1. art and entertainment
2. music
3. music reference
4. music composition and theory

Harmony
Table of Contents
INTERVALS ........................................................................................................... 7
THE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MUSIC CONCEPTS ............................................................................. 7
INTERVALS (SOUND-ASPECT) .................................................................................................................... 8
NATURAL INTERVALS .................................................................................................................................. 9
Sound-Aspect within Intervals................................................................................................................................. 9
Neutral .................................................................................................................................... 9
Consonant .............................................................................................................................. 9
Dissonant................................................................................................................................ 9
Neutral Intervals ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
Neutral .................................................................................................................................. 10
Consonant ............................................................................................................................ 10
Dissonant.............................................................................................................................. 10
SIMPLE HARMONY............................................................................................. 11
SUGGESTIONS FOR MOVEMENTS........................................................................................................... 11
HARMONIZING ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Add 2nd Voice ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Add 3rd voice........................................................................................................................................................... 11
Add 4th voice........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Inversions ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
THE OVERTONES ...................................................................................................................................... 12
The Temperated Tonal System ............................................................................................................................ 13
The Overtones and The Major Triad .................................................................................................................... 13
CHORDS .............................................................................................................. 14
TRIADS........................................................................................................................................................ 14
THE CONSTITUTION OF CHORDS ............................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 1 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 2 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 3 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 4 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 5 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 6 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Paragraph 7 ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
TURNS AND ARPEGGIO ............................................................................................................................ 16
Determination of Chords ....................................................................................................................................... 16
MODAL ASPECTS ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Modal Aspects of the 6 basic triad chords ........................................................................................................... 17
SOUND-ASPECTS ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
Sound-aspects within chords ................................................................................................................................ 18
Consonant ............................................................................................................................ 18
Neutral .................................................................................................................................. 18
Dissonant.............................................................................................................................. 18
DESCRIPTION OF CHORDS ...................................................................................................................... 19
3 Part Chords ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
4 Part Chords ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
5 Part Chords ......................................................................................................................................................... 20
6 Part Chords ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
7 Part Chords ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
CHORD TABLE............................................................................................................................................ 22
Other Chord Symbols ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Translation of the French Note Names ............................................................................. 26
JAZZ CHORD SYMBOLS ............................................................................................................................ 27
Special Problems in Chord Notation..................................................................................................................... 27
Changes in the Chord Reflected in Notation ....................................................................................................... 28
Alternative bass note (other than prim): ............................................................................ 28
Added Notes......................................................................................................................... 28
Accidentals ........................................................................................................................... 28
Shorthand Chord Symbols .................................................................................................. 28
Temporary Pause In Third Based Harmony ........................................................................................................ 28
Bitonal Chords ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
Various Peculiarities .............................................................................................................................................. 28
CHORD BOXES (FRET DIAGRAMS) ................................................................. 30
MAJOR CHORD BOXES ............................................................................................................................. 30
MINOR CHORD BOXES .............................................................................................................................. 34
MOVABLE CHORD BOXES, ADVANCED JAZZ .......................................................................................... 38
OTHER CHORD FORMS ..................................................................................... 39
CLUSTERS OF 1/1 NOTES ......................................................................................................................... 39
CLUSTERS OF 1/2 NOTES ......................................................................................................................... 39
ALTERNATIVE CHORDS ............................................................................................................................ 40
Stacks of Quarters ................................................................................................................................................. 40
“Spontaneous” fourth stacks .............................................................................................. 40
Stacks of Fifths ...................................................................................................................................................... 41
FUNCTIONAL HARMONY ................................................................................... 42
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONAL HARMONY .................................................................................... 43
THE CONSTITUTION OF FUNCTIONAL HARMONY .................................................................................. 43
Paragraph 1 ............................................................................................................................................................ 43
Paragraph 2 ............................................................................................................................................................ 43
Paragraph 3 ............................................................................................................................................................ 43
DOMINANT .................................................................................................................................................. 44
SUBDOMINANT........................................................................................................................................... 44
DOUBLE DOMINANT / SUBDOMINANT...................................................................................................... 45
Harmonic double functions .................................................................................................................................... 45
MAJOR / MINOR PARALLEL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................. 45
2
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
BLUES FUNCTIONS.................................................................................................................................... 46
Harmonic blues functions ...................................................................................................................................... 46
NEAPOLITAN CHORDS .............................................................................................................................. 47
The Neapolitan function family.............................................................................................................................. 47
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS IN ONE KEY ....................................................................................................... 48
Table of Functions ................................................................................................................................................. 48
Shorthand Acronyms ........................................................................................................... 49
TABLE OF MODAL ASPECTS..................................................................................................................... 49
Modal examples within functional harmony ...................................................................... 50
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 50
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHORD FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................... 50
TONIC ..................................................................................................................................................................... 50
DOMINANT ............................................................................................................................................................ 50
SUBDOMINANT .................................................................................................................................................... 50
Double Functions ................................................................................................................................................... 51
Dim Functions ........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Blues Functions...................................................................................................................................................... 51
Functions within Purely Modal Scales .................................................................................................................. 51
Functions within modal scales classified on scale steps .................................................................................... 52
Other Functional Terms......................................................................................................................................... 52
The Number System.............................................................................................................................................. 53
The Classical System ............................................................................................................................................ 53
My Suggestion ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
A Special Problem in Functional Harmony .......................................................................................................... 54
HARMONIC CADENCES .................................................................................... 55
TENSION LEVELS OF CHORD FUNCTIONS.............................................................................................. 55
STANDARD CADENCES ............................................................................................................................. 55
CADENCE OSTINATOS .............................................................................................................................. 57
"Simple 5-member Cadence of the Subdominant Type" .................................................................................... 57
OTHER CADENCES .................................................................................................................................... 58
Fade ........................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Rhythmical Cadence.............................................................................................................................................. 58
Rhythmical Cadences ............................................................................................................................................ 59
Linear Cadence ...................................................................................................................................................... 59
ADVANCED JAZZ CHORDS ............................................................................... 60
REHEARSING THE CHORDS ..................................................................................................................... 60
ROCK AND JAZZ TERMINOLOGY.............................................................................................................. 60
FUNCTIONAL HARMONY / DIATONIC TRIADS.......................................................................................... 60
SEVENTH CHORDS (4 PARTS) .................................................................................................................. 62
SIXTH CHORDS (4 / 5 PARTS) ................................................................................................................... 63
SUS CHORDS ............................................................................................................................................. 63
CHORDS WITH ADDED NOTES ................................................................................................................. 64
EXTENDED CHORDS ................................................................................................................................. 64
NINTH CHORDS (5 PARTS) ........................................................................................................................ 65
DOUBLE-ALTERED CHORDS ..................................................................................................................... 66
ELEVENTH CHORDS (6 PARTS) ................................................................................................................ 66
THIRTEENTH CHORDS (7 PARTS) ............................................................................................................ 67
STACKED CHORDS .................................................................................................................................... 67
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
3
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
POLYCHORDS ............................................................................................................................................ 67
A TRANSITION .................................................................................................... 68
TRANSITIVE HARMONY (MODULATION) ......................................................... 69
POSSIBLE MODULATIONS BETWEEN 2 KEYS ......................................................................................... 70
Function Shift ......................................................................................................................................................... 70
Non-Functional Steps ............................................................................................................................................ 70
Major to Minor ........................................................................................................................................................ 70
THE TRANSITIVE PRINCIPLES .................................................................................................................. 70
Function Shift ......................................................................................................................................................... 70
FUNCTION SHIFTS (TRANSITIVE HARMONY) .......................................................................................... 71
NON-FUNCTIONAL STEPS ......................................................................................................................... 73
Lower or raise ........................................................................................................................................................ 73
Guidelines Function Shift ...................................................................................................................................... 74
Find the First Key ................................................................................................................ 74
Compare Intervals in Key I and Key Ii ............................................................................... 74
Find the Function Shifts ...................................................................................................... 74
Search both Forwards and Backwards in the Melody ..................................................... 74
Blues Chords .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
"The Ravel Step" – "# Minor 3" ............................................................................................................................ 75
EPILOGUE TO TRANSITIVE HARMONY .................................................................................................... 75
ORCHESTRATION TUTOR ................................................................................. 76
THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA SCORE .................................................................................................... 77
A Very Simple Score Layout ................................................................................................................................. 78
THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA ......................................................................... 79
Woodwinds ............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Transverse Flute .................................................................................................................. 80
Piccolo Flute......................................................................................................................... 81
Oboe ..................................................................................................................................... 81
English Horn ......................................................................................................................... 82
Clarinet ................................................................................................................................. 83
Bass Clarinet ........................................................................................................................ 84
Bassoon ................................................................................................................................ 85
Saxophone ........................................................................................................................... 86
Brass ....................................................................................................................................................................... 87
French Horn ......................................................................................................................... 87
Trumpet................................................................................................................................. 88
Trombone ............................................................................................................................. 89
Tuba ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Percussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 91
Other ....................................................................................................................................................................... 92
Harp ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Piano ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Strings ..................................................................................................................................................................... 94
4
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
Violin ..................................................................................................................................... 94
Viola ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Cello ...................................................................................................................................... 96
Double Bass ......................................................................................................................... 97
GOOD ORCHESTRATION PRACTICES ..................................................................................................... 98
Number of Duplicate Instruments ......................................................................................................................... 98
Woodwinds ........................................................................................................................... 98
Brass ..................................................................................................................................... 98
Percussion ............................................................................................................................ 98
Strings ................................................................................................................................... 98
Strings and Woodwinds......................................................................................................................................... 99
String Chord Texture ........................................................................................................................................... 107
Arpeggio Strings................................................................................................................................................... 108
Woodwinds and Brass ......................................................................................................................................... 108
Fat and Thin Textures ......................................................................................................................................... 113
Tutti ....................................................................................................................................................................... 116
A “Floating” Score without a pulse...................................................................................................................... 122
OTHER HARMONIC SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 126
PARALLELISM........................................................................................................................................... 126
Parallelism non-functional, parallel chord movements ...................................................................................... 126
Main rules ............................................................................................................................126
POLYHARMONY / BITONALITY ................................................................................................................ 127
Polyharmony (bitonal chord relations) ................................................................................................................ 127
Bitonality - example ............................................................................................................128
CHORD ROWS.......................................................................................................................................... 129
Fourth Rows ......................................................................................................................................................... 129
Fifth Rows ............................................................................................................................................................ 129
NON-FUNCTIONAL HARMONY / COLOUR CHORDS .............................................................................. 129
INDEX HARMONY ............................................................................................. 131
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
5
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ
Volume 1 – Music Theory
4 of 5 documents
ISBN 9788791995071
4th Edition, 1st Issue
Autumn 2007 Produced in Denmark
Digital Books™ is a trademark of
NORDISC Music & Text, DK-2700 Broenshoej, Denmark
www.nordisc-music.com
Text, notes, musical examples Illustrations, layout and concept
© Copyright H.W. Gade 1984-2007
6
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
Absolute Harmony
Intervals
THE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MUSIC CONCEPTS
Until now we have only mentioned of music moving in linear direction, i.e. on a horizontal level. But 2 or more melodies moving on separate tonal levels create a linear movement and a sound, i.e. a horizontal and a vertical sound. We distinguish between two
sorts of classical music; polyphonic (multiple-part) and homophonic (single part) music. The fugues of Bach are polyphonic music, where the interplay between individual
voices is the predominant feature. Homophonic music on the contrary consists of one single melody with harmonies, and the last 100 years and more have been, by and large,
purely homophonic. We live in the centuries of the chords.
To understand what a vertical sound, a "chord" is, you must understand what an interval is. If you have
studied classical Musical Theory before, you might have to consider the whole consonance/dissonance
concept anew. Especially in this field, classical Musical Theory does fall short compared to the reality of
the music of the living.
Interval
An interval is a given distance between 2 notes either
played simultaneously or in a row.
The following examples show all the common intervals. The examples are divided into 3 levels: neutral, consonant and dissonant. These "sound-aspects" will be explained in details in the next sections. The intervals marked with a red box are “natural” (see Overtones).
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
7
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
INTERVALS (SOUND-ASPECT)
8
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
(Intervals, sound-aspect continued)
Listen to the Notes
NATURAL INTERVALS
A natural interval is traditionally the term for the two basic 2 intervals, the fifth (5) and the fourth (4),
i.e. the two principle elements of functional harmony, the dominant (the fifth) and the subdominant (the
fourth) (see Functional harmony). These two intervals also happen to be the original "mother intervals",
from which Western harmony emerged.
Sound-Aspect within Intervals
A very important property of intervals is their sound ("colour"). There are 3 aspects:
Neutral
Enharmonic notes (B / C and E# / F) Basic intervals prime and octave. Natural intervals
fourth and fifth (and eleventh). Second intervals seconds, (flat) seventh, ninth*) Fifth intervals, natural, flat and sharp *)
Consonant
Third intervals, all forms major, minor, sixth, tenth, thirteenth.
Dissonant
Seconds, flat second, sharp seventh, flat ninth.
*) Belonged to the dissonant sound-aspect in the last century
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
9
Chapter 2, Harmony, Intervals
Neutral Intervals
I have placed the second intervals and fifths, lowered as well as raised, under neutral scales. The
music historical development since Richard Wagner has changed the perception of consonance and
dissonance among the listeners. A development that has been going on since the middle ages where
only fifths and fourths were consonant (!), and the third was regarded as a repulsive dissonance
(!!!). The neutral lowered fifth, so extremely common in the music of our time was considered so
dangerous that the medieval theorists named it "The diabolic Tritonus".
Slowly, slowly the taste changed. The third became consonant. By the end of the 1900 th century, the
sixth, the seventh and the ninth obtained their civil rights as neutral, "authorised" intervals, and the
other intervals quickly followed. And today you can divide the intervals in:
Neutral
Enharmonic, natural or intervals associated with the whole note scale
Consonant
Third intervals: the intervals to determine the tonal gender.
Dissonant
The half note intervals so frequently employed in modern music however "dissonant", they may
sound
10
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Simple Harmony
Simple Harmony
The classical counter-point has ceased to exist. Today all intervals are allowed, though
short movements between the individual parts of the harmony are considered an advantage due to instrumental technical reasons.
SUGGESTIONS FOR MOVEMENTS
1
Shortest possible movements.
2
If the melody part (the leading voice) needs a resting point, it is best to let the supporting part end
in a consonant interval.
3
Within whole note scales with mostly parallel thirds, lowered fifth or basic seconds, fourths or
small sevenths, all intervals are neutral or consonant (see the section about "Parallelism" and the
section about "Melodic doubling" in Scales)
4
Within chromatic, free tonal or mixed blues/modal neutral scales the 2-part harmonies depend on the predominant tonality.
5
Main rule: within modern harmony all intervals (and harmonies) are allowed, the individual
use is however restricted by the tonal surroundings and the style.
HARMONIZING
Add 2nd Voice
When harmonizing 2nd voices, you normally use thirds. Here is a little tune with a nice 2nd voice.
Add 3rd voice
And here comes a third voice, complicating the matter a bit.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
11
Chapter 2, Harmony, Simple Harmony
Add 4th voice
The vocal score looks somewhat crowded, but it sounds ok.
Inversions
An inversion is an octave change in the pitch of one or more notes in a chord.
THE OVERTONES
A "single" note is not one, but many tones. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras, the father of all music
science, in the middle of the 600th century BC discovered this fundamental characteristic of tones. As
you strike a note on an instrument with a soundboard or strings, a spectrum of overtones discreetly follows the main note, nearly inaudible, but present. The overtones have a waste influence on the sound of
the instruments, especially when executing a chord. The overtones create the colour or timbre of the
note.
The C in the figure has been lowered two octaves (15va) to make the high notes easier to read. The
basic C note is shown in the blue rectangle. The notes marked with a red rectangle are “false” compared to the temperated system. Listen to the Notes.
12
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Simple Harmony
The Temperated Tonal System
The overtones marked with red in the treble clef are false, if compared to a piano. But in fact, it is
the piano that is “false” compared to nature's own tones.
For practical reasons, the piano and many other instruments are divided in equal 1/2-note steps,
although the nature tones are not evenly distributed. Therefore the so-called enharmonic notes (see
Note Writing and Scales) sound alike on the piano, but not on the violin, which is flexible enough to
use the nature tones. The difference is not shown in the written notes. This little "deception", a baroque invention from the time of Bach, has been guilty of preserving the myth about "the absolute
monarchy of the twelve 1/2 notes", a myth that was terminated by the blues scales.
The Overtones and The Major Triad
The overtones determine the placing of the harmonics (overtones). Besides this you can conclude
another very important thing from the overtones:
Almost all the intervals turn up in the overtones. And the overtones contain a MAJOR TRIAD
centrally located! This fact is a substantial argument for the position of triad based chord systems.
Triads are the only reasonable useful system even if other, alternative systems exist (see later in this
section). The overtones contain a small and a large seventh, a ninth, a sixth, a lowered fifth and
other fifths, thirds and octaves on different levels and grades of "tuning".
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
13
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
Chords
The chord is a Western European invention. It was invented in the 15 th century as a result
of the more and more complicated vocal lines in Church music starting to align eventually
forming simple intervals and ultimately chords. The biggest revolution in music so far;
this was the musical equivalent to the invention of the wheel. Suddenly the composers
were able to build harmonies with more than one voice. The harp players and later pianists could play bass lines and chords to produce a full and rich sound. And the most important thing; the dynamic use of chords, which allowed the music to build a tension / release in the music through the functional changes in the chords.
TRIADS
Chords of triads are the fundamentals of modern harmony. In the beginning were two thirds, a large and
a small third, or a small and a large third. Later more thirds arrived. And they ended building upon each
other, layer after layer. Here is the typical example of triad chords with a large and a small third below:
Note: The chords are named after the letter of the primal note
Listen to the Notes
These triads of thirds are the building stones of the chord symbols. Even if you do not always have all
the thirds audible in the chord, these basic 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-chords form the backbone of modern harmonies.
14
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
THE CONSTITUTION OF CHORDS
The following rules are the most important part of jazz and rock harmony.
Paragraph 1
A chord is a harmony consisting of at least 3 different notes in a triad.
Paragraph 2
The largest interval in a triad chord is max. #5 min. b5.
Paragraph 3
The smallest interval in a triad chord is max 4 and minimum a small third (minor third).
Paragraph 4
The 6 triad chords meeting the above demands are called the Basic Triads.
Listen to the Notes
Paragraph 5
All triads not meeting the above demands are rudimentary (incomplete) 4-part, 5-part or higher
chords.
Paragraph 6
All chords higher than the 6 basic triads consist of one of the 6 basic triads with one or more added
"colour tones".
Paragraph 7
The system is called Chord Symbols, and the letter of the prime note and the intervals signify the
character and sound of the chord.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
15
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
Have you considered cheating by not reading the rest
of the theory CD-ROM? Then just learn the above rules.
THESE RULES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT RULES IN THE WHOLE BOOK
If you understand the above principles, it is easy to construct every thinkable standard chord. This is
the way to do it. Chords are fun!
TURNS AND ARPEGGIO
Chords can also be played "broken" as an arpeggio, with or without turns. All the following chords have
the same chord symbol "C". The arpeggio figures can of course be played in other positions.
The turns are used to move from one chord to another with as little movements as possible, parallel to
the rules for simple 2-part harmony. Arpeggio is used for ballads or slow numbers, where the chord
should be rich or floating/static.
Determination of Chords
Two chords are identical, when the closest position of their intervals (basic position) is alike and the
position within the octave is the same. Identical, stacked chords do not change the Chord Symbol.
16
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
The Closest Position of Intervals determines the Chord Symbol (The position in the scale of the
prime note C' = C'' as chord).
MODAL ASPECTS
The modal aspect is closely connected to functional harmony, as the modal aspects and the soundaspects share the ability to give character and colour to the individual chords (see Functional Harmony).
The modal aspect is chiefly a question of major or minor thirds in the basic triad. Modal aspects also
relate to the actual scale of the harmonic functions. This will be more evident later in this chapter. You
can divide the modal aspects of the 6 basic triad chords this way:
Modal Aspects of the 6 basic triad chords
The C(b5) and C+ major chords are among the Major Chords due to the large third in the middle.
On the other hand is Cdim both major and minor (or "neither-nor"), as Cdim readily dissolves in
both C and Cm. Csus is equally ambiguous (“double gender”).
Major
C
C(b5)
C+
Minor
Cm
Double
Cdim
Csus
You should not confuse modal aspects with the sound-aspects. Melodies with frequent major and
minor parallel chords have a tendency, however, to be "coloured". Major with minor prime (C6)
and minor with major prime (Cmaj7) or major 6 and minor 7 (typical jazz colour tones). Only functional chords can possess modal aspects, as they always, according to nature, must behave on the
conditions of the ruling scale system (modal, major or minor). Intervals cannot possess modal aspects, as an interval is neutral and only assumes modal character, while 3 or more notes together
form a functional chord.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
17
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
SOUND-ASPECTS
Opposite to modal aspects, the sound-aspects of intervals and chords go together well.
Sound-aspects within chords
Consonant
This aspect only includes the 6 basic triads
Neutral
4-part Major with sixth (6), flat seventh (7) or ninth (9) Minor with sixth (6), flat seventh (7) or
eleventh (11)
5-part Major with seven + ninth (7+9) or sixth + ninth (6+9) chords, where the added notes are
solely neutral (second forms) to the other notes of the chord.
Dissonant
Mild 4-part dissonance with added sharp seventh (maj7) either in major or minor chords containing minor third + second (for example m9, 6+7, dim(Maj7).
Sharp Major dissonance with eleventh (11) and flat tenth (-10) (major/minor thirds together),
flat ninth (-9) (lowered seconds) flat sixth + fifth relations (more 1/2-notes together)*).
*) Three 1/2-notes together should be avoided, for example C7(add Maj7).
18
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
DESCRIPTION OF CHORDS
The most common chords and their character are shortly described in the table below. The examples are
all in C minor or C major for the sake of clarity.
3 Part Chords
C
A little fresh, hard sound. Clear profile
Cm
Soft sound, but still solid profile
Csus
Soft sound, unclear profile
C+
Open sound, but with clear profile of major
C(b5)
Major chord, but with unclear profile
Cdim
Soft, floating sound, no profile
4 Part Chords
Major
Minor
Sus
+
(b5)
(dim)
C6
Fresh, neutral
C7
Neutral, but a little more "biting"
Cmaj7
Soft and sharp (can be heard as C plus Em)
Cm6
Soft and rough
Cm7
Extremely soft and rather neutral
Cm(maj7)
Soft, but with a sharp tint
Cm9
Soft with a "pleasing" dissonance
Csus7
All neutral
Csus(maj7)
Extremely sharp dissonance!
C+7
All neutral
C+maj7
Very sharp dissonance!
C+9
Neutral
C(b5)7
Soft and "pleasing" dissonance
C(b5)maj7
Soft, but a little sharper dissonance
Cdim
Always a 4-part
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
19
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
5 Part Chords
Major
Minor
Sus
+
(b5)
(dim)
20
C6+7
Rough, with a little dissonant sound
C6+maj7
Mildly dissonant and neutral simultaneously
C9
"Neutral" and soft
Cmaj7+9
As above, but a little dissonant
C-9
Neutral, but dissonant
C-10
"Neutral", but sharply dissonant. Broad
C-10(maj7)
Soft, but sharp dissonance
Cm6+maj7
As above
Cm6+maj7
As above
Cm7+9
Soft, broad ad "pleasing" dissonance
Cm(maj7)+9
All neutral, broad
Csus7+9
All neutral, broad
Csus-9
Neutral, but with a mild dissonance
C+7(+9)
All neutral, broad
C+maj7(+9)
As above
C+(-9)
As above
C+(-10)
As above
C(b5)7+9
Soft and broad
C(b5)maj7+9
Rather dissonant
C(b5)-9
As above
C(b5)-10
As above
Cdim9
Soft, "pleasing" dissonance
Cdim(maj7)
As above
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
6 Part Chords
Major
Minor
+
(dim)
C11
Partly neutral, partly sharp dissonance
C11(maj7)
Sharp dissonance
C11(#4)
Neutral, "pleasant" dissonance
Cm11
Soft and neutral
Cm11(maj7)
Soft and dissonant
C+11
Heavy dissonance
C+11(maj7)
Extreme dissonance
Cdim(maj7+9)
Rather dissonant
7 Part Chords
Major
Minor
C13
Very dissonant, almost bitonal*)
C13(maj7)
Extremely dissonant!
Cm13
Partly "pleasant" dissonance
Cm13(maj7)
Very dissonant
*) Due to the 6+7 relationship in the chord, often played as a 6+7 chord (fake 13-chord) Bitonal, see Polyharmony
The chords in the above list are the major part of the chords, normally used in the chord symbol system.
Though the theoretical possibilities are unlimited, even the 7-part chords are rare in real life. They are
mostly used in rudimentary form (an ordinary guitar, for example, has only 6 strings). Most chords with
6 notes and less are frequently used, depending on the style and the technical level of the composer/musician. Especially in jazz, a lot of amazing chords with advanced colour notes bloom. Layer
upon layer. Changing from major to dim-variations and minor parallel chords etc. etc. Discover the
chords of jazz! A literally bottomless treasury of harmonic ideas is hidden in the way jazz musicians treat
their innocent victims, the chords of the pop standards.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
21
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
CHORD TABLE
I have constructed the following table of most common (and uncommon) chords today to present the
previous chord types (in C-major) in a easily understandable form,.
Chord types (example in C-major)
22
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
(Chord types continued)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
23
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
(Chord types continued)
24
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
(Chord types continued)
The actual construction of chords is an exciting, but rather extensive subject. Heavy volumes have been
written on guitar and piano chords. Go to a music shop and find yourself one of the good chords "maps"
of the recent years.
Other Chord Symbols
The chord symbols in this book are, unfortunately, far from alone as a "standard" system. Actually
there ought to be international standard for chord symbols, like the standardised note symbols (in
our days). Maybe a regular DIN-norm for chord symbols – a task for a bright standardisation maniac.
Therefore I will show you a selection of competing systems – somewhat against my will! There is
every probability that the bewildered reader will come across these, often illogical and ambiguous
symbols in note sheets and scores. It is not that unusual to see the same composer/note writer use
two or more chord systems in the same note sheet, sometimes in the same song. We must go back
all the way to the baroque period, to find similarly grotesque conditions, where poets spelled the
words at their own pleasure, or according to the letters in the typist's box.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
25
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
(Other chord symbol systems)
English Names
French Names
Other Names
C
Do
C5
Cm
Do minor
Cmi or C-
Csus
Do sus
C4 or Csus4
C+
Do aug
C(#5) or Caug
C(b5)
Do dim
Cb5 or C Ø (same type)
Cdim
Do dim
C o or C Ø
(again, same type!)
Cmaj7
Do maj7
C ma C (triangle) C7m
C(b5)7
Do dim
C o (the same symbol for the third time!)
Cmaj7+9
Do maj7+9
Cmaj9
C-9
C(b9)
C-10
C(#9) or C9+
C(b5)-9
C(b5)b9
C(b5)-10
C(b5)#9
C11(#4)
C11+
*The French use the Latin note names in their chord symbols:
Translation of the French Note Names
English
French
C
Do
D
Re
E
Mi
F
Fa
G
Sol
A
La
B
Si
26
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
JAZZ CHORD SYMBOLS
This are the jazz chords produced in A-Play with the automatic LilyPond chord creator.
Special Problems in Chord Notation
The logic of the third stacks is indisputable. But reality has its own ways, logic or no logic. 70 years
of musical practice have necessitated a whole bunch of changes or adjustments to chord notation.
Chord symbols are progressive additions of thirds. According to theory, a 9-chord should always
consist of minimum 5 notes (prime, third, fifth, seventh and ninth), but normally only the major 9chord is played as a 5-part chord. In all other occurrences (m9, (b5)9, +9 etc.) the seventh is never
included and the chords consequently belongs to 4-part chords.
The dim-chord is originally a 3-part chord (triad), but it has always been played as a 4-part sound.
Anyway, it is classified among the basic triads.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
27
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
Changes in the Chord Reflected in Notation
You can write down changes within a chord in the following ways:
Alternative bass note (other than prim):
C Major chord with G as Bass Note
C
g
C / G (hand-written)
Added Notes
If one/more particular notes should be added, this is noted (added) in a parenthesis C(add F#).
Accidentals
Used to raise/lower notes:
C (b5) (lowered fifth)
C 11(#4) (Raised fourth)
Shorthand Chord Symbols
Replace # with + (plus) or b with – (minus).
Example: Eb-9 is a better notation than Eb(b9))
( ) is used to distinguish 2 identical letters/signs Example: (Cm (maj7)) and + (plus) is also used as
an addition sign (C6+7)).
Temporary Pause In Third Based Harmony
N.C. = No Chords indicates free tonal passages or unaccompanied/a cappella.
Bitonal Chords
Cm + D7 or cm/D7, 2 different chords sounding at the same time. See "Poly Harmony".
Various Peculiarities
The symbol C5 means a C chord minus the third. This is becoming the popular way of writing
chord symbols for rock played in hollow quarters and fifths.
Ambiguous symbols are unfortunately common in the musical world. If you want to indicate a C13
chord without the eleventh (11), the correct symbol would be C9(add 13) and not C13(-11).
The peculiar practice of playing a 6+7 chord as a fake 13 chord on the guitar was mentioned in the
previous section
28
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chords
The sus4 / sus2 and dim chord symbols originate from the childhood of the chord symbol system. Sus stands for "suspension". In the first chord symbols the sus chord was an unresolved major
chord (leading the fourth to a major third), but today you are free to use the sus chord as a stable
chord without resolving it into a major or minor chord. A dominant chord – see "Functional harmony". You can find more examples on this type of chord notational problems later in the section
on Functional Harmony.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
29
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
Chord Boxes – also called fret diagrams – are powerful tools for guitar players. Besides
the chord symbol, the guitarist can see the proposed fingering of the chord. In A-Play, you
can choose between the following predefined A-Play chord boxes, or you can make your
own chord boxes from scratch (see Notes and Chords in A-Play).
MAJOR CHORD BOXES
C
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
C#/Db
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
D
Major
7
30
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MAJOR CHORD BOXES
Maj7
9
sus4
D#/Eb
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
E
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
F
Major
7
Maj7
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
31
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MAJOR CHORD BOXES
9
sus4
F#/Gb
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
G
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
G#/Ab
Major
7
Maj7
9
32
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MAJOR CHORD BOXES
sus4
A
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
A#/Bb
Major
7
Maj7
9
sus4
B
Major
7
Maj7
9
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
33
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MAJOR CHORD BOXES
sus4
MINOR CHORD BOXES
C
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
C#/Db
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
D
Minor
m7
+
dim
34
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MINOR CHORD BOXES
(b5)
D#/Eb
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
E
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
F
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
35
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MINOR CHORD BOXES
F#/Gb
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
G
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
G#/Ab
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
A
36
Minor
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MINOR CHORD BOXES
m7
+
dim
(b5)
A#/Bb
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
B
Minor
m7
+
dim
(b5)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
37
Chapter 2, Harmony, Chord Boxes (Fret Diagrams)
MOVABLE CHORD BOXES, ADVANCED JAZZ
38
1
7(#5/b9)
2
7(#5/#9)
3
7(b5/b9)
4
7(b5/#9)
5
maj7(#11)
6
13
7
13
8
13(#11)
9
m13
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Chord Forms
Other Chord Forms
Third stacks are not the only way to build chords. In our time Bartok, Stravinsky and
many others have experimented with alternative kinds of stacks or "clusters". These chord
systems have not had a large following in rock. Influences can, however, be found in jazz
after the beginning of the 60'ies.
Similar to the experimental rhythm systems and the artificial scales, mentioned earlier,
the alternative chord forms might be an inspiration. They might even help breaking down
the habitual thinking of rock musicians, who are generally more conservative, than they
would like to admit. There are 4 different alternative chord systems. They are common in
a lot of modern music and may be considered a bit of a challenge to any rock or jazz musician.
CLUSTERS OF 1/1 NOTES
Clusters of 1/1 notes is a modern classical concept, where a piano player takes as many second intervals
as possible, as close as possible. It is noisy but not totally atonal. A favourite system of Bartok's, sometimes found in the late music of Debussy.
Listen to the Notes
CLUSTERS OF 1/2 NOTES
Among the late classical composers like John Cage or Penderecki half note clusters is a popular chord
form (it is easy to produce on a piano, when "the notes" only consist of dynamic indications and approximate pitch - common in certain types of avant-garde "chance" music!)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
39
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Chord Forms
Clusters of 1/2 notes transcends the borders of highly experimental music. It is impossible to hit a lot of
1/2 notes in a nice, structured way, so the modern composers in the 1950-ies invented a so-called “cluster” notation. Here is how the scores from the 50-ies and 60-ies looked like:
Listen to the Notes
Several voluminous books have been published on modern notational symbols. Look for other ways to
write half note clusters in these (see the Bibliography).
ALTERNATIVE CHORDS
Stacks of Quarters
Stacks of Quarters and Fifths are very common in modern jazz, often played by the horn section. It
is a very effective trick, if you aim for a thick, tough sound. That’s the way to go. Here is an example in quarters:
Listen to the Notes
Fourth stacks are closely related to sus chords and often appear as "side effects", when you combine
sus chords. Fourth stacks are stimulating and in the spirit of the blues in rock (blues has the fourth as an
important interval).
“Spontaneous” fourth stacks
Listen to the Notes
40
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Chord Forms
Stacks of Fifths
Fourths, fifths and theoretically all intervals can be stacked. Fifth and fourth stacks normally occur
together, mostly in music with neutral scales as impressionistic music.
The more fifths, the higher the notes. More than 4 fifths is not advisable, unless you want to get
sued by the musicians’ union:
Listen to the Notes
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
41
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
Relative Harmony
Functional Harmony
Today not the individual notes, but the chords, determine the development of melody.
Chords in the tonal system are interconnected. They are placed on a tension curve with
increases, decreases and resting points. Some chords are stable and definitive. Other
chords "function" as temporary stations on the road to and from the basic chord.
Classical functional harmony deals with chords in one key. But in my book, I have extended and revised the whole concept of functionality. A musician, trained in older Musical Theory, will surely be startled over an expression or two. Among the new expressions, I introduce the concept, Transitive Harmony, which stands for more keys in one
melody, a kind of modulation that has become extremely popular in the last 60 years;
more on the subject later in this chapter. The classical functional harmonic principles in
one key have also been heavily extended, and now include blues and modal functions.
42
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONAL HARMONY
On every step in a major/minor scale, you have different chords. Beside these traditional functional
chords, both blues scales and modal scales have their own chords. The number of chord functions in one
key has seen a massive increase since the time of Mozart.
A chord in a given key is functional. That implies a given functionality in relation to other chords. The
chord functions in a hierarchical system with the tonic chord (the tonic partly equals the prime) as the
master of the game. The tensions of chords are graduated, which will be described in details later in the
chapter about "Cadences". But first I will portray the constitution of functional harmony.
THE CONSTITUTION OF FUNCTIONAL HARMONY
Paragraph 1
The chord should have an absolute resting point in the tonic chord of the key.
Paragraph 2
Beside the tonic, all other chords must function as part of a cadence to the tonic.
Paragraph 3
A major chord can anytime be replaced by its minor parallel or the other way (except for the double
subdominant and the blues chord functions)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
43
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
DOMINANT
To understand the harmonic functions you have to understand the relationship between leading notes
and chords. The leading note is a scale step below or above the prime, normally a 1/2 step. In our days,
however, the blues seventh also functions as a leading note and to a certain extent the blues third.
Chords containing a leading note have a "leading" function. The "primary" leading function is called the
DOMINANT.
Leading note
Dominant types
DOMINANT (D)
A dominant chord contains the leading note to the
prime of the key, i.e. to the tonic chord.
Maj7 (major)
DOMINANT (major)
DIM DOMINANT
7 (minor)
MINOR DOMINANT
Blues 7
Maj7 (adjusted)
MINOR DOMINANT
(in major keys)
b2
Moorish DOMINANT*)
A "RAGTIME" DOMINANT also plays an important part in modern
popular music See "Neapolitan chords"
SUBDOMINANT
Chords on the fourth scale step have a "secondary" leading function. They are called SUBDOMINANT
(sub = "below").
Subdominant types
SUBDOMINANT (SD)
A subdominant chord is a chord on the fourth step of
the key.
SUBDOMINANT (major or minor colours)
NEAPOLITAN SUBDOMINANT
MINOR SUBDOMINANT (minor or major colours)
44
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
DOUBLE DOMINANT / SUBDOMINANT
An extra tension level leads to the tonic chord through a secondary dominant to a primary dominant.
This function is called a DOUBLE DOMINANT, the parallel to the DOUBLE SUBDOMINANT. (The
classical terminology does not recognise this function).
Harmonic double functions
Double Dominant / Subdominant
DOUBLE DOMINANT (DD)
DOUBLE SUBDOMINANT (DSD)
A dominant or a subdominant chord has its own
DOUBLE DOMINANT or DOUBLE SUBDOMINANT
chord.
The DOUBLE DOMINANT contains a leading note to
the (primary) dominant. The double dominant (but not
the double subdominant) even has its own dominant, a
TRIPLE DOMINANT.
The DOUBLE SUBDOMINANT is placed as a subdominant function the primary subdominant (on the blues
seventh step, causing the function to divide from the
classical harmony system, even if the chord type is
extremely common in rock music).
MAJOR / MINOR PARALLEL FUNCTIONS
It is of utmost importance for the functional harmony to have a minor parallel to the major chord. Paragraph 3 in "The constitution of functional harmony", makes the classification of basic functions very
simple. In older functional systems you have a chord for each step in the major key and a similar number
of functions in the minor key (see "Other functional harmony systems").
This leads to a lot of different functions, many of which are merely being each others major / minor
parallels. That is why I have the rule of free interchange between major and minor chords. The curious
result of this, is that chords, seemingly non-compatible as C (major) and F#m, end up being functional
chords within the C major scale (C is the tonic chord, while F#m is triple dominant chord's minor parallel).
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
45
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
BLUES FUNCTIONS
Beside the traditional functions, I have added another new chord function on the blues steps. The chords
are of course on temperated steps, as a real blues chord (half sharp note) cannot be played on the piano.
1
2
Half sharp note in Arab music notation (1) and in LilyPond (2).
Harmonic blues functions
Blues Functions
BLUES 7 Dominant function
BLUES 3 Ambiguous, scale step function)
BLUES 4 Standard Subdominant and blues scale step
function
BLUES b5 Subdominant function
A blues function is a chord placed on a temperated
blues step.
BLUES 7 has dominant characteristics. BLUES 7 is
formally identical to the double subdominant, but with
dominant function.
BLUES 3 is neutral, but "leads" to both tonic and subdominant ("blues 4")
BLUES 4 may under some circumstances function
similarly to BLUES 3, as an expansion of the blues
scale steps in the classic “prime, blues third, fourth and
back again” movements.
BLUES b5 function as a sort of double dominant.
46
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
NEAPOLITAN CHORDS
Before I depict the harmonic functions in a table, I will have to explain one special phenomenon a little
closer. An ancient tradition, stemming one must believe from Italy, has created a special function, which
is a favourite in romantic classical music. My great grandfather the Danish composer Niels Wilhelm
Gade (1817-1890) and other composers from his generation used the Neapolitan subdominant over and
over again, as well as the Beatles, especially on the early recordings. The chord was frequently used in
the 50’ies.
The Neapolitan chord has a strange property. It is basically a major subdominant in minor. But it leads
to the tonic on a tension level equal to a dominant. It is partly a dominant chord without containing a
leading note. This has to do with 2 other chords closely related to the Neapolitan subdominant chord,
the Ragtime dominant and the Moorish dominant.
The Neapolitan function family
Neapolitan Chords
NEAPOLITAN SUBDOMINANT VS. RAGTIME
DOMINANT
The note example shows how the common notes are
located in Fm and Ab. Fm is a subdominant (the basic
note is the fourth step in C major), whereas Ab is a
(major) dominant variant due to the basic note (1/2
note over the major fifth), but without the leading note.
NEAPOLITAN SUBDOMINANT VS. MOORISH
DOMINANT
Ab and Fm are also parallel. Db contains the "Moorish"
leading note, 1/2 note above the prime.
NEAPOLITAN SUBDOMINANT VS. RAGTIME
DOMINANT (MAJ7 variant)
Dbmaj7 contains both the Fm and Db chord in one
chord, but functions as a dominant chord due to its
basic note.
Listen to the Notes
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
47
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS IN ONE KEY
Table of Functions
The following examples show all functions within C major (ex.). The functions are divided into the
main groups TONIC, DOMINANT, SUBDOMINANT and DOUBLE FUNCTIONS. The blues
and dim functions are 2 other main groups. An explanation of the character of each function, the influence of style on the functions, etc. follows later in this section, including the stories behind the
"invented" names as "ragtime" dominant etc. The dim chords and their nature will also be described
in detail.
+ and (b5) chords are functionally identical to major chords. Sus chords have double gender
as dim chords (see also the modal aspect table).
48
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
Shorthand Acronyms
T Tonic)
D Dominant
SD Subdominant
“M” below symbol Minor colour
DD double dominant
TABLE OF MODAL ASPECTS
The next table contains a list of the modal relationships of functional chords. Like the intervals and
chords differ in sound-aspects, separate chords and functional chords have different aspects.
Modal Aspects in Functional Harmony
nat = Natural sign
dim = Diminished
Modal aspect
Function
MAJOR
T
D
SD
DD
TD
MINOR
T
M
D
M
SD
M
DD
M
TD
M
MODAL
D
SD
M nat
SD
M nat
SD
Neapolitan
Double
Gender
T
dim
D
dim
SD
dim
BLUES
7
BLUES
3
D-Rag
D
Moorish
DSD
BLUES
b5
The modal aspect depends on the scale
F7 for example is subdominant in a Dorian C scale ("C minor"), as step 6 in this modal scale
is natural instead of the ordinary Fm (a flat dissolves into A natural) See also "Functions
within pure modal keys"
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
49
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
Modal examples within functional harmony
A few selected examples:
Ex. 1.
T
SD
M
SD
T
Ex. 2.
T
DD
SD
T
Ex. 3.
T
SD
Ex. 4.
T
SD
Neapolitan
Comments
Ex. 1 and 2: The difference between subdominant minor and the double dominant is the tonal gender. Consequently, it is a question of a sharper sound in the double dominant (ex. 2). The double
dominant has no leading function in this connection – in spite of its name – as it does not lead to the
primary dominant, but only serves as a modal alteration.
Ex. 2 was found in the Beatles song "8 Days A Week", recorded during a period in which the
Beatles often used modal scales (as did their American heroes, The Miracles).
Ex. 3 and 4: A purely modal difference between SD and SD neap (major to minor)
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHORD FUNCTIONS
TONIC
Both T (major) and T minor are steady resting points.
DOMINANT
D is the classic "second" chord. D rag belongs to ragtime (where the name "ragtime" dominant
comes from, of course), jazz and pop. D moor is much more advanced and often emerges in Arab
("Moorish") music, e.g. Spanish music. D minor and D minor natural are unambiguous classical,
dominant chords.
SUBDOMINANT
SD (major) and SD minor are "third" chords. SD neap has been mentioned earlier. SD minor natural
is very common in rock/blues with Dorian flavour (minor with major sixth).
50
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
Double Functions
DD and TD are pure major variants, sharp and "tonal" in the Western sense. DD minor and TD minor are more "jazzy" and not common in classical music. DSD has a distinct blues character and is
never heard in classical music.
Dim Functions
A dim chord's function can, to the surprise of most people, be found from the placing of the basic
note 1/2 note higher than the basic note in the similar function in major or minor. As the dim chords
are difficult to identify functionally, here is a table to help you out of the headache.
Chord
Function
Ex.:
T
dim
sharp prime
SD
dim
Raised Fourth
D
dim
Raised Fifth
C#dim (= A#dim) contains #1 both in major and minor (black notes)
F#dim (= D#dim) contains #4 both in major and minor (black notes)
G#dim (= Fdim) contains #5 both in major and minor (black notes)
Blues Functions
The blues functions are closely associated with blues and rock music in particular styles, e.g. heavy
rock.
Functions within Purely Modal Scales
The modal deviations mentioned in "Modal aspects", become a separate harmonic system, when the
melody strictly follows a modal scale. The modal chord functions are not used that often, but they
can supply you with a welcome change, if the functional harmonies in major/minor get on your
nerves. That happens once in a while, believe it or not!
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
51
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
Functions within modal scales classified on scale steps
The chords marked with red, deviate from the tonal genders of major and minor functions. Note:
Ionian and Aeolian are identical to minor and major with the same tonal genders.
Step
Dorian
Phrygian
Lydian
Mixolydian
(Locrian)
1
minor
minor
major
major
dim(!!)
2
minor
major
major
minor
major
3
major
major
minor
dim
minor
4
major
minor
dim
major
minor
5
minor
dim
major
minor
major
6
dim
major
minor
minor
major
7
major
minor
minor
major
minor
Other Functional Terms
The musical world is hopeless, when it comes to uniform terminology. Only the terms tonic, dominant and subdominant are common. In the following table, I have "translated" my terminology
(based on the traditional names) into 2 other systems.
Chord in
C Major
52
My suggestion
Numbering
System (Jazz)
Classical music
(American variant)
Symbol
Name
C Major
A Minor
C
T
Tonic
I
III
Tonic
Dm
SD
M
Minor subdominant
II
IV
Supertonic
Em
D
M
Minor dominant
III
V
Median
F
SD
Subdominant
IV
VI
Subdominant
G
D
Dominant
V
VII
Dominant
Am
T
M
Minor tonic
VI
I
Median
G#dim
D
dim
Diminished
dominant
VII
II
Subtonic
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
The Number System
A number system seems to have some advantages. It looks deceivingly simple. But to point out a
couple of much unfortunate elements, it is misleading, to put it mildly, to call the tonic parallel minor chord "VI". It suggests that the chord is one step higher than the dominant. In the real world,
most of the times, you step down to the parallel minor tonic chord. Another problem: The system is
unpractical, as it does not say anything about the tonal gender of the chord (it could be both a major
and a minor context).
The Classical System
Is just as misguiding and silly as the number system; a "supertonic" is not a correspondent function
to the tonic. It is a parallel minor to the subdominant chord. If the tonal gender of the scale is minor,
the term becomes absurd, as you rarely use the chord on the second scale step in minor. Instead it
will be considered a minor double dominant – but certainly not a sort of tonic.
A little example: what does a poor newcomer think a: tonic - supertonic - dominant - tonic is?
Ex. C - Dm - G – C
Has it got something to do with tonic + something-with-tonic + dominant + tonic? Sorry no! The
chords are actually a tonic - subdominant (parallel minor) - dominant – tonic.
Ex. C - Dm - G - C = T - SD minor - D - T
My Suggestion
Both the number system and its classical counterpart are incomprehensible, illogical and inexact.
And they do not reveal anything about the functional chords in between, as the SD minor and D minor in a major scale or the tonal gender of the chords.
But behold! If you combine minor and major in one functional system, you are suddenly able to
analyse any tonal case without constantly changing system. Most melodies change between major
and minor chords all the time, often replacing the functions with the minor or major parallels.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
53
Chapter 2, Harmony, Functional Harmony
A Special Problem in Functional Harmony
There has been much theoretical disagreement over one innocent chord. If we use good, old C major again:
Many jazz theorists want to class this chord type as a dim variant. They call if Co7 (half diminished
seventh chord). Take the ragtime dominant for example, lower the major third and you get a minor
chord. But at the same time you modulate to another key! Ebm6 with c in the bass does not belong
to C major at all, but to C minor! The German theorist Joe Viera (see Bibliography) calls the chord
Cm7/b5, which is better, but unnecessary, as the chord still remain an Ebm6 in disguise! By the
way: I do not like the lowered minor chord (e.g. Cm(b5)) as the chord normally is identical to a rudimentary dim chord symbol.
54
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Harmonic Cadences
Harmonic Cadences
The whole functional system strives for tension and release between the chords in one
key; to reach the stable tonic. You can say that all other chords than T or T minor are
part of a "cadence", i.e. a movement in the direction of the tonic chord (or an ending). The
chords are placed on a tension curve in a hierarchical system of tension levels.
TENSION LEVELS OF CHORD FUNCTIONS
Note: The blues tension levels are extremely complicated!
The harmonic cadences can be divided in 2 main categories, the neutral standard cadence and the
cadence ostinato or "vamp", which will be described in the next section.
STANDARD CADENCES
1
A true standard cadence contains minimum 3 and maximum 6 members
2
Any chord can be replaced by its parallel minor/major chord (except for the double subdominant
and the blues functions)
3
A standard cadence starts and ends in the tonic chord
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
55
Chapter 2, Harmony, Harmonic Cadences
(Standard Cadences continued)
DOMINANT Rows
Simple
T
Double dominant
T
Triple dominant
T
TD
D
T
DD
D
T
DD
D
T
SD
T
SD
T
SUBDOMINANTS Rows
Simple
T
Double Subdominant
T
DSD
Compound Rows
Simple 4-member Cadence
Dominant type
T
SD
D
T
Subdominant type
T
D
SD
T
Simple 5-member Cadence
Dominant type
T
D
SD
D
T
Subdominant type
T
SD
D
SD
T
T
D
DD
D
T
T
SD
DD
D
T
T
D
DD
SD
T
DD
SD
T
DOUBLE DOMINANT and SUBDOMINANT
Dominant type
SUBDOMINANT type
T
Mixed DD/DSD type
56
T
D
DSD
SD
T
T
DSD
DD
D
T
T
DD
D
DSD
SD
T
T
DSD
SD
DD
D
T
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Harmonic Cadences
(Standard Cadences continued)
Blues Rows
Simple blues cadences
Dominant type
Subdominant type
T
Blues 7
T
T
Blues 3 Blues 7
T
T
Blues 3
T
Mixed blues and Standard Cadences
Dominant type
T
D
Blues 7
T
Subdominant type
T
Blues 7
D
T
CADENCE OSTINATOS
A cadence ostinato is a repeated pattern of chords in the form of cadences. Standard cadences are in
themselves a sort of cadence ostinatos, if they are repeated as "fill" in a passage, where the main melody
pauses. Such an "empty" middle piece was called a "vamp" in the early days of jazz.
A cadence ostinato is usually constructed in a way that is characteristic for its style. Such "style cadence
ostinatos" belong to Form and style, and in the last chapter of this book, Form and style I include a section with some typical examples. Most melodies are built around a few cadences. They can be long, with
lots of chords, but if you analyse them thoroughly, you often discover that it is actually a standard cadence with minor parallels, inserted dim chords, turns of the chord, rudimentary chords etc. Therefore it
is wise to get accustomed to new "strange" elements of the cadence, instead of starring blindly at minor
parallel chords etc.
"Simple 5-member Cadence of the Subdominant Type"
Cm
Eb
T
M
T
TONIC
Edim
T
dim
Fm7
SD
M
Adim
Abm9
SD
dim
SD
neapol.
SUBDOMINANT
G
D
M nat
Bb9
D
DOMINANT
Fm7
Ab9
SD
M
SD
Abm
SD
neapol.
SUBDOMINANT
Eb6+9
T
TONIC
Actually a long row of standard cadence elements!
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
57
Chapter 2, Harmony, Harmonic Cadences
OTHER CADENCES
You may finish a melody in countless ways. The classical cadence is only one of them. Below you will
find a row of nowadays alternatives. There are, however, a couple of good reasons to have the "harmonic cadence" in mind, as this cadence type is the key to understanding transitive harmony. "Function
shifts" which are the fundamentals of Transitive harmony, are based on harmonic cadences; more on this
subject in the next section.
Fade
Far from all melodies, especially on records, finish with a harmonic cadence. It is a typical trait in
certain periods of rock history, to have most of the numbers "fading" rather than ending with a
"normal" cadence (see "General, cadences". (Note example in the Note Writing chapter under "Endings").
"Fading" means damping the sound gradually until it has suddenly all disappeared. It is a hard art to
die smoothly, and technically it belongs to the work field of a producer/sound technician. It is possible to fade on stage, and it can be an excellent effect, if e.g. one or more instruments stay on the
original level, and the others die away. Provided it is done simultaneously and precise.
Rhythmical Cadence
A rhythmical cadence is rhythms and not harmonies ending a melody. If the rhythmical structure
(see "The inner structure of Rhythm" + "Form and style") prepares for a natural ending by the
rhythm group, a "rhythmical" cadence can sometimes be more effective than a harmonic one. Occasionally it can even come "cross" a "normal" cadence.
In spite of lacking a harmonic ending, the cadence feels satisfactorily concluded.
Listen to the Notes.
58
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Harmonic Cadences
Rhythmical Cadences
Lowering the tempo, the phrasing (natural demarcation by the performing musician) and dynamic
dying away (ritardando) can create a rhythmical cadence.
1
Rhythm periods with an inherent ending.
2
Rhythmical phrasing - often across the group of bars.
3
Decrescendo (dying out dynamically).
4
Lowering the tempo.
Rhythmical cadences are common in music, where the tonality is floating - or absent. When the key is
gone, a rhythmical cadence is often necessary to end the melody (in much free-form jazz; for example,
you lower the tempo, rattle a bit with the cymbals, and the melody is over.)
Linear Cadence
In unison passages the intervals fifth to prime or the general leading notes maj7, blues 7 and b2 a
natural substitute for a harmonic cadence. Sometimes the harmonies can be implied in the voice,
which later in turn is repeated with harmonies and the usual harmonic cadence. It can be an exciting
game, to guess the chords behind a sophisticated voice (see All Aspects of ROCK AND JAZZ,
Volume 2, The Electric Bass, Harmonies to voices). And then get a surprise, when the harmonies
eventually reveal themselves! Many jazz versions of well-known melodies are based on an advanced
voicing over some equally advanced harmonic variations of the original harmonies.
1
Use of leading note (maj7, blues 7 or b2)
2
Use of fifth or fourth to prime.
3
Coloured passing notes maybe combined with a rhythmical cadence.
Listen to the Notes
Frankly speaking, the linear cadence is a relic from our polyphonic past without chords. It is fairly seldom to hear linear cadences and music without chords at all today. Only sporadic appearances of this
old cadence type are heard in modern music – mostly as unaccompanied song passages or solos.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
59
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
Advanced Jazz Chords
The basic Chord form is the Triad. It consists of three notes played at the same time. Extended chords are triads with one or more added “colour” notes.
REHEARSING THE CHORDS
When you rehearse the chords on the piano, you must learn the typical sound of the chord (Sound Aspect) as well as its “mechanics”, i.e. the typical colour notes and interval structure of each chord. This
knowledge is essential for being able to recognize the chords by ear and to construct a powerful, yet
clear arrangement of all kinds of chord, even the heavily extended ones.
ROCK AND JAZZ TERMINOLOGY
The use of Chord and Functional Harmony terminology differs greatly between rock and jazz. In books
written by jazz players, Roman numerals are used for Chord functions (American tradition). The rock
version of the function symbols is added after the numeral. (D(m) = Dominant SD(m) = Subdominant
DD = Double Dominant m = Parallel Minor). The green colour is also used for different chord symbols
in rock.
FUNCTIONAL HARMONY / DIATONIC TRIADS
In the All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ 1 / Music Theory, you will find a comprehensive chapter of Harmony, including the complicated theory on Functional Harmony, i.e. the functional relationship between
chords in a scale. In the next two figures, you can find examples of a major and a minor scale.
Diatonic Triads in D Major
American
System
I major
II minor
III minor
IV major
V major
VI minor
VII diminished
60
Rock
System
T (Tonic)
SDm (Subdominant parallel minor)
Dm (Dominant parallel minor)
SD (subdominant)
D (dominant)
Tm (Tonic parallel minor)
-
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
Diatonic Triads in D Minor
American
System
I minor
II diminished
III major
IV minor
V minor
VI major
VII major
Rock
System
Tm (Tonic parallel minor)
T (Tonic)
SDm (Subdominant parallel minor)
Dm (Dominant parallel minor)
Sd (Subdominant)
D (Dominant)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
61
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
SEVENTH CHORDS (4 PARTS)
Seventh Chords in D Major
Seventh Chord Types Major 7, minor 7, dominant 7 and minor 7 (b5) ( m(b5)7).
Function Seventh Chord Names Imaj7 (T maj7), IImi7 (SDm 7), IIImi7 (Dm 7), IVmaj7 (SD
maj7), V7 (D 7), VImi7 (Tm 7), VIImi7(b5).
Jazz The ten seventh chord main types
Major 7 (maj7)
Root, major third, perfect fifth, major seventh.
Minor 7 (m7)
Root, minor third, perfect fifth, minor seventh.
Dominant 7 (7)
Root, major third, perfect fifth, minor seventh.
Diminished 7 (dim)
Root, minor third, diminished fifth, diminished seventh.
Minor/major 7 (m(maj7))
Root, minor third, perfect fifth, major seventh.
Major 7 (#5) (+(maj7))
Root, major third, augmented fifth, major seventh.
Major 7 (b5) ((b5)maj7)
Root, major third, diminished fifth, major seventh.
Dominant 7 (#5) (+7)
Root, major third, augmented fifth, minor seventh.
Dominant 7 (b5) ((b5)7)
Root, major third, diminished fifth, minor seventh.
Minor 7 (b5) (dim)
(or half diminished chord) root, minor third, diminished fifth, minor
seventh.
The Ten Seventh Chords
NOTE the second line of chords follows the rock tradition
62
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
SIXTH CHORDS (4 / 5 PARTS)
The sixth chord is the most common coloured chord, beside the seventh chords. It was also the first
extended chord in the 1800-ies, in the beginning regarded as a sharply dissonant chord. The sixth note is
the same in both the major and minor versions of the chord despite the fact the minor scale sixth should
be half a note lower than the major sixth. This chord, also called a Naples Chord, has a very long tradition in classical music. It was extremely popular in early jazz and even Beatles has used it a lot on their
early records.
Sixth Chords
SUS CHORDS
Suspended chords (sus) are neutral, working well in either major or minor. Traditionally, it is used for
cadences, resolving into a major chord (the suspended note, usually a fourth down to a major third). In
modern rock music, the suspended chords are often used as a background chords, sometimes mixed with
eleventh chords. This way, the gender of the scales is blurred, making way for both blues, modal and
major scales. Typical examples of suspended chords can be found in the music of Nirvana. Normally the
suspended chords are simply called sus, but in jazz there are two types of suspension, sus4 and sus2.
The two types can actually be seen as two different chords depending on the context either having the
root in the bottom or at the top (fifth note).
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
63
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
CHORDS WITH ADDED NOTES
If you want to add a specific colour to a chord, for example a ninth, without the normal seventh, you
write (add 9). You could of course also use (add #11) or (add 13), but for historical reasons, the (add 9)
chord is by far the most common “added chord”. You may choose to add dissonant colours, too, for
example C(add G#) or E(add F). See also the comments under Minor 9 chords.
(add 9) Chord
EXTENDED CHORDS
Extended chords are very common in all modern music, rock, jazz, pop, soul etc. Before 1970, extended
chords were mostly played by advanced jazz musicians, but the fusion of rock and jazz in 1970’ies
meant a liberation for the somehow stagnated use of chords in rock and soul, and nowadays you will
find event the most complex extended chords in many songs on the radio or on MTV. A couple of explanations are needed to understand the construction of extended chords. An extended chord is a triad
with one or more extra colour notes. As the triad chord uses the 1st, 3rd and 5th note in the scale, the “extended” notes uses higher numbers, for example 9th instead of the 2nd interval, in order to provide a logical, transparent construction of the extensions. In real life, though, you can place the 9th and all other
colour notes where you want, using 2nd / 9th depending on the circumstances. The extended high scale
steps are named:
9th Major (9), minor (b9) ((-9))or augmented (#9) ((-10)).
11th Perfect (11) or augmented (#11).
13th Major (13) or minor (b13).
64
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
NINTH CHORDS (5 PARTS)
The major ninth chords are the first step into the Jazz sound, but it is also widely used in pop.
Major Ninth Chords with Major Seven
NOTE the second line of chords follows the rock tradition
Minor Ninth Chords
NOTE In the rock tradition, the m9 chord does not have a minor seventh. It is traditionally
played as a minor chord with a ninth added. The m9 chord understood as the 7 and 9 is wri tten m7+9 in rock.
Ninth Chords with Minor Seven
NOTE the second line of chords follows the rock tradition.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
65
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
DOUBLE-ALTERED CHORDS
Jazz Double-altered chords are dominant chords with altered fifth and ninth. These strongly coloured
dominant chords are typical for modern jazz.
Double Altered Chord (m9(5) (m(b5)7+9))
NOTE the second line of chords follows the rock tradition
ELEVENTH CHORDS (6 PARTS)
Eleventh Chords are typical for jazz and normally not used in standard rock (except for the famous A11
chord that starts “A Hard day’s Night” with the Beatles).
Eleventh Chords
NOTE the second line of chords follows the rock tradition
The eleventh chords and higher are so complex that they tend to be “muddy” and dissonant. To lighten
up the sound, the musicians traditionally leave out one or two notes, focussing on the chord’s peculiar
sound, in this case the eleventh note (or Fourth note) colliding sharply with the major third with the mild
minor seventh to cool down the dissonance.
66
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Advanced Jazz Chords
THIRTEENTH CHORDS (7 PARTS)
The thirteenth chords are usually played as a reduced chord. There is a long tradition for playing a 6+7
chord instead of the thirteenth chord, thus making the chord easy to play on the guitar.
Thirteenth Chords
STACKED CHORDS
JAZZ Chords build on triads are not the only chords in the world. In the experimental music of the last
century (especially the new classical music and advanced jazz), the composers used some new types of
chords, based on fourth and fifth, the so-called Stacked Chords. Even more advanced chords, e.g.
the polychords, are very common in modern jazz and classical music. Stacked Chords are used intensely in the jazz brass section, especially in combinations of saxophones and trumpets / cornets.
TIP The bass to a stacked chord can be any of the notes in the chord, as the stacked chord itself is neutral.
POLYCHORDS
JAZZ Polychords are one, two or more triads stacked upon each other. For obvious reasons, this is much
easier for a piano player than for a guitar player to use these chords.
Bm
C
or
Bm/C
Some typical jazz polychords:
C/D
Em / Am
Cm7 / Bb
C7 / D
C7 / F#
C7 / A
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
67
Chapter 2, Harmony, A Transition
A Transition
The burning question is: must you end a piece of music at all? Rock and jazz have a tendency to continue without any limits or closed, finite forms. A repeated rhythmic or harmonic motif. A cadence ostinato again and again as seen in the dance. An inciting rhythm
conceived in the eternal repeats. Is there in fact any sense in stopping?
I clearly remember my parents' records; The feeling of wounded pride, pervading over
many of the 30’ies' swing records, when the band has to end. Listen to the saxophonist
Lester Young and his orchestra break off the last notes. Abruptly, staccato and insulted.
"It is really a shame, we have to stop here – oh, just 2-3 recordings more!" (It must have
been pretty frustrating with the short playing time on the old 78'is opposite to the 74 minutes of a CD).
This interesting point is discussed later in the chapter on "Style".
68
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
The principles of functional harmony and the harmonic cadence types are the foundation
of harmonising in all tonal music in one key. But what about music in 2 or more keys?
Such as about 40% of all modern melodies, no matter the style. If you have 2 keys, and
you intend to use them in the same melody, you must first find out, how to be make them
"pass" from one key to the other. The Latin verb "Transeo" means "pass (to)". In the linguistic sciences, transitive means a verb that can connect itself with another verb (explained very superficially). Therefore I have chosen the term TRANSITIVE for harmonies with 2 or more keys.
I have been much in doubt, whether I should limit "transitive" to 3 or more keys. Many
otherwise functional melodies move in "non-functional" steps on 1/2 or 1/1 note. And you
could, with some right, claim that it was only a simple transposing (change in key) and
not a coherent inner feature in the music. On the other hand; many "genuine" transitive
melodies also have this kind of non-functional modulations. And where do you draw the
line? Until better ideas pop up, I suggest that you simply name all melodies with more
than 1 key "transitive". Be it more or less.
Classical music frequently modulates. But it was not before Wagner, that the modulations began spreading to the smaller melodic/harmonic levels. Mozart modulated from one large section to another, carefully planned over many previous bars. These modulations of course partly follow the transitive rules
and functional shifts. But the modulations never become genuinely integrated elements of the inner harmonic structure of the melody, before Wagner wrote Tristan and Isolde (1865). Today the "transitive"
tendency is so established that almost all new classical music is 100% transitive, both harmonically and
melodic. In rock there is about 40-70% transitive songs, depending on the style. Jazz is more reluctant,
as heavily transitive harmonies make fluent improvisations difficult. But transitive harmony was the heart
of the 1970-ies' "symphonic" rock style, for a time replacing the "composition" music of the last centuries. Here the chords reigned supreme, creating the melody moving from one key to another in one long
chain.
The whole concept of transitive harmony was born of the musical curiosity of a century, using chords
without any veneration for prohibited intervals or sinister attention to some "unbreakable" principles
(created in their time by violating some still older rules!). But even the seemingly untameable freedom
has its rules. There are actually a whole lot of rules. But they can be summed up in a few "dogmas".
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
69
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
POSSIBLE MODULATIONS BETWEEN 2 KEYS
Function Shift
1 A function in key I shifts to a new function, belonging to key II.
2
This function shift can be prepared through a change of key before the change of chord, but this
is not an absolute necessity.
Non-Functional Steps
All modulations 1/2 - 1 - 1.1/2 (minor third) note up or down and b5 (lowered fifth) up or down are
non-functional, as function shifts are unnecessary in so short, closely related steps *).
Major to Minor
Major to minor and vice versa is to be counted as a non-functional step (e.g. C to C minor equal to
C to Eb, equal to 1.1/2 note step, according to point 2 non-functional step).
*) Note the surprising coincidence between a tonic (b5) chord and tonic (b5) on the key on step b5 above the prime
(e.g. C(b5) - F#(b5), C major to F# major – they are almost identical.
THE TRANSITIVE PRINCIPLES
A key modulates to another key in 2 separate ways. I distinguish in transitive harmony between function
shift and non-functional steps. Precisely as the 2 aspects, sound and modal have 2 different meanings in
chords and intervals, a transitive function differs a little from a standard harmonic function. Nonfunctional changes simply mean that the melody jumps 1/2 note, 1 or 1.1/2 notes (a minor third) or a
lowered fifth (b5), without the use of the very important transitive tool, the function shift.
Function Shift
The most common transitive principle is to let a function in key I "shift" to a new function in key II.
There are a finite number of possibilities to change functions between 2 keys. The following table
has been constructed on a strict "mathematical" basis, and it is the table is most difficult of all the
tables in the whole book. I have therefore left out all function shifts implying a "hidden" nonfunctional step.
70
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
FUNCTION SHIFTS (TRANSITIVE HARMONY)
The example is in C major as usual. The keys are all in major. In this connection, (b5), +, sus and dim
chords count as "major".
FUNCTION SHIFT
Chord Key I
C
G
F
Original
Function
C (major) T
D
SD
New
Function
Key II
Distance to
new key in
scale steps
D
F
4
SD
G
5
D rag
E
major3
D M nat
Ab
major3
T
G
5
DD
F
4
DD M nat
Ab
#5
blues 3
E
major3
T
F
4
D moor
E
major3
TD
Ab
#5
DSD
G
5
Fm
SD neap
T minor
Ab
#5
Ab
D rag
T
Ab
#5
D moor
G
5
blues 3
F
4
SD
Ab
#5
D rag
F
4
TD
E
major3
TD M nat
G
5
Db
D moor
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
71
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
FUNCTION SHIFT
Chord Key I
Original
Function
New
Function
Key II
Distance to
new key in
scale steps
D
DD
D
G
5
TD
F
4
DSD
E
major3
TD M nat
SD
Ab
E
#5
major3
DSD
D moor
DD
SD
Ab
G
F
#5
5
4
D M nat
D
SD M nat
Blues 3
T
Ab
Ab
G
E
#5
#5
5
major3
DD M nat
D rag
TD
D
Ab
G
E
#5
5
major3
TD M nat
D M nat
blues 3
D moor
G
Ab
F
5
#5
4
T minor
DD
DSD
DD M nat
SD neap
E
Ab
G
E
major3
#5
5
major3
D minor
D minor
SD minor
DD minor
T minor
F
G
Bb
G
4
5
#7
5
SD minor
SD minor
DD minor
TD minor
SD neap
D
F
Bb
Bb
2
4
#7
#7
T minor
F
4
A
Bb
E
B
F#
Am
Em
Dm
72
C (major) TD
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
FUNCTION SHIFT
Chord Key I
Original
Function
New
Function
Key II
DD minor
D minor
TD minor
SD neap
Bb
Ab
F#
Distance to
new key in
scale steps
#7
#5
b5
TD minor
D minor
SD minor
TD minor
SD neap
G
A
F
E
5
6
4
major3
Eb
Blues 3
T minor
SD minor
DD minor
D
A
E
G
Ab
6
major3
5
#5
Gm*)
D rag
DSD
D M nat
DSD minor SD neap
G
F
B
D
5
4
maj7
2
Bb
F
Ab
Db
#7
4
#5
b2
Bm
F#m
T minor
SD minor
DD minor
TD minor
*) Rather unusual!
Due to their particular scale/tonal character (minor), the functions marked with blue also include modulations to minor scales. The parallel major (Key II) otherwise belongs to non-functional steps.
NON-FUNCTIONAL STEPS
Lower or raise
 1/2 note

1 note

1.1/2 note (the minor 3 step)

b5 (lowered fifth or tritonus)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
73
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
In all 4 cases you can jump from:

Major to major

Minor to minor

Major to minor

Minor to major
Guidelines Function Shift
The middle part of the table is the general part. The examples in C major are only there to visualise
the principles. The table is extremely useful as a tool, when you want to know, where precisely a
melody chord progression modulates from one key to another. You do like this:
Find the First Key
and follow the chords until you know, without doubt, that you have entered a new, stable key.
Compare Intervals in Key I and Key Ii
for example C major to G major = 1 - 5 on the C major scale and find the "number" of key II's. This
number is found a few columns to the right of the table ("Step in new key"). If the number is b2, 2,
minor 3, b5, 6, natural 7 or maj7 it is a non-functional step, you are looking for.
Find the Function Shifts
When you have found the number, then find the function shifts to the right of the 2 functions below
the "FUNCTION SHIFT" top line (there are 15 different possible function shifts by the numbers 1 =
key I / 5 = key II).
Search both Forwards and Backwards in the Melody
Now comes the hard part! You can search both forwards and backwards in the melody. Sometimes,
somehow, you will– hopefully – find one of the possible function shifts. And if the melody unambiguously changes key there (which melodies unfortunately seldom do in an unambiguous way!), is it
here, you must change key on your instrument!
The method is helpful, when analysing very difficult transitive modulations. Apart from that, the
table can serve as an inspiration, if you compose and you want to try to work with more than one
key.
The table is somewhat crowded, and as I mentioned in "Scales, Transitive use" the melody line can under some circumstances proceed as if nothing has happened, even if the key changes in the chords for
short while. Anyway, you need years of experience, before you can really understand the travel of the
melody through one key to another (which by the way reminds me a whole lot of the ways of love!).
74
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Transitive Harmony (Modulation)
Blues Chords
There is a problem I call the "blues schism” (schism: contradiction). The blues chords are functional
in one key. But many musicians believe that e.g. C major changes to Eb major, when a functional
blues 3 (= Eb) appears. The solution is simple.
As any blues musician knows, you cannot play "real" blues notes (microtones) on a piano or as
chords without using tricks with the tone bender. All blues chords are therefore temperated to the
Western system with 12 equal 1/2-note scale steps. This can give a classically trained listener the erroneous impression that the melody is in minor. This is wrong. Fundamental blues harmony is always in major chords. Whereas the transitional forms between blues and other tonalities are innumerable. Before the true nature of blues became known, white musicians always used minor, especially minor third, second and prime, which is a primitive approximation to the blues third, when
they wanted to imitate the blues. Listen to dance music from the 20'ies, to hear for yourself.
Gershwin, however, understood what it was all about in "Porgy & Bess" – or in "Rhapsody in
blue".
"The Ravel Step" – "# Minor 3"
This very powerful harmonic "trick" was repeatedly used by the French composer Ravel. It is an
extremely effective way of transposing. The receipt is just as the headline suggests.
1
Take a minor chord.
2
Imagine the minor third (only imagine) being raised 1/2 note to the major third.
3
Place a new minor chord/key on the imaginary major third ("# minor3") - and modulate.
Example: Cm to Em or Am to C#m)
Ravel uses the "# minor 3" step in for example "Daphne and Cloe" with an almost non-functional
effect.
EPILOGUE TO TRANSITIVE HARMONY
Transitive tendencies come and go following the changing of the styles and their degree of ethos or pathos (see Form and style). For 5-6 years, advanced music with complex rhythms and heavily transitive
harmonies is common. Then suddenly cold storms blow from the right, and chords beside the tonic,
dominant and subdominant (in major, thank you!) become the only legal chords. And the rhythms stagger uncomfortably in 2/2, adjusted 4/4 or (once a year) a waltz.
Transitive harmony is a progressive style trait. So are changing odd rhythms. But it is important to
stress that transitive traits can exist, even in works from “traditional” composers/styles (see Form and
style, General introduction). But the transitive tendency has been overwhelmingly strong in the last century, and there is absolute no sign of the unambiguous harmonies taking total power again in the foreseeable future. Transitive harmony has come to stay.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
75
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Orchestration Tutor
This is what used to be nightmare number one for a rock musician, a score. Although the
jazz musicians learned to read notes literally a hundred years ago, rock musicians has neglected note reading since the birth of Rock’n’roll in 1950-ies until the middle of the
1990-ies (only 45 years), when the modern music schools gave note writing a renaissance; it became hip to read notes. Now I will try to take the last step into music production – the arrangement of rock / jazz music with classical instruments. In the new century,
most bands use classical instruments in the studio, at least strings and brass instruments,
not necessarily played on physical instruments, but most often with MIDI and sampled
sounds. This chapter leads you into the wonderful world of the classical symphony orchestra.
This orchestration tutor is a basic introduction to arranging for a symphony orchestra. As
the symphony orchestra contains almost all the jazz instruments except for drums, it will
be fairly easy to change the score layout to a big band score. The tutor covers the layout
of a symphony score, an introduction to each of the instruments in the orchestra including
range, technical details, the dos and don’ts and finally examples of good orchestration
practises.
76
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA SCORE
A score is a computer or paper sheet with a number of instruments in a certain order. The normal order
of a symphony orchestra is as follows:
1 Woodwinds
Flute
Piccolo
Obo
English horn
Clarinet
Bass clarinet
Bassoon
Contrabassoon
2 Brass
French Horn
Trumpet
Trombone
Tuba
3 Percussion
Timpani
Cymbals etc.
4 Keyboards
Harp
Piano
5 Strings
Violin
Viola
Cello
Double Bass
6 Vocals
Solo
Choir
Example: Large score
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
77
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
A Very Simple Score Layout
TIP Please note that the tuba and violin voices collide with each other in the sample score. A
typical problem when writing scores with high and low instruments. How to avoid the collision? Use a temporary bass clef with high 8va to lift the tuba. Then return to the standard
bass clef.
78
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA
Each instrument is described in details concerning transposition, range, techniques and special needs of
the instrument. All illustrations of tonal ranges are from the Wikipedia public domain collection.
Table of Contents of Instruments
Woodwinds
Transverse Flute
Piccolo Flute
Oboe
English Horn
Clarinet
Bass Clarinet
Saxophone
Bassoon
Brass
French Horn
Trombone
Trumpet
Tuba
Percussion
Drums and Percussion
Keyboards
Harp
Piano
Sting
Violin
Viola
Cello
Double Bass
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
79
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Woodwinds
Transverse Flute
The transverse flute and the cello are the warm and romantic voices of the orchestra. The flute is
often used to add a streak of light to the strings or the light woodwinds. A deep flute solo also has a
mysterious meditative sound.
Transpose The common transverse flute is not transposed, whereas the less common flute variants often are.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description The flute is very hard to hear when the notes are lover than the G over
the middle C, so dampen the other instruments until the flute goes higher up again. Don’t use the
highest notes, as they might be out of tune. If the strings play very loud, avoid topping with the
flute.
Speciality A powerful solo instrument, and great together with the oboe and the clarinet.
80
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Piccolo Flute
The small piccolo flute with its metallic sound is a distant cousin to the earliest flutes cut out of
bone with holes. Contrary to the romantic transverse flute, the piccolo flute is used to give the
woodwinds a dramatic, almost warlike sound.
Transpose Sounds 1 octave higher than written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Oboe
The oboe is a lyrical instrument. The light voice of the oboe renders an extra dimension to the
woodwinds. The oboe is excellent for solos. It is a born twin to the clarinet. Oboe and clarinet in
pairs are typical for classical music.
Transpose Sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description Not as often out of tune as the clarinet is.
Speciality Solo and together with the clarinet.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
81
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
English Horn
The English horn is close to the oboe, but sounds darker; a bit like the viola compared to the violin.
Transpose Sounds 5 notes lower than written.
Range
MIDI Sample
82
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Clarinet
Like the flute, the clarinet is a descendant of the earliest instrument maybe 30,000 years ago. The
Indo-Europeans invading Greece 3,000 BC played on early clarinets. The sound of the clarinet is
strongly nasal and it has a tendency to go out of tune. In the core of the woodwinds are the oboe,
the clarinet and the bassoon.
Transpose There are several clarinet models. The following are the most common clarinets:
A clarinet (soprano) sounds 3 notes lower than written.
Bb clarinet (soprano) sounds 3 notes higher than written.
Eb clarinet (alto) sounds 3 notes higher than written.
G clarinet (soprano) sounds 5 notes lower than written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description The foundation of the woodwinds is the clarinets and oboes in pairs with
the French horn and the bassoon as the bass line. If you do have a bass clarinet (see next page), use
it in pairs with the bassoon.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
83
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bass Clarinet
The very versatile bass clarinet has a unique sound with 4 octaves like the bassoon.
Transpose: Sounds 1 octave deeper than written,
Range
MIDI Sample
84
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bassoon
The large bassoon has a light nasal voice in spite of its size. The instrument has a sorrowful tone
that penetrates the orchestra in a subtle way.
Transpose: Sounds as written.
Range Bassoon
MIDI Sample
Specialty Solo and deep bases; blends well with French horn and trombone.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
85
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Saxophone
The saxophone – or sax – is one of the most popular instruments in the world competing with the
guitar. It is used in classical music, but are much more prominent in big bands and jazz groups. The
sax family has many members, but the tenor, alto and soprano are the most common variants.
Tenor
Alto
Soprano
Transpose
Bb Tenor sax: Sounds 2 notes lower than written.
Eb alto: Sounds 9 notes lower than written.
Eb Soprano: Sounds 2 notes lower than written.
Eb Baritone: Sounds 9 notes lower than written.
Range
The four saxophone members are written individually according to the above explanation.
MIDI Sample
Technical Description Use the three sax types in trios to enforce the sound and dynamics.
Don’t place the soprano sax too deep.
86
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Brass
French Horn
The French horn replaced the ancient nature horn in the early 1800-ies. The nature horn was “out of
tune”, i.e. not temperated and the French horn were able to play in all keys. But the feeling of the
deep forests is still there with the dark, hollow tone. Opposite the rest of the woodwind group, you
can use French horn to play in fifths and quarters a little under or over the middle C.
Transpose: Sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description Try to keep the French horn in a limited area between the E under the
middle C and A over the middle C; just sounds better. French horn and trombone in tight pairs are
very effective.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
87
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Trumpet
You cannot mention a trumpet without hearing Louis “dipper mouth” Armstrong and Dizzy Gillespie in your head. The trumpet is the king of jazz and Mexican music.
Transpose There are several trumpet models. The following are the most common ones:
An A trumpet sounds 3 notes lower than written.
The Bb trumpet sounds 2 notes lower than written.
The D trumpet sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description A loud and beautiful instrument, when played well. If the trumpet player
is bad, use a sax and a trombone instead. Trios with trumpet, sax and trombone are typical for jazz.
Speciality trumpet muffled with a hand gives a very special effect.
88
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Trombone
The trombone is a strange instrument where the tones are produced by pulling the tuning slide forwards and backwards. It is the most flexible brass instrument, capable of astounding glissandos and
blues notes. In the classical orchestra, it is an effective bass instrument.
Transpose: Sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
Technical Description Remember to use the trombone glissandos!
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
89
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Tuba
The tuba is much more than “umpa umpa” and lederhosen. The tuba is very important in a symphony orchestra laying a firm bass under the rest of the instruments. It also enforces the general
tone of the orchestra. The tuba can be used as a solo instrument.
Transpose. Sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
90
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Percussion
The percussion group of a symphony orchestra normally consists of two musicians, a timpani percussionist and a jack-of-all-trades for the cymbals, the tubular bells and the other exciting hardware
in the special effects department. The timpani are tuned and used almost as a melodic instrument.
A 4-piece timpani setup
Range Depends on the type and number of timpani.
MIDI Sample
Technical Description Read volume 4 in the All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ series, Drums,
where you can find most of the percussion instruments and have to play them.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
91
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Other
Harp
The harp is not always a part of a “standard” orchestra. The instrument has a loud and clear tone,
but it needs to be placed in a fitting musical surrounding. Use it as a solo accompanying instrument
or to add its colourful sound to light woodwinds or low strings.
Transpose Sounds as written.
Range
MIDI Sample
92
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Piano
The piano concert is a classical form, but beware – it’s really hard to fight the arrogant grand piano.
If you use the piano all the time, the other musicians will not be heard and the arrangement will be
chaotic. Use it only for shorter sections.
Transpose Sounds as written
Range 7-8 octaves.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
93
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Strings
Violin
The violin is the queen of the stringed instruments. If you only want to use one classical instrument,
then choose the violin. Rock music with strings gives you the opportunity to create a dynamic carpet of static or fast moving strings. Jazz music, too, gains from having strings behind the brass instruments and the piano.
Transpose Sounds as written.
Range
The strange square, empty note is an overtone. See chapter Scales.
MIDI Sample
94
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Viola
The viola is like the violin, but lower with a nasal, broad tone. It is notated in the C-clef.
Transpose Sounds as written.
Range
The strange square, empty note is an overtone. See chapter Scales.
MIDI Sample
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
95
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Cello
The romantic cello is an all-round bass instrument; effective in solos adding a solid bass line together with the double bass.
Transpose Sounds as written.
Range
The strange square, empty note is an overtone. See chapter Scales.
MIDI Sample
96
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Double Bass
The double bass is the mother of the bass guitar (the author’s main instrument). In the bass teamwork of an orchestra, the double bass, cello, tuba and trombone play an important role for the dynamics of the music and the sound.
Transpose Sounds 1 octave lower than written.
Range
The strange square, empty note is an overtone. See chapter Note Writing and Scales.
MIDI Sample
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
97
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
GOOD ORCHESTRATION PRACTICES
Learning to arrange for the Symphonic Orchestra is not an easy task. Unlike rock and jazz music
with a steady rhythm on the drums and bass, the classical orchestra is driven by a wealth of individual
voices creating the pulse, sound and dynamics. The orchestra works fine with a rock or jazz group
in the front. But the arrangement must be able to work without the drums, saxophones and guitars. The
learning period is often 20 years or more. You can start here, but this is only a fragment of the musical
history behind the symphony orchestra. Go to the bibliography in the chapter Style and checkout the
best book ever written about orchestration by the Russian composer and music teacher Rimsky Korsakov.
Number of Duplicate Instruments
The density (solidity / power) of the orchestra is created through combining small or large groups of
musicians playing the same notes. The following examples are the result of 700 hundred years of
musical practices.
Woodwinds
Double woodwind: 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons
Triple woodwind: 2 flutes and 1 piccolo flute, 2 oboes and 1 English horn, 2 clarinets and 1 bass
clarinet, 2 bassoons and 1 contrabassoon.
Brass
4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones and 1 tuba
Percussion
2-4 timpani
Strings
16 First Violins, 14 Second Violins, 12 Violas, 10 Cellos and 8 Double Basses.
98
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Strings and Woodwinds
Strings and woodwinds are the basis for a classical orchestra. The brass section, piano, harp, percussion are nice to have, whereas strings and woodwinds define and move the orchestra. Without
these two groups, there would not be a symphony orchestra.
Here is an example where a rock band is accompanied by strings and woodwinds. Please note the
exchange between the two groups and the thinning / intensifying of the groups. Listen to the midi
file. “Den første sne” Music and text by H.W. Gade © 1973/2007.
Bar 101-108 The bassoon appears with dark strings
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
99
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 109-116 The strings take over building up a climax in bar 114’s high chord stack
100
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 117-124 A massive tension is build just before the chorus, where the string are muted
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
101
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 125-132 The chorus is near the end and the strings begin to move
102
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 133-140 The bassoon reappears
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
103
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 141-148 A classic moving pair of flutes and oboes to lift the dynamic
104
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 149-156 Trills fuel the score with electric energy. The strings play in staccato.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
105
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 157-164 High flutes and oboes and long notes on the bassoon. The strings stops.
106
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
String Chord Texture
A violinist can play 2 strings at a time, but this is mostly for solo purposes. So normally the strings
are divided into single string parts, which form the harmonies of the music. Here are some short examples of harmonizing with strings.
Building an E-minor chord The bass plays the primal note. The cello plays the bass line of the
verse and the strings play a widespread chord with G + G + E (an octave is forbidden in classical
music, but who cares).
Moving Chords The bass and cello plays the same note, which they often do. The high chord has
now become closer and it starts moving in syncopated rhythms. Last bar the chord is divided by
large distances.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
107
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Arpeggio Strings
The strings are certainly not limited to chords. The chords can – as on piano and harp – be divided
into arpeggios. Listen to the midi file. “Morungen Lieder” Music by H.W. Gade © 1989/2002.
Text by Heinrich von Morungen about 1200.
Woodwinds and Brass
By combining the tough brass instruments with the soft woodwinds, you create the depths and
warmth of the symphony orchestra. Here is an example to show how static notes and movable
melodies and bass line create the full effect of the orchestra.
Bar 89-92 The brass and woodwinds play the same figure. Then the oboe breaks loose.
108
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 93-100 Now it becomes complicated. The flute, oboe and clarinet form a trio with polyphone
voices in the clarinet. The bassoon now plays very deep notes, which the bassoon is very good at.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
109
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 101-108. The flute pauses and the oboe and clarinet moves in pairs. The French horn and the
bassoons are active in the bass. In the last bar the bassoon moves to a very high position.
110
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 109-116 The flute and the clarinet play a dynamic melody (the pause in each bar creates a
nervous energy). In the last bars, the brass group sets in and attacks.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
111
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 117-120 The woodwinds and the brass end in a common chord. The flute ends the passage
with a small solo.
112
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Fat and Thin Textures
By increasing the number of notes and by adding bass lines, strings and woodwinds, you create a
fat texture, i.e. a solid wall of sound like Phil Spector did in the 1960-ies pop songs.
First the woodwinds and the brass:
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
113
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Then the strings, harp and choir arrive:
114
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
By removing most of the bass, reducing the strings and refraining from using more than a few
woodwinds and brass instruments, you create a thin texture, which is needed in soft parts of a
choir work or during spoken dialogues in a musical.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
115
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Tutti
The tutti parts of a score is the most challenging parts to write, and it takes years to master. And
even then, it is very, very difficult to keep track of all the instruments playing individual voices, appearing and disappearing. The example is from the finale of Morungen Lieder. Listen to the midi
file.
Bar 1-4 Everyone’s busy except for the brass group.
116
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 5-8 Still busy.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
117
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 9-12 Activity everywhere. Please note how the harp induces energy into the music.
118
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 13-16 The woodwinds are phased out and the harp stops.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
119
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 17-20 Oboe and clarinets play trills and the strings play in tremolo and solo voices.
120
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 21-24 The tutti part ends, and a very quiet passage follows.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
121
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
A “Floating” Score without a pulse
Modern scores often contain very complex rhythms and ways of distributing and moving the notes
of the chords. The following example is from my 1970-ies band Nekropolis. Listen to the midi file.
“Tordenvejr” text and music by H.W. Gade © 1974/2005. Note the lack of pulse in the music.
Bar 1-4 The cello starts the theme. The French Horn starts moving.
122
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 5-8 The other instruments set in.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
123
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 9-12 The woodwinds begin to play faster and faster.
124
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Orchestration Tutor
Bar 13-16 The orchestra stops with a musical vision of a wet summer morning. The band starts.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
125
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Harmonic Systems
Other Harmonic Systems
I would like to end the Harmony chapter the way I ended the Rhythm and Scale chapters,
with some interesting examples of different kinds of music. And with this section, I also
end the music theoretical material proper. The next chapter deals with music, seen in relation to style and society.
PARALLELISM
This common form of alternative harmonies consists of non-functional chord movements, either in major
or minor, but never mixed. Some people claim that blues 3 and blues 7 chord functions are parallel chord
movement. The argument seemingly holds, as blues chords moves in parallel. But blues 3 and blues 7 are
fully functional, in spite of the apparent non-functional, parallel steps. You can play comfortably in blues
scales over a major scale with blues functional chords! The 2 chords have over the years attained a certain cadence character (e.g. blues 3 – blues 7 – T). So blues 3 and blues 7 have become approved as
functional by the majority of rock and blues musicians.
Nonetheless, true non-functional parallel movements are not that uncommon in rock.
Parallelism non-functional, parallel chord movements
Example: Minor parallel chords on scale steps in C minor
Main rules
1 Chords without function within the key.
2
Only major chords or only minor chords.
3
The chords move on standard scale steps, chromatic steps, whole note steps or mixed forms. Listen
to the Notes.
Many newcomers feel tempted to use parallel chord movements. That gets rid of all the uncomfortable
harmonic functions. But then you have to change from chord to chord or transpose heavily within the
"scale". And that is actually more uncomfortable! The principle is outworn in classical music, and it has
had its day in rock music. The harmonic possibilities were not that exciting.
126
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Harmonic Systems
POLYHARMONY / BITONALITY
There are lots of possibilities in polyharmony, also called bitonality. Polyharmony is the use of
chords with different basic notes, played simultaneously. As you almost never use more than 2 different
chords at one time, the second name for the principle is bitonality (double tonality). There are no fixed
rules for how and when. The only rule, you might follow, is a sort of tension curve, where the chords
relate to one another as intervals in more or less dissonance. Note! This rule also applies to bitonal 2part melodies!
Polyharmony (bitonal chord relations)
MAJOR CHORDS
Sharp Dissonance
Mild Dissonance
Neutral
C + Db (b2)
C + E (major3)
C + G# (#5)
C + B (maj7)
C + F# (#4)
C + D (2)
C + Eb (minor3)
C + F (4)
C + G (5)
C + A (6)
C + Bb (7)
= C11(#4)
= D11
= C-10
= Fmaj7+9
= Cmaj7+9
= A-10
= C11
MINOR CHORDS
Sharp Dissonance
Mild Dissonance
Neutral
Cm + Dbm (b2)
Cm + Em (major3)
Cm + Gbm (b5)
Cm + G#m (#5)
Cm + Am (6)
Cm + Bbm (7)
Cm + Bm (maj7)
Cm + Dm (2)
Cm + Ebm (minor3)
Cm + Fm (4)
Cm + Gm (5)
= Fm7+9
= Cm7+9
MINOR + MAJOR CHORDS
Sharp Dissonance
Mild Dissonance
Neutral
Cm + Db (b2)
Cm + E (major 3)
Cm + Gb (b5)
Cm + A (6)
Cm + B (maj7)
Cm + D (2)
Cm + Eb (min3)
Cm + F (4)
Cm + G (5)
Cm + Ab (#5)
Cm + Bb (7)
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Cm7
F9
Cm(maj7)+9
Abmaj7
Cm11
127
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Harmonic Systems
(Polyharmony (bitonal chord relations) continued)
MAJOR + MINOR CHORDS
Sharp Dissonance
Mild Dissonance
Neutral
C + Dbm (b2)
C + Ebm (minor 3)
C + Fm (4)
C + G#m (#5)
C + Gbm (b5)
C + Bbm (7)
C + Bm (maj7)
C + Dm (2)
(C6+9+11)
C + Em (maj3) Cmaj7
C + Gm (5)
C + Am (5)
C9
C6 or Am7
The table shows some different degrees of dissonance between major and minor basic triads. Other triad
forms as for example (b5) or + chords can also be used, so the possibilities are almost unlimited.
An example of bitonality by the author himself; a harmonic principle I have used on an increasing number of occasions, for example in my operas "The Burning Lands" from 1993 and “Frozen Positions”
from 1995. The example below is from my 1970-ies production.
Bitonality - example
("Death" Nis Petersen/H.W. Gade copyright © 1979)
Listen to the Notes
128
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Harmonic Systems
CHORD ROWS
A sort of endless cadence row comes to life, if you let chords continue perpetually on a single interval,
e.g. fourth or fifth. This is a typical jazz phenomenon. In a short while any chord row will use every
chromatic note in the temperated system!
Fourth Rows
The fourth chord row moves upwards in fourths, but ends in the dominant chord (fifth)
C
F
Bb
Eb
Ab
Db
Gb
B
E
A
D
G
T4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
D
Fifth Rows
The fifth chord row move downwards in fifths, but ends in the subdominant chord (fourth)
C
G
D
A
E
B
Gb
Db
Ab
Eb
Bb
F
T5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
SD
Note: the basic notes in fourth and fifth rows are themselves a fourth, respectively a fifth stack (see Other chord
forms)
In this clever way, you can dissolve any functional tendency in apparently functional movements. Chord
rows form a superb basis for improvisation (C - G = C major, D - A = D major etc.). And for the same
reason chord rows are more common in jazz than transitive harmonies, described in the previous sections.
NON-FUNCTIONAL HARMONY / COLOUR CHORDS
Even if both parallelism, polyharmony and chord rows are non-functional, we still have not reached the
outer boundaries of harmony: the colour chord, a chord whose whole existence is purely vertical, pure
sound. The functional chords live a double life. They "function" in horizontal movements to and from a
tonal centre. And they "sound" vertically as sound "colours", dissonant or consonant. But a chord can
easily stand alone, only being, only sounding in itself. You have probably heard the lonely chord of the
foghorn over the dark sea, or the diffuse sound of many human or animal voices, whose chaotic relative
movements become static sound. This way the notes can create a sound structure that does not need
anything but its own existence.
According to their very nature, all chords can of course be isolated sound colours - alone! But often
one or more chords can be put in functional circumstances, where they achieve a non-functional significance as pure sound.
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
129
Chapter 2, Harmony, Other Harmonic Systems
(Non-functional Colour Chords Continued)
Definition: Pure "vertical" sound, without function, sometimes surrounded by functional chords
Excerpt from the rock opera "GOLGOTHA", 2nd Act, 11th picture (Copyright © H.W. Gade 1974)
Listen to the Notes
Especially Debussy and Ravel, but also Messiaen and others use colour chords as effective sound layers
without melodic function.
And with this, the victory of pure chord over melody, I end my chapter on harmony.
130
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
Chapter 2, Harmony, Index Harmony
Index Harmony
Use the Index! By looking up in the index, you can find much more than you were looking for! Follow
the strange leads and weird words. Learn by accidence. Be curious!
A
F
Arpeggio, 12
Fade, 43
Fifth (5), 6, 26, 56
Function shift, transitive, 43
Functional harmony, general,
6, 24
B
Bach, J.S., 4, 9
Bartok, Bela, 25
Beatles, The, 31, 35
Bitonality, general, 54, 55
Blues, general, 29, 31, 42,
49, 50, 52
G
C
Cadence, general, 42, 43, 44
Cadence, rhythmical, 43, 44
Cadence, standard, 40, 42
can, 58
Chord symbols, 23
Chord, Neapolitan, 31
Chord, rows, 56
D
Debussy, Claude, 25, 26, 57
Decrescendo, 44
Dominant, 24, 29, 30, 31, 34,
37, 41, 42
E
Endings, 43
Enharmonic notes, 6
Notes, hand-written, 23
Notes, tonal gender, 7, 35,
37, 38
O
Octave shift, 8va, 15va, 9
P
Gade, Niels W., 31
Parallelism, 8, 53
Polyharmony, 17, 54, 55
I
R
Intervals, general, 4
Ragtime, description, 32
Rhythm, inner structure, 43
L
Leading note, 29
M
Melody, doubling, 8
Melody, phrasing, 44
Meter, bars, general, 44, 46
MIDI, general, 31
Minor, 13, 14, 30, 34, 37, 51,
53
Modal, aspects, 13, 32, 34,
36
Modulation, 46
Musical, 4, 27
N
S
Scale, Aeolian (minor), 37
Scale, artificial, 25
Scale, Ionian, 37
Scale, Locrian, 37
Scale, Lydian, 37
Scale, Mixolydian, 37
Scale, Phrygian, 37
Scale, whole note, 7, 8, 25,
53
Second (2), 6, 25
Sharp (#), 14, 17, 54, 55
Stravinsky, 25
Subdominant, 29, 30, 31, 34,
37, 41, 42
Subdominant, double, 41
N.C. / No Chord, 24
Natural sign, 34
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory
131
Chapter 2, Harmony, Index Harmony
T
Third (3), 6, 7
Third stack (triad), 9, 10, 11,
13, 23, 55
Tonic (chord), 34, 37
116
Transitive harmony, general,
33, 43, 46, 52
Triads, basic 3-part chords,
9, 10
W
Wagner, Richard, 7, 46
All Aspects of ROCK & JAZZ /1 Music Theory