition
11.3 Insert a Synonym
H and above
Any
Activating prior knowledge,
monitoring for meaning
11.4 Categorize Context with Connectors
J and above
Any
Inferring, synthesizing
11.5 Multiple Meaning Words
J and above
Any
Monitoring for meaning, inferring
11.6 Look to Text Features
J and above
Nonfiction
Synthesizing, inferring, monitoring for
meaning
11.7 Picture It
J and above
Fiction, poetry,
narrative
nonfiction
Inferring, visualizing
11.8 Word Part Clues—Prefixes and Suffixes
K and above
Any
Understanding how words work
11.9 Stick to Your Story
K and above
Fiction
Inferring, monitoring for meaning
11.10 Use Part of Speech as a Clue
L and above
Any
Inferring
11.11 Infer to Figure It Out
L and above
Any
Inferring
11.12 Mood as a Clue to Meaning
L and above
Fiction (mostly)
Inferring
11.13 Use the Just-Right Word (Trait Word Sort)
M and above
Fiction (mostly)
Inferring
11.14 Know the Word, Use the Word
M and above
Any
Using words in a correct context,
word choice.
11.15 Context + Clues = Clarity
M and above
Any
Inferring, synthesizing
11.16 Be Word Conscious
M and above
Any
Monitoring for meaning
11.17 Word Relationships in a Phrase
M and above
Poetry, fiction
(mostly)
Inferring
11.18 Help from Cognates
M and above
Any
Inferring
11.19 It’s Right There in the Sentence!
M and above
Nonfiction
(mostly)
Synthesizing
11.20 Use a Reference and Explain It
O and above
Any
Using references, inferring based on
context
11.21 Find Similarities (and Differences) Within Groups
P and above
Any
Inferring
11.22 Read Up a Ladder
P and above
Nonfiction
Inferring, synthesizing
11.23 Be Alert for Word Choice
R and above
Fiction, poetry
Inferring
11.24 Get to the Root
R and above
Any
Understanding how words work,
inferring
Skills
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11.23 Be Alert for Word Choice
Who is this for?
Levels
R and above
Genre / Text Type
fiction, poetry
skill
Decoding, using
Structure as a Source
skill
of Information
inferring
Strategy Find or figure out the definition of the word. Think about the context.
Ask yourself, “What’s the feeling, mood, tone, or connotation of the word, based on
how it’s used?”
Lesson Language Words that authors use may have a denotative meaning and a
connotative meaning. That is, when we look up a word in a dictionary we can find the
technical definition of the word, but the word may also carry some unofficial meanings,
or layers of meaning, as well. We can read alert to descriptive language that might communicate something deeper than what the word literally means. For example, the words
youthful or juvenile both mean young, but carry different layered meanings. Youthful
is often positive, and communicates a “full of life” kind of feeling. On the other hand,
juvenile usually is used in a negative way to communicate someone who acts young
and immature when they should act more mature. You can stop to think about why the
author chose the precise word she or he did, and what that word choice is helping you to
understand about what’s being described.
Prompts
•Based on how the word is
used, do you feel like it’s
got a positive
or negative connotation?
•Why do you think the
author chose this word?
•What other words would
work here? Think about
why the author chose
this one instead.
•That’s what it literally
means. What other
layers of meaning are
in this word?
Hat Tip: Vocabulary Is
Comprehension: Getting to
the Root of Text Complexity
(Robb 2014)
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