-
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New Directions in Latino American Cuku¡es
Also Eclirecl by Licia Fiol-Matta & José Quiroga
New Yotk Ricans from tbe HLþ Lloll
Zo
,
Cuba in the Special Period
e
by IìaquelZ. Rivera
The F¿ntous 4I: Sexuality aul Socitl ConÙol h M¿xi¿o, l9A1
eclitecl by Robcrt McKee Irwin, ËclwalclJ. McCaughan, and Michelc Rocío Nasser
Culture and ldeology in the 1990s
Veluet Bartios: Poþ lat Cultul¿ ¿t ChicIflalo Sexualitìes
eclitecl by Alìcirr Caspar cle ALba, with a foreword by Tomás Ybarra Fratrsto
'[ongue'[ies: Logo-Etaticistll in Angb- Llisþdnic Litetuturc
Edited by
by Gùstâvo Perez-Fimìât
BiLìngua! Games: Sottt¿ Litetari
editcd by Doris Sotnmer
I
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Ari o n o H
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d ez- Regu a
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Iose Mctttí: An lntroductiol
by Oscar Montero
Neu'Ibndenci¿s m Mexican Art: Th¿ 799As
by Rubén Gallo
The Masters and tbe SIaues: Pldntøthn R¿ldtions turd Mestiza¡e
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Ametican
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The Letter oÍ v¡olence! Lssdys o& Ndrrdtiue, Ethi¿s, dncl Pol;tics
by ldelber Avelar
A
lntellectual Ilistoty of tbe Catibbean
by SiLvio Torres-S:rillant
Nane of the Aboue: Puetta Ricltls th tbe Clobrll
eclitecl by Franccs Ne¡4rón Mnnt¿ner
En
5?,4^'r^'r\¿
Queer Latino'Iestìmo io, Keith l:ldri\lg, dnd luanito Xttauaganza: I'lardTails
by Arnalclo Cruz-Malavé
'fhe Portdble Islan¿: Cubans at Flctne ìn tbe Wo d
cJited hy l(Ith tsch¡r':rncl Lue' r M. \u.ùc¿
ce uìthout Guih: Èthicdl Ndtrãtiues frobr the Global South
by Flcrmann Ilerlinghaus
Viole
Fordrcoming Titlcs
Re¿taLuiilg the N4tio11: Nttt.ottal l¿entlty ilt Lãtit1/o
by Hóctor lrernánclez L'Hoeste andJu:rrr Pobletc
Aneric|tl Cofl
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CUSA IN
II]!
SPECIÀL PÉROD
Copyright @,Ariana Hernandez-Reguant, 2009.
All rights reserved.
Fìrst pubtished in 2009 by
PALCRAVE ¡4ACMILLAN@
in the United States-â division
ofSt. Martin's press
LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010
Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world,
this is by Pat8rave ¡4acmiltan, a division of t4acmjllan pubtishers Limjted,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basjngstoke,
Hampshire RO21 6XS,
Pðlgrave f'4acmillan is the globat ôcadefiic imprint of the above companies
and has companies ðnd representatives throughoLlt the wortd.
Palgråveo and ¡4acmillan@ are registered Lrademarks in the United Slates,
the United K;ngdom, Europe and other coLrntries.
ISBN-?31
lSBN- 10:
978-0 230-60654-A
0-230{0654
7
Library of Congress Catãtoging-in-publication
Data
Hernandez-Reguant, Atiana,
Cuba in the Speciat Period : culture ãnd ideoLogy in the 1990s / Ariana
Hernandez-Reguant,
p, cm.-(New concepts in Latino Ame.ican cuttures)
lncludes bib{iographicat relerences and index.
lsgN 0,230-60654-7
1. Cub¿-Civilization-']959- 2. politics ônd culture-Cuba,
History-1990- L Titte.
t17AA.H42 2AOA
3a6.O97 29 1' 09045-dc22
Des¡gn by Newgen lmagjng Systems (p) Ltd., Chennai, tndia,
109A7654321
Printed;n the United States ofÀmerica.
Cuba*
200ao21629
A catatogue record of the book is available from the British Library
First edltioni lanuary 2009
3.
I
Writing the Special Period: An lntroduction
Aria
It is always
n
o H ern o n d ez- Re gu o nl
a challenge ro l¡racker a time period ancl categorize ir as a
historìcal cpoch, The Specìal Pcriocl, not u¡like rhe Cold !l¿r, thc twentieth
century, or the 1960s, is not only ¡ hìstorìcal conveûtion, or an analytical
construct, Lrut also a defìning category of experience. Ììor most people, the
invocation of thcse chronological lefcrcnts is metonymic of a broacl range of
eveiìts, âesthetics, experiences, emotions, âcts, ând âttitudes. Alain Badiou
\2007) it The Century attemprs precisely to identify the unifyirg tropes thâl
clcfine ¡he rwentieth century, thc pcriocl's imaginâtion-its epochal dreamworlds, ro use Susan Buck-Morss's (2000) felicitous explession, Therc is, no
cloubt, something powerfui about convencional titne frames, like a cenrury,
Such a rime fiame, wirhin a specific geographical space, is often identified
with a collective type of consciousness-in Badìotfs case, the Ëuropean $fesL
Badiou's project is co pin down "how rhe cerrury thoughr itself," that is,
the epochal consciousness rhât key Western in¡ellectuals cxpressed in their
works cluling that tìme; how chey imagincd, or rather absÍacted, the riore rn
which they were living as a cenrurial period and how they representecl it, Jnst
as impottanrly, how they confronted it, In a mrtshell, Ilacliou examined whac
type of "epochal thinking" developed in trying to make se¡se of rhe cen"
tury's mâjor events and processes; what ideas abou¡ humanìty, what visions
of the future, what fears ancl obsessious were internalized and expressecl in
salient a¡tis¡ic ancl inrellecrual docurnents.
t-or ¡hose who livecl through it, CLrba's Special Period-roughl¡ rhe
decade of the 1990s, immediately following the coûr'ìtry's Ìoss of Soviet tradc
and support-was wirhout a doul¡t one of those defining periods. Àctoss the
board, its invocation brings up memo¡ies of cleprivation and hopelessness;
of hunger ancl heat; of wheeling and clealing, oI dreams of a life elsewhc¡c,
Raising pigs in barhtubs, making omelets wìthout eggs ancl pizzas with
?-
Writlng the Special Per
Ar ana Flernandez-Reguanl
meltetl condoms, getirÌg mârried for lhc state-âllocâtccl Frec casc of becr,
ancl other cpic tales of survival, sclclom voicl of blacl< humor, fortn rlìe lorc of
the tinle. Às the state wâs forcccl ro withtlraw flon evelydây economic âcriv
ity, le:rving the population Lo fcncl for itsclf, nzrny begln ro whcel ancl cleal,
runleashing a rhriving black rnarkct of goocls ancl serviccs. 'fhe ficrce compctition for extrernely sc¿rLcc ¡csonrces fu¡ther clcavccl a society already diviclcd
by suspicion ancl clistrust, blrt âlso cteâtecl a strong cohorr-ty¡re coÌtsctousncss bâsed on rhe common cxperience oI rhose years. A sotr oi ânachlotrisric
self-¿warclress-âs socialist survivors in a sea of global capitÂlism-rogethcr
with the national gloom ovcl Soviet ab¡û(lonmellt, further colorccl the experience âs â radical l¡reak frorn thc pasr. In thc Special Periocl, thcre was a
"before," whìch was stable, perh:rps purer in irs altruisn'r and high ì<leals, a
"r'row," which rvas confusitg and unsetrling, anci a futnre rhât wâs, lor m¿Ìry,
anorher cor.rntry. Thc cxpe¡ience was iirtense, yct thc period was consrrì.red as
.r rimc oÉ w.ritiIìgl r..¡¡l rrrcsolutc trln\iriu .
'l he rnoclcls of transforn¿rion invokcd by acadeurics of var.ious kleological
affilia¡ions âppeared lemote from thc vzrntage point of those rrapped rn the
Special Peliod's cluoticlian str ugglc. The analysis of these collecrive imaginaries woulcl be lirnited if it only Éocusccl on rhe highest philosophical anclpoctic
works of rhe type preferrccl by Badiou. Wriring eighr dec¡clcs earlie¡ al¡ou¡
'Weimar (ìcrmany,
Sicgfi'ied I(racauer oÊferecl ¡n alteln¿ìtìve to the types of
analyses to which Badiou's owed its genesis: "-Ihc position tlìar an epoch
occupies in the historical plocess can l¡c dctcrmined lnore srrikrugly from an
analysis of its inconspicuous surface-level expressions than from thâr epoch's
juclgments aborrr irself" (l(racauer 1995 11,927.l:75).
Krac¿ue¡ w¡s searching fol spacial patterns, for'ms of mass e¡rer tâinment
anclcolleuivc bclicfs that procluced the person of the rirnes and which teflecred
ncw undcrstandings zrn<l cxperiences of time, work, communit¡ a¡cl lcisure.
No doubc, Spccial Periocl Cuba saw an explosion of fo¡ms of popular culture
thât questioned the canonic dividc betr,vccn "high" ancl "low," sharply upheld
by socialist culnrral policies. It was ¡he nost popular of cxpressions thar immcdiately rcflectecl on the intensity of cvcryday life, while art, lirorarlrr.e, rl'Ìeârer,
¡nd mlìsic songht to approxin¿te those ând blidge the divicle ro rcach thc
embitte¡ed popul¿rtion. This book lies be¡ween the two poles rcpreseùted by
Badiou ¿nd l(racauer lespecrively, in or:dcr to undertâke a reflectìon on ¡he
SpecialPcriod as an inscancc of "late socialism."
This book focuscs on dìe wâys in which arrisrs, intellectuals, ¡ncl varìous
oxplessive communitres opcratcd witl'ìirì Â temporal fiamework thât wás critiqued ancl sclcctivcly represented, yet w¿rs âccepted as a fact of life, This ternporal
framcwotk was rhc years known as the Special Period-â time dìât, âs llâdiou
poiltcd out [or his rwenderh-century lìuropeal intellectuals, people had ro confroot ir rhei¡ crcativc works as much as iu their lives, Bur, like Kracaner, the
âuthors iD rhis volume, for the mosr p¿ìrr, are not as conccrnecl with specific
inrcllectual figLrres as with pârticular groups of cultural producers, sr,rch as
od
3
filmmakers, writcrs, rcligious pràcritiorìets, visuirl rrrtìsrs, performcrs, mllsicians, ancldancers, whethel profcssional or amarcuf, As the spaces for puLrlic
cxprcssion iûcreasecl, ¡rar:tly due to the slrrle's weakcning artcl pârrly clue ro
new commcrcial opporrunity, so clicl reflective anclclitical visions oftlìc sociÂl
experie¡ce. As the essays in this collcction show, multiple posilions ¿nd conscior,¡sness o{ self a¡cl orhers basecl on racer generation, atd sexttalicy, as well
as c{iverse vrsions of citizc¡ship, labor, pro¡rerty, commlÌnity, alt!uisl¡, trncl
profir, marked a dcparturc fiom ân e¿¡lier sociâl prcssu(e lo express ¡ uniformity of experìence, Can wc speak, thcu, of a Specral Peliocl cultulel
The Set Up
In early April 1991, in colnmcmoration of the Unioir of Communist Youlh's
an¡ivelsary, F-iclel Castro and llobe¡ro Robaina, thcn heacl of the orgaoi
zâtion, addressed a crowcl of 400,000 in Flavana's Revolution Square- The
internarronal weekly edìtion of thc Cornmurtst Parry dnily, Gr.o1ftt.t, tt'¿tr'
scribed Castro's speech iÌì its erÌtirety ârìd also included a shorl sLlmmary of
of which incitecl Cub¿rn youth ro remain loyàl to the ûâtior.r
and the Revolution thtough the clìfficLrl¡ tines ahe¿d. "Cuban yourh wìll
not scll out our nâtiol, ûor [or lentils nor spalgles!" extollecl Robaina, The
paper also i¡cluclecl a sholt commonta¡y on the event's distinct âtnosphere
"-fwo new things ha¡rpened," observed rhe journalist (Cabrcra 1991:4). The
first was "the proliferarion oI bicyclcs," which cluriltg the rally apparently
inunclatecl tìre surroun<1ing strecrs. The seconcl wâs "the rebttdr" of a Chc
Guevara molro: "Eve| olrw¡rcl to victory" (Il'l Spanish: H¿tstd lø Vi¿tori1
Robaila's-both
Si¿rrp¡¿), whrch Robaina reintloclucecl.
!7hile the extraorcliuary profr,rsion
of the two-wheel vehicles notcd by
the paper-âboLrt n qnarter million ln flavana alone-signalecl dranatic
shorrages of fuel ¡nd spare p¡rts, the tecuperation of an early revolutionary
slogâu was âu indicâtioû of thc governmenl's determinaliolr to survive. By
thât poiût in eârly 1991, the Spccial Periocl w¿rs ¡ fait accompli, ancl a change
of direc¡ìon in ec<¡nomic policy appealcd âs the only possible wây to colrfionl
rbe crìsis provokecl by thc clisappearrnce ol ¡he Sovict bloc, Ileforms Ìrad
the goal of both inselting the Cuban economy into irtelnâtional m¡r'kets and
stilnulating clornesric production so lhal lhe populâtio|r's basjc ncccls conld
be met; bur, they wcrc to do so without clisrLrpting the social structure or,
much lcss, the government and the politicâl sysleln. 'I hal is, Cuba cr¡ulcl enter
"thc err of the bicycle," bnc matcrial <leprivâlion slÌould ûol nlake people folget the nàtion's histolic¿l commitmenl to socialism ancl revoltttion ((ìastro
1990e). Cuba's Natronâl Assembly plocl¿irned thar the islancl woulcl stnk ro
tlìe bottor'ì'ì of thc occan bcfore it would renounce sociâlism and ¡cvoluti<-,n
(Cabrera 1990), atcl Ì'idel Castro addccl "socialism ol deach" (soclallsøro
o muerte) lo hìs üsuâl "f¿therland ot (le^lh" \Pattia o înuerte) rr\otLo wilh
Ariana Hernandez-Reguant
Writing lhe Special
which he typically closcd hìs s¡reeches,rBu[ âs stare socialism iaded fior¡
the 1X/.csten worlcl, dre rnealing of such proclanations was more syrnbolic
¡han lireral. Fulther.rnore, as ¡he Cub¿rn state fell into bankruprcy ancl was
forced to retreât flom everyday economic accivit¡ so <iiclsocialrsm, T,hc stare
became the nucleus of l¡oth socialism ancl revolution, letrving, for a shorr
periocl of rirne, broad spaccs [or auto¡omons social action.
Modelecl af¡er a hypotherical ,,Special period i¡ Iimcs of Slar,,_designecl
,decades
earlier for the eventuality of a U.S. invasion attempr-the ..Special
Periocl in Times of Peace" e¡¡¡iled scvere measu¡es to confiont a sie¡¡e_rype
of sìtuation, and thereforc extreme scarcity, Äs soon as the Soviei Union
exhibited symprons of srruc¡t¡r.al c¡ìsrs ar rhc e¡d of rhe 19g0s, the Cuban
government begân hinti¡lg ât its eventrìâlity. Still, tl.ìe sLtccessive clemise of
all
Eastern European socialist regimes ¡fter 19g9 was invariably unclerplayed.
Only following mo¡¡hs of mixed stârements-like, ,,if theie is a Special
Period, we
will
a¡c almost in
¡
be able to resist it,,, and ,,we are not
i¡
â
spocial periocl ùrt we
special period', (Castro 1990a)-clicl rh;Cuba; governmenr
lgknowledge rhe irreversibrliry of the Sovier process.2 Finally, u,i D".",r,1,".
30, 1990, the front pâge ol rhc internâtional edirion of the Comnunist parcy
papet Granrøa, under a "Happy 1991!,, wishes for. rhe New year, fearurecl
a heaclli¡e reacling "Cuba has entered the Special perìocl; the sirnation is
not yec very acutc" (Lee ând Oralnàs 1990), lnvoking an e¿rlier utopian
noment, lììdcl Casrro announced rha¡ rhc lirtle rhar people had woulà be
sharecl cquitably, Belt-tightening measures were put ir.ì plâce to confront rhe
loss of Sovier bloc subsidies and rrade, which up until thcn amounted ro
84 percent of all tr¡de (Jatar Hausmann 1999).
Ftlel and food shortages lecl fi¡st to an exho¡rarion of thrift, which
included door-ro-door inspectiolrs of household appliances in orcler ¡o
issue indiviclually tailorecl saving meâsurcs. Then, ã stricr rationing of
energy and most othe¡ necessrties was iurposed, ancl foocl ration$_in Dlacc
since 1962-wc¡e severely curtailecl. For exlnrplc, l¡reacl ¡Uoc¡rions we¡e
clec¡eased to 80 gr:rms per pe¡son pe¡ day, gas sales to inclivicluals wcre
suspended alrogether, and the urilities,sLrpply was hmited, in many c¿ses,
to a few holrrs a clay.3 To address the emergence of mal¡utr i¡ìon_relatecì
ìllnesses, the media sought to reeducare the pópulation,s earing habits, pro_
Ìnoting such recipes as sweet potâto leaf sala<l, mashed bana'na peel, ancl
fried grapefruit peel,a A return to ¿n ox-based agrìcufturc, rhe piomátion
of bicycling_as a means of rransporr¡tior, rhe recluction of thå workclay
as well as of rneclia b¡oadcasrs ancl olgauized e¡tert¿inme¡t_from movre
cheâters to carnival parades-further recallecl tlÌe war economy that l.ìâd
originally been planned for a Special penod. As a remccly, foreign invesr_
ment and in¡ernational ¡ou¡isr¡ wer.e iclentified as promising stratãgies. Olcl
hotels were ¡emodeled and new otes were bLrilt; smâll airports sitllâted
near treach areâs we¡e rcvâlr.ìped to deal with seasoral flìghr traffic f¡om
countrres such as Gcrmany ancl Canad¿.5 Thc governmeni hacl no choicc
Period
5
bltt to genctâtc hard curtency ard rejoiu the iurern¡tional trade nelworks
thar it had shunned fol three (lecâ(les. To thar encl, the cottntry's socialist
constitution wâs reformecl to pelmit ncw forms of private and corporate
property, regulâte foreign invesrnenr, tulì stâle companies into for-profit
6
enterprises, and dccriminalize rhe circulation of the U.S. clolla¡
T'he summer of 1994 markecl an all-time low rn revolutionary hìsto¡y
with the hijacking of a rugboar by would-be migrants ârìd its sinkirg by
governnìent vessels in Flavana bay (kilLng 35 people), riots in ¡he olcl downtown, and a mass exoclus, known as the balseto clisis, which took lens
of thousancls of clestitute Cubans to the United Srares Thosc who stayed
l¡ehincl consumed their rime ¡nd energy in an obsessive search for food.
Stories of people raising pigs iu their b¡thtubs ald traveling lo rural areas
to barter cvcrythrng rmaginable for Éood wele overwhclmìngly common.
Electricity blackouts of mary hours a <[ay and the constant and unpreclictable interruption in the supply of all othel Lrtililies mâde quotichân lasks
such as cookrng ancl cleaning an ordeal. In Llavana rhc pitch-black, traffìcfrcc nighrs l¡ecame havcrs fot perty crime, The wiclespread exPressiols of
discontent forcecl rhe governmenc co speed up reform ancl permir spaces for
both debnte ¡nd indcpcn(l(nt ecônomrc acrivity.
By 1996, rhe malket reforms bcgan to yielcl results. Soon, many il'tpo'-tecl
and domescrcally produced necessitics were lnacte av¿ilal¡le outside the
rationing system at much higher prices, whether on che black market, in new
private farmers and crafts malkcts, or at new slâte hârcl_curreûcy stores. The
possibility of better times ahead raised populal cxpeclaliolts, parcicularly âs
the incipient domestic marker seemed to provide son'ìc avonucs for advancement, but also generatecl fcelings of nncertainly and anxiety. The growing
influx of remittances as well as rhe i¡come gcnerated by foreign visitors, who
often plefeflecl to renl private looms and eal al private lestâurânrs) stimnlated an rnformal economy that tapiclly improved the livilg standards of
strategically situated professionals. In adclition, artists âlld ârlisâns, âmoûg
others, were allowecl ¡o pelform freelance work as self-employcd workers
setting rherr own fees,7 O¡hers we¡e âble to stâtt rheir own family busitess
ot work in the tourist industry ancl for foreign-owned companies. Access to
foleign currency became che defining element of rncreâsiûg sociâ1 strallficxcion. Some people got richer, mostly those in key positions at stale-ownecl
entelpriscs or plugged into lransnational economic uetwolks, while many
others got poorer, par ricularly blacks and the elderly (de la FLrcnte 2001) At
the same time, cheerfui laclio sounds, conmercial billboards, new expensive
nightclubs and harcl currency stotes, clowcled street lnarkets, books, crafts,
and pirated CDs, tourtsts ancl traffic, along wirh the consprcuoLls jelsetting
lives of the rich a¡d famons-nusicians, aclors, televìsion petsonalities, foreign residents, and their Cuban spouses-corìcocted ân image of Llavana as an
emergent cosmopolis, Howcver, the doul¡le currency-lhe peso anð' dollarcorrcsponded to a double Lfe to which only some could :rspire. Those who
r6
Ar ana Hernandez-Reguant
coulcl ctissctoss thc two with ease-namely, FI¡v¿n¡'s new showbiz eli¡ebecamc youth's new role rÌrodels.
Soou, few bicyclisrs clarecl to navigate the hervy traffic of the oncc-cmpry
Flavana thoroughtalcsr ancl ân atrrrosphc¡c of cautioLrs optil-r-risnì spreá(l
lhrough those sectors who most L¡encfited from che changes: reÌnift¿nce
rec\)tents, inclcpenclcnt entrcpreneurs, etnployces in hartl crrrrency seckrrs,
and mânagers of stâte elterpriscs. Bur as economic policies yielcted posirive
results, the government r:ollecl them back. Heavy t¡x¿ttion squcezed tlìe rising indepenclent secror, while stare Ìnâû¡gers alrd bnrc,tlrcrârs in favo¡¡ble
posìtìons were sclectively supervised and in some cases fired ìn an effolt to
root out corrlrption. Effecrivcly, tlìe govelnment retlrr.ncd to its role as the
garekeeper of both wcalrh and cliscoúrse ancl reversed irs ear.lier amitude of
laisser-penser to elitninare public challenges to ìrs ambirioned hegemony, Ihe
regine hacl survived rhe worst and could therefore rcturn ¡o its olcl ways. But
coLrld itl Even as the governmelr rcgailecl control of rhe ecorolny and reasserred its political control, the arrival of foreign stakcholdcrs-companies,
entrepreneurs, tourists-hâd exrencle<l rhe horizons oÊ possibility for marry
people. Specifically, and as rhc rexts irì this collecrìon cvicLencc, modes of
expression, ethical views, and practical approirchcs ro work, propert¡ profir,
and commuriry weLe dram:rtically altcred for m:rly artists, media produccrs,
cttlrural errt replcncurs an(1, cvcn. r'eligi, rrr. prrctitionels.
For rhe rcvolutionary goverÌtÌnent, iûtellectuals and artisrs were influential sociâl actors to be sought as allics, Now rhe task w¡s harcler, as
new incouriug stakeholclers offe¡ccl them fr-esh avenues for p¡omotiol
ancl publiciry, au<1 the expansion of ¿u¡liences beyoncl thc island a¡d rhe
iitroduction of ¡ew aesthe¡ic agelclas created an impression of pluraliry
and openness. Furthermore, rhc incrcasing opportunities for international
rravel, rnail service, tclcphone comrnunicacion, irnd, email acccss ¿llowed
rnany to mainrain active contâct with émigré alcl forcign relarrves, friends,
and coileagues, Lìrelnationàl academic cxchalges, rrtosrly with Mexico,
Spain, ancl rhe Unitecl Staces, significanrly inrensified afrer:1991, allowing
iltellectuals, acâdenics) and ¿rrcists to travel abroacl, ancl growing nnmbcrs of foreign studeiìts to c¡roll in conrses ând conduct rescarch on the
lsla¡rd-among thern, many of rhe contributors to this volúme (Stanton
2006; Sublette 2004; Vincelr 1993e). Both CÙban and foreign scholars and
âttists increasrngly lear¡ed abouc their respective intellecro¿rl univeLses,
and began to lcfer to each o¡her's w<¡¡k ancl engage in dialogLre. Cuban
intcllecrLrals-like visual ¿rrtisrs before rhe¡-had to nego¡iate divcrse intellectual circles while acqurescing to revolr.rtionary ideology ancl hierarchy, for
rt was preciscly thcir official sr¡cus wirhin thc islancl rhar endowed rhem
wrrh a culrural capit¡l desirable ab¡oacL.
As ecouor¡ic indrcarors improved, the government redoublecl irs contlol
of oppositional discoulses. Begilning in July i994, exrerìsive polìce râi(ls
in homes and roofs tote out the homemaclc TV parabolic ânteltnas that hacl
Wrting the Specia
Periocl
7
spru¡g up rhroughor.rt Havana (Alvarez C¡r'cí¡
aLrcl Gonzzílez Nírñcz 2001).
Subsequently, a number of insutLrtic¡ral ciosrrrcs ¡nd ncw lcgisl:rtiott soLtghr ro
currarl ¡he emerging public sphere, In [995, rhe ndepencleut P¿blo Milanés
Foundation, est¿blishccl two years earlicl witLr glcat fan[¡re:rncl nn enclowment of $160,000 U.S. dollars do¡atecl by rhc rnremationally acclaime(l singcr
Pablo Milanés, was sudclenly shLrt down (Vicent 1993c, 199.5). Shortly aftct, thc
Cenc¡o clc Es¡udios de América, a high-¿olile think rauk cleclica¡ctl to ¿rssess-
ing, precLcting, and advising on the social, policical, ancl economic ptospccrs of
CLrba wi¡hin ¡ broacler globalcoltext, sufferecl:r similat Iatc when irs ¡cscarch
staff was c{isbanded ancl relocared. As icing on the cake, new legislatron (l,alv
80 of 1996 for the Re¿ffirm¡tion of Cuban Diglity and Sovcrcignt¡ zrncl Law
88 of 1999 for rhe Proceuion of Na¡ional Indepenclcnce and rhe Economy of
Cuba) further restricted free speech.s Crackdowus or clissidcnt groups arr(l propagancla campaigns such as the ßattle of Icleas, along with the Fllián González
intcrnational child-cnsrocly clispure, closecl rhe dec¡dc of the 1990s a¡d the [asr
hopes for a political opening,
In thc encl, as many have inclicared, there was no structur¿l transfor'rn¡¡iou
of ¡he socialis¡ economy. Economic reforms wele cicsigned to overconìe tlìe
dite situation of the early 1990s without telinquishing political power.
T hat
is, they soughr ro allevrate marerial sc¿¡ciry antl popular pressule foL charge,
brr only for as long as thcy would not subvort rcvolLrtionâry goveLnànce,
Exactly how far changes i¡ eco¡onic policy could go bcfolc rcvolutionary
hegemony woLrkl be callecl into qncstion wâs the quandary of rhe clecade,
boù for dre Cnban governmenr ancl for inrernarionaÌ observers. For ¡ few
years, ¡ strâtegy of trial ancl error, rather than a mastcr plan, seemecl ro guicle
the government's âctionsj âs it sorrght to balauce ¡he ueecl fot eco¡ot¡ic rcmecly with the determination to avoitl soci¿rl change aucl political opposition;
juggling rhe expressive opening blought by lhe itrtroductiolr of rìew m¿Ìrll<ctcl¡iven stakcholclers with the neecl to avoid political challcnges; altelnating
the carrot of economic opening with thc stick of policical repression. As Jorge
Dornínguez (2004: 23) has noted, the policies merely inrcnclecl ro "bLry political
time." ln sum, cconornic policy wâs sLÌbordinatcd to tlìc political sntvival of
bofh the revolulionary government ând the sociaLst state.
A Period's Telos
Fron the onset, rhc Special Pcriocl was clefinecl by the Cub¿rn govefntrlerìt
in economic tcuns. Thc brc¡k rn the flow of supplies from thc Soviet bloc
count¡ies had material implications whose correction was s¡icl to entail
economic, r'rot political, rcfolm. T his wa$ a poiùt reirerâred nLrmerous times.
In a Gr¡mscian fashion, market reforlr was considcrccl a necessary evrl to
ensure lhe Revolurion's survival.'l)iscnÌsively, rhe Cuban governmenr scp¿rated politics flom economics, and based its legirimacy on a glorious histoly
B
Ariana Hernandez Reguant
of indepenclence stmggles, above and beyond thc contingencies of the day.
Socialism cc¿sed to be a holisric project ancl ins¡ead became inclcasingly
rclentificcl with li¡tle morc than basic sociai rights, such as education ancl
healrh, which were to be gLÌaranteed ancl managecl by the stàte, Yet the
qLrestion lemained wherher the redefinitio¡ of socialisr¡ ir strictly political
lorms woúld allow the Cub¡n governtrlerlt to avoid the pìtfalls rhac led to
Gorbachev's detnise,
ParticLrlarly in l-Iavana, where most foreign companies and visito¡s
glavitared, the new opporruniries for business and errerprise c¡eated an
impression of sysremic change, The clouble economy-driven by thc U.S.
doila¡ ancl ¡he Cuban peso, respectively-cor.responded to â two-tiered
quoridian experiellce, Society was re strâtifying accorcliirg to people's regula¡ access to hârcl currency, and a discourse of possessive indiviclualism
seemcd to take hold, \ùfhilc some mourned the sociâhst values of altruisrn
ancl solidauty, wheeling, cleaiing, ancl gleaning bccame ¡he o¡cler of rhe
day. Everything scemecl to acquire a cash value; everyrhing wâs for sâle
or lease, and nor oniy material objccrs, but also time, labor', and affecr, It
appeared as if Cuban sociery on the whole was embarking on an unstoppable
journey o{ ca¡ltalist transformation that encompassed all spheres of daily
Lfe, <lolvn to the most inrimare. Ilorh in scholarly circles aiìd on Fl¿vana's
strcets, talk of transitìon became connonplace. Às ¡he former Soviet bloc
disbancled ând its counrries joinecl inrelnational ma¡kets and adopted
libetal forrns of democ¡atic governdnce wirh more or less sLlccess, all eyes
were on Cuba. Cuba was to provide â test casc for theories formulated o¡
¡ire basis of the Soviet a¡d Easrern European transitions from socialism
to capitalist clemocracy, ancl preclicated on ¿ notion c.¡f state socialism as a
rotalirarian sysrem of gove¡nment that engulfed all social life. Accordingly,
any challenge or reforn'ì to any ele¡'Ìeltt of rhe system had the pocenrial to
destabilize the whole strLlcture. \üy'ould Cuba's reforms jeoparclize revolu-
tionary governance)
Politìcal rhcories of regime change formula¡ed on tl'ìe basis of the Soviet
and E¿stern European socialist transitions to democracy cstablishecl the
inevìcabilrty of political change as both a precondition ând â consequence of
marker refon¡. "fhe prevailing idea was lhat market leform requirecl changes
to socialist govcrnance that woulcl encl the state's monopoly over econonic
âctivity. Mârket policres, ìn acidicion, entailed the empowermert of noÌ]-state
economic actors) r'esnlting in the rise of âutonomous social sectors which,
evenluâlly, would exerc political pressurc for furrher chalge. In Gorl¡achev's
case) that led to a split wirhin úe leaclership ¡ncl â takeovcr of refotmisr
fa*iors (complicated by the centrifugal tendencies in rhe Sovret Iìepublics).
At the sarne time, as che stâte loosenecl its glip over social life, popular clisconlent was increasingly exprcssed in the opel leaditg to disruptive civil
unresr ând, eventuall¡ to a political crisis and the centralized government's
fall. For rhe lormer Eastern Èuropean socialist govcrnments, the weakerìing
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Specia
Period
9
of thc Soviet regirne cripplecl their' ¡r¿riu source of both suppor r aucl legrtrrnacy,
and without thc acrivc backing of their citizcns, rheit rule soon c¡nìe to ân
cn(l ¡s well. As nùrnerouç schol.rLs h¡uc poinrecl our. prr'plc's plssive.r..¡uito thesc regimes led to a quick tlansition a¡d rhe welcomirg of uew
"r."n."
democ¡ati.pro-t'rtarketreglnes.l0
In Cuba, as the 1990s progressccl and rnarkct praclices and câpirâlist
attitudes took hold tlì(ouglìout society, the expectatiorl, both among the
public ancl scholars, was ùtr polìtical change wonlcl be che ulrir¡ate our.o-". This bclief guidcd borh ¡he CLrban govetnme¡t's fear of full-flcclgccl
narkct reforns, ând râtionale for U.S, poLcy toward the island. The hypothesis was rhzrt ifrefolms wele f.ar-lcaching enough as lo sâtisfy people's neects
and wancs, che fo¡marion of civil society would be unavoidable and hrsrory
woulcl u¡fold as in Easrern Eulope. Anci if they were not, civil unresr wolrld
dirrupt thc govclnment's ulity, and repressioÌr would only leatl to popul:rl
resistance and regirne delegitimation. Slhile Cubanologists abro¡cl wai¡etl
for the "tra¡sition" to Lrnfold, the Cuban think tanks were busy srudying
the evolution of the EâslerÌì Eûropeau, Victnarlese, ând Chincsc ccolomies.
exanined all possìble options for Cubzr, incluclilg rhat of â m¿rket-
ttl"y
typ" of socialist democtacy, a¡d somc arguccl for ¡he ueed to implement
political refonì'ì irì or(ler to successfully leforÌì'r âlìd
rl'ìLrs sLrstai¡ a socialist
society.ll tùlìthout going as [or as China, neithel on reform nor oD reprcssion,
the Cuban governmenr wâs open lo explonng whether ¿ mlxed r:couomy
and a sociâlist goveriìmeÌrl wcrc compatible ¿lncl viablc. It appearecl thar ¡he
kcy element to watch out for was civil society.
Thc empowerment of ron-srâre st¿keholders ând the developme¡t of âtr
indepenclenr pubÌic spherc had bccn ¡hc weak link in the processes thal rulnecl
ch¿nge ìnto demrse in the folmet Soviet bloc, I¡ Cuba, thronglrout the 1990s,
numerous clebates ancl scholarly publications assessed dre shape and limits of
an ¿Lrtonomous civil socicty wirhin bo¡h socralism ancL capiralism (Chanan
2001; Dilla and Oxhorn 2002). \lhile it was obvions thar rhe visibility of
dissident gloLrps, particularly when financecì by foreign powers, colìstitLrted a
thre¿¡ to revolutionary hegemony, the lessons fiom hlastern Europc haclshown
tha¡ it was the orgaûiz¿rtion o[ autonomous ecouomic âclors thar posecl rhe
most danger. Not only could rhey potentially colìvert their economic capital
inro political clout, but mosr irnporrantly in the Cuban conrext, they coold
withcllaw from the displays of revolutionary âllegiâr'ìce that were essentiâl to
polìricol cicrzershìp. I-lerce, the rising sclf-cmployecl sectol a¡ci olher professìonals such âs commerciâlly succcssful ârtists were not allowed to ¡ssociâte ancl organize (Dìlla and Oxhorn 2002; Hernandez-Reguant 2004r). Iior:
instance, musicians âiìd conposcls wclc not pcrmitted to form an ¿ssoci¿tion
,o manâge rheir international loyalties, clespite a lforld Tradc Organization
ìnaïìdate to that erd. They were also heavily taxecl.
¡v rhe end of rhc 1990s, thc Cuban government hacl regainecl control oÍ
borh the economy and rhe public sphere. As the child Elián returnecl ro Cuba,
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so did thc ideological ordcr,
take pl,rcc
I¡ bcc¡rne clcar th¡t no political
change would
¡
result of ecollolnic leform, aud that, rnoreovcr, the so-called
reform lìa(l consistecl oi only fleeting policies in'rplcmcnrccl for thc sakc of
polirical survival, Talk of ttansition subsidecl, and ¡n elitis¡ view of Cul¡a¡
politics r:egainecl its centrality in politicul analysìs. Political observers ¡ecupcrâtecl the vicw chât legine changc would plobably occur only as a resLrlr of
a co¡scusus brcak an-rong thc polirical clite-somethLrg thât, in Cuba, would
prcsuln:rbly happen only afccr !-idcl Casrro's ciearh (Pércz-Srable 2006). Il the
rneârltirìre, Cuban music, lireratnre, fihn, and art hacl m¿de noise rhror.rghout the worlcl, to â grcât cxtent ¿Ìs â rcsult oÊ rhe opportr.rnìties brought by
commercrâl stake holclers. t\t the same rilne, a new migtâ[t cohort had
cxtencicd tirrongh F)u ropc ancl rhe Amcric:rs, forcing polirical, rcligious, and
Ììre(liâ (liscoerses kr ¿ccomr¡ocl¡tc an incrcasingly dererri¡or.ializecl norr<¡n
of Cnball culture. Iû the islalld, being Cuban Ììo lougol ÌncÂÌìi, necessarilyr
¿ls
Wriling the Special Per od
,,
Ariana Hernanclez Reguanl
beirg revolurionary-iu lhe sense of being committed to ¿r niìtioiìalisr polirr
c:rl projcct. It lncant, more tl'ìân ever, being cosmopolìran. In acldìtion, in the
abselce of othc¡ forrns of materìal capilal, crcarivìty, bloaclly conceivccl) was
both a way to transcend eco¡romic ald political geographics and â lììeâns to
sociaI ancl financial asccllsion, This made CLrba's Special Perioc] ¿rrractive
not only to cLrltural erìrreprereLus, bur ¡lso to cultural scholar.s who, thanks
to rhe opcling academic excharges, wcrc ablc to concluct rcsearch, a¡d often
resicle, ot the islancl c[rring the decade,
The Special Period and the Culture
of Late Socialism
'lclcologies oi tr¡¡sition loourecl in the backgroLrncl for cultural scholars, buc
in a dìffcrcnl lvây. Their wolk w¿s influenced by dre booming body of globalization rheory, which susr:riled a naÌrâtive of Lrnstoppable social progress
towa¡cl ncdiberal cnpit¿Ìlis¡n, and direcrly atributecl cultLrral changc to the
ûrcreasing petmeabìliry of national borders ancl the flexibility of co¡rmuuication aud trànsport¡tion systems (Appaclurai Ì990; García Canclini 1989;
Flarvey 1989). 1heìr appro^ch, howcvcr) wàs cautrous, Éollowilg posc-socialist (lcb!ìtcs coucerning the need to question teleological ciiscoUrses of forward
developrnent by consicleriug a longcl histotical trâjectory, ouc that might
show both thc continuiry an(l cl'ìânge of valucs ald pracrices between a presociaLsr perroci ancl the post-socialist momelìt (Llumphrey .1995; l,ampland
199.5). Howevet, tlìe âssumptiorì that an opc¡i[g to i¡tetnation¿l narkets
a¡d rhe tr¡nsnational circr¡l¿tion of goods, pcoplc, and popular cuìrure
fostcled social âncl culturâ1 chÂnge was not ilt (lispute. Ihe cluestion, for
cultnrnl thcorisrs, w¡s not iIbüt hotu, ancl thcir methocl was to engage with
very specific ancl quoticlian practices, The pictute that thcy presented in their
microstuclies on the relâtiorì between market leforms, cultural prodLrcuon,
ì
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r,i
¡esrhetics, and i(leology wâs less teleological than ex¡'rcctecl; it w:rs lilled with
!¡lted trâJectolies and hcsitations, Lr¡caks ancl continLr¡ties-rìeithcÌ trcalìng
socialism as ¡tr eter¡al pleseûl trol ¿s a nere l'ìiâlus in capitalisrn's lorlgrte
clurée
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Fredlic Jameson's 1984 piece concerning the rel¿ìtioÌ1 belwecr "l¡le
Jpir.rli\m" nnd -¡r6'¡ trrodc ru ity "-wlr ich cntph.t'izc.l co¡lrritivc rn,r¡'¡irtgr
.rr sort oÊ cullcc!ivc imaginaries thar linkccl epochal-deliniug matetial con"
,Liriot't. and cultn¡al forms-w¡s â mâjor influcnce.'fhc rext ¡rlovicleci a r:cferential poinr from which m ¡hink about the cultural preclicamcnt of rr pelioci
rhat ran palallel to "late capitalisltì" antl tha¡ coulcl be tcfe¡recl to as "l¡lc
socialism." In rhese "ìate" timcs, Ilast ¿ìncl \Xlost expericrcccl culrr'¡ral ancl
eco¡o,¡ic globalizarion, as well âs the crâckiûg of long-standing ideologi-
hcgemonies. On l¡oth sicLes of rhe Iron Curtain, the gland úârralivcs
"nl
of modern rìmes bccame atlifacrs to be criticalÌy scrurinizecl. In the lace
Commu¡ist lvorlcl, :rs the Pârty begâÌì ro lose irs cenrrality as rhc icleologi
cal guide of society, an omcrgent pLrblic sphere aliowcd [or other voiccs to
.o-" to the forc (Ërjavec 2003; Yurchak 2006). In che rhoroughly regul:rte<l
culrural areûa, the slìàr'p dìstinction bctwecn the official ¿ncl thc unofficial,
Lretween the s¡atc-controllecl public ancl rhe dissiclclt, bega¡ to wane â¡d
alre¡native expresstons (e,g,, yoLrlh popular ctìllure) challengecl the eiirism of
dte arr and cLrlrure âppârâlus.
Cuban latc socialism, ir appe¿ìre(l, differecl frour the Easlern Ë,nropean ìn
srgnificanr ways. In E¿stcln F,ulope, as Alexeì Yurchak (2006) a¡d Alexei
Montoe (2005 ) have shown wirh rheil st udies of youth cullLrre in l9S0slfSSR
and Slovcnia, respectively, rhe cracking of the regìrnes-resulring paltly from
econr¡r'nic reform-was cviclcncccl thlough very spectfic [orms of po¡rulrrr crirk¡re, likc the ironic use of commultist symbols and Icferents, lhe invoc'rtion
of totalita¡ian images, ancl the lecrqreration of elenents from follcklc ancl
traclitional culturc, Something similat took place in Cuban aÌl â¡d lhealer
iLrst befo¡e the height of the Special Period (Manzor-Coats àrrcl M¿ìrtiatu
Te.ry 1995; Mosquera 2003). Yet rn the 1990s, mosl arlrsls chose nol ro
direcly collidc wirh revolutirnary icleology, strategicâlly irsisling insleâd on
dre sepârâtion of art fiom politics.l2 It was popular culreirc, rathcr, thar provrcle.l .r spncc fur crrltur.rl critiqrre.
th" intro([rctiorì oÊ commelcìal and foreigr stakehol(lers in thc .1990s
cxpancled the ârcuas for pLrblic expression. Tløråa music, fur insrenct,
bccamc a powerful space for critiquc both o[ revolnrionaty ideology aud of
the dollarizâtioû process that prcciscly turned this musical genre inro a yourh
phenomenon (Her nanclez-Ilegì.r a nt 2006b).13 Furthermolc, the inlrocllrction
of colnrnerciâl inrerests dest¡l¡ilized the cultural hier¿rrchies o[ socialisur.
Cornmercial [otms, stLch as ,ir?¿r¿ Ììlusic, so-called Spccial Periocl wti¡ers
sLrch as Peclro Jnan Gutiérrez (see chaptet 2, this volune), comeclic film lang,,ng". that unclid 40 ycars of cxpcrimenlâtion (see clìâpter 3, this vo|.rne),
ancl odrer previously consrdered "lesser" genrcs movccl to cenrer sl¿rge clLre to
=
ìl¡
12
Writing lhe Special
Ariana l-lernandez Reguant
thcir popuiar
l-sornething u¡¡hiukablc in
previoLrs times, when the
rolc of culcure ¿rnd the r¡cclia was to le¿d over the rÌrâsscs ancl no¡ thc othct
r,vay :rlountl, 'fhe bou¡dalics betwcen professional ancl amareur arrists,
appca
"high" culrure âncl low-brow popular cnltnrc, [câtly âncl aclministratively
definccl uncier sc¡cialism, begun ro l¡lur, A source of cJrallenge came ptecisely
fiorn yourh groups at thc fiingcs, like lockcrs and r'rrppers, who fo¡ccd thc
stàte cLlltLlr¡1 4ppâr¿rus to loosell up irs monopoly over cultural productiou
alcl permit rhe expression of alternatrvc folmulations. These groups often
voiced socìal (liscotrtent in the namc of various youth, black, and neighborhoocl groups, ancl their process of i|rcorpor:rtion into the stâte adminisrrarivc inflastructure was often rocky, Mainstream Cnban ¡rtists catering co
broacicl publics oitcn cieveloped ¡ sorr of "cioul¡le consciousness)" âs they
pre$ented their works accor:ding ro what rhey thought foreigners mighr value.
Thcy began looking at the surroundirg rcaliry wrth a distanciug gaze, as if
trying to il'nâguÌe what forcignels sought. In particular, rhe joxtapositio[
of socialist pr'¿ìctices ¿ì¡d cnprralisr landscapes was a fi'uitful inspiration for
humorons commcnla¡ics, Yct i¡ the enci, the plicc for theil pubLc projecrion
w¡s to refiain froln frontal opposition to the regime.
Cornurercial cLrltule was everywhere. Derermining whethcr sìgnificanr
sociâl chânge occurrecl ancl to what exlent rec¡riled furthcl i¡vestig¿rtion, but
thc altclation of the urb¡n lalclscape was swìf¡ zrnd oL¡vious. The socialisr
cliffere¡ti¡crol Lre¡ween ideology lnclcommoclity as mutually exclLrsive Érameworks iol ûrcle¡stârrclirrg society hacl broken cl,:¡*n. I¡or insralce, advertising
billboarcls stoocl sidc-by-sicle wirh placards fcatuling rcvolutionrry slogans,
ancl dingy bodegas ot disclibu¡ion celters for râtioned products contrasted
with the ¡rew hatcl-currency superrnârkets flashing brancl-name items, The
valnc of goocls and scrviccs was thc firsr elemcnt to fall into confusion, arcl
fluctuating prices often defied all logic. Cuba becarne a hyperrealist collage,
ârìd postmociern âesthetìcs forÌnd their forcmost cxpression in the rnany
objects recycled ior uses rorally chfferent fro¡¡ tha¡ for which rhcy had been
iutendccl-r,vhat thca¡e¡ theorists lefelred to as an "restherics of clifficulty,"
and arr cri¡ics teLrnerl as a¡ "a¡chiteccurc of necessity."la Indeecl, there was
ueithcr a suddcn nor con-rplere trânsformâtiol'ì of the symbolic order, Ilìe
socialisr orcler continuecl, bnt it r,vas now fading within a collage of assorrecl
refcrcnts tha¡ evenrually would lorce the revolLÌtionâry governme¡t into aÌl
i<leological of fersive.
During these years, in addition to the discussions taking place among
social scie¡tis¡s about the shape and fo¡m rhat ¡ civrl society woLrl<l take rn
¡ mixed ecoûol-r-ry, ârt ancl lirerary crirics lcflccted on the ¡elevance o{ postmodcruist visions for: the Cuban predicament. honrcally, as Mâteo Pâlmer
(2007) nores in a collec¡ìon on poslmoclcrnism publishcd in Cuba, while in
Europc and Notth Amc¡ic¡ postlìrodernism spoke to a postiûdustrìal socicty, in Cuba it was precisely ¡o its absence. Ir w¿rs the rnaterial involution
of the Special Pe¡iorl rhat sparke<l concerns about the lclationship among
Period
13
¿rltists, l'ì'ìediâ) ancl ancliences, âIrcl llìe possibility of quccr, black, feminist, and diaspotic vantage poinrs, Iroaically, il¡plove¡ìenls in cclephone
ser'vlce, lncreâsing access to electrol'ìic mail, ancl an ease ìn foleigû tr¿vel
lequirements fo¡ acaclernics ancl professional ârfisls conrributed lo a consciousness of arachronicity, of lagging bchind. While Cuban ¡¡tists ancl
âcademics grappled with these jsstÌes, foreign scholars-who uulike therr'
Cuban pcers, wete free to disengage from the su¡rotrnding circL¡mst¡ncesstruggled to unclelslâncl âûd wÌrte aboul an expetie¡ce lhât lhey coûld
never fuìly own.
Cultural Engagements
During the 1990s, all sorts of entreple¡eurs-lrltÌsic prodncers, literaty
eclitors, art clealels, journalists and academics-flockecl ¡o Cub¡ ¡o be the
fìrsr to publicize its cultural ucasurcs. As a rcsult, Special Period Cttba
acquirecl a distinct aesthe¡ic qualily, (levoid of the notal judgments that
invoriably surrounded âny reference to the Cì.Ìbân Revolution. Thus images
of ruir and decay ancl thc mnsic sonncls of yester:year were presente<1 as signifìers of authenticity ¿ncl resilience râther than as of socialism's f¿ilute. One
only has to recall rlre successful Br¿r4 Vìsta Social Club ¡ecording series and
fiLn, numerous photography coFfee-rable books, and ¿ wealth of allicles in
magazines such as Na tional Geographic arcl Cìgar Aficioxddo-all of which
showed olcl tradirions, hoLrses, cârs, and peoplc in ntins, yet surviving thauks
ptecisely ro capitalism's absence (Dopico 2004; Hernandez-Rcguanl 2000;
Quiroga 2007). If anything, socialism appeared âs câpirâlisn's pasl; or, as a
famous Polish joke had it, as a detonl betweon capilalisrn and capitalism. BLrr,
increasingly, the members of a glowing expatriate comn-utnity in Havanaac¡demìcs, filmmakers, musiciâns, cor¡espondenls, and arrists-sought lo
generare firsthand represenl¿lions and accourrs rhar would coì.rnlerbalâ¡ce
these orientalist rep¡esentâtiols of Cul]an life ancl clispel imâges of soclalism
monochromatic society,lJ
This collec¡ion of essays gathels North ancl South Amcrical, Cuban and
European cultnral anthropologists, ethnomusicologisls, and litcrar¡ fihn,
and art schola¡s who examinc cnlttual producrion as a site for individnal ageucy and social action. Influenced by Stualt Flall (1977) and Pierre
Bourclieu's (1993) moclels of cultural and media ptoduction, these conrributors seek to dispel sirnplistic notions of socialisr governance ro show cultu¡al
productron âs occulring wirhin a field of actioq rrrarl(ecl by conflicts and
negotiâtions âmong i¡leresl gloups, LIence, rhe cont¡ibutots lo tl'ìis volume
invcstigate the emergence of semiâLltonomous spheres of cukural practice
during rhe Special Perio(l ând rrâck the age[cy of vârious sociâl aclors faced
both with the constr¿irìts of the socialisr bureaucracy alcl the possibilities
opened by both new comnercial stakcholcle¡s ancl foreign colrsfitue¡cies
as a
I
''.:
!ì
4
:i
ArianaHernandez-Reguant
li
;ì
l
hus the cssays zero ìu on various inretprerivc communìries formed aronncl
crLltulaI exprcssion, inclLrclilg film, tl'ìcater, literâture, r'nusic, and rcligion,
ân(l focLrs on the cliscu|sivc acljusrrnenrs Âltcl rcptesctrtâtive strâtegies develope<{ by rhe govcl'lìûÌerf) rìtellecllrals, ôn(l artisls to cc,pe with the c¡isis of
the Special Pcriocl.
'I hc book is cliviclcd inlo thrce scctions. \X/hile all thc a rricles frame cuhural
productiorl wrthirì ncrworks that tra¡sccnd thc islancl na¡ion, thc logic of the
clivision corresponds k) â focì.rs, respectively, on tl'ìe comtnodllicarion of the
cLtllrìral indLlslfies ând religroûs exptession) ot1 dte leâctive ¿tlempls to presenl
n¡tional crÌltlrÌc as roored in (ìuban hisrory, ancl on tlle clevclopment of ncw
cultLrral krnns out of ¡ tr¿nsnarional clralogne wirh comnrunities in ancl or¡t
of dre islancl. l lencc rhe firsr par t clcals with thc clirect engtrgemetrr of Cr]ban
cLrlruràl procluccrs, tr¿Ìined unclcr $ocialism, wirh cornmerci¡l prâcrices â¡d
monerary profits; rhc second pâlt is co[celncd with rhe governmcnt's and
inrellectuals'leactrve discourscs f<¡rurula¡ecl against thc allegecl cornrnodificâti(ln of Cubâû culru¡c to stless Cuba's historical specificities; and rhe third
sectioÌr Êocuses on artistic practices thât, though iclentified as specifically
Cuban, cngage with new recl'ìnologres and ¿rddress both the impending crisis
al<l a tralslariotral ¡rublic.
In the first pârt, rhe chapters by Fìsther !?hitfiel<|, Cristina Venegas,
¡ncl l(evin l)clgaclo cxamine thc prodlrcrror of literatnrc and film ancl the
celebrarion of religious ritu¿rl within â context dornrnâle(l by monetary
!r¡nsaclious. In rheir essays, they all pay attention both to ¡he practices of
culturalprocluccrs within the new impcrativcs âtrd to the types of nârlative
forms ¡h¿r result fron the need to àttrâct foreign capìtal. llhile, accotcling to Vcnegas ancl to Delgaclo, filrnnakets ancl religious lcadcrs secmecl
ro deal rvirh the prcchcamcnt rathcr pragmatically, adjusting rheir formulas ro both rnâint¿in their professiolalism ard appeal to foreign pLrblics,
1ü/hirfield shows the ¿rnxietics anclambivllcnces expressecl rn rhe wrìrìngs of
kcy aurhols cluting rhese ycars. ìlritiug duting the Spccial Peliod entailecl,
morc !hân ever, ¿1 d(>uble cluty on thc palr oI the wrirer: ir i¡volvecl expressing
one's own self vis-à-vis ¡he overwhelmilg surr:ouncling harclships as well as
ilfusing the cxpcricncc wirh Lrniversâl âppeal, Many authors' plcoccupâtion
wirh proclucing rrue llceratnre rather than mere popular enteLtair'rment was,
in lhe cnd, an nnxicry ¿l¡out rhe crisis of sociolism, its moral categorìes,
¡ncL its social and culcur¿rl stratificâtiorì: The bounclaries between "high"
ald "lolv" cultLrre no longer rnzrrkecl social status ancl lespectability. How
coulcl ¡hen Cuban cr¡lln¡e bc definccl in such a ¡roment of social and uroral
changc I
'l he chaptcrs in the sccold secrion of the book acld¡ess this qucstion by
analyzing the cliscursive reactlons on the parr of both cultLrral producers
ancl rhc statc apparatLrs to co[fronr whât was often perceived ¿s a flood of
foreign culturai i¡fluences. That is, ou the face of the need for cconomic
reslructuring) cliscourses aLrour the threar of cnltnral imperialism ald loss
t
I
Writing the Specia
Period
15
of national icleltity gained grouncl, The essays hele exiÌnìlûe â varicty of
in¡cllectual cliscourses urì(lertâken to boch rcflect on ancl conf¡ont rhe Êealecl
erosion of nation¡lisr hcgcmony. My chaprer trâces tlÌe shift, within governrncnt ¡ncl intellectual ctiscourse, from â rcvolurionâry natio¡alism l¡¿rsecl
uì political conÌnunity to zr nationnl icleology of bclongiug basccl on local
culturc antl hisrory. Sinilarly, Lauric Freclerik Meel examines the trope of
thc " n<>blc cantpesino" ând the rev¿iLrâtiol of rural ¡urhcnticity ancl pLrr iry
pur forth by grâssroors theâter groups in thc provincial areas in order ro
courìleract a vìcw of thc paradigmaric Cub¿rn cirize11 âs u1b¡n, cosmopolirân, and cottupled by modern life. Jacquelìnc l,oss) irr turn, hLghlighrs rn
active rcferent often overlookecl, ancl that is the Russia¡/Soviet influencc in
Crban cul¡ure. Olly very slowly, after rhe disappca' ¿lÌ1ce of the Sovic¡ bloc
ancl coinciding wirh the coming of agc of a gcncrariou of Cuban-Sovict offspril'rg, rvere therc timid aftempts lo recLÌperâlc a certarn pricle in the Sovier
p¿rst. Thìs w¿rs rìot l1ostâlgiâ for a pulcr form of a socialism ¡ow in process
of extinction, but r¿rther an àttempt ro ¡eclaim the cclLrca¡ional ald professional experiences of many Cubans in the Sovict bloc as well âs ¿n iconic
ancl cultural lanclscape that was foLrnative and unrque for rhc so-called
Child¡cû of the Revolution. L,ast i¡ rhis seclion, I(ennerl'ì RoLÌron oLltlines
tìre conÉhcrs and clebares rhar ricL the rraclirion¿rl formnla¡ion of annual
pledìctions on the part of Afi'o-Ctban religious leaders. As rhe CLrban govetnmeÌìt strrÌggled to maiDt:rin its lcgiriûracy during rhc Spccial Pcriocl, chc
support of religious communitics conlcl no longel be overlooked. Srrategìc
¿grcements be¡wcen rival Afro-Cuban religious or:galìzations and rhe
Cì.lbân government lecl to rhe visibility of a religion that hrcl beer marginalizecl for decacles as incomparrble with socialisr socicty ancl morality, Oncc
again, narionalisr di$coùrscs sought the inclusion of âncl sûpport froûr â
myriacl of communities rhat, âs the socialist srate retre¡tecl [rom ¡he social
areùâ, hâd colne to the fore.
The lasr secrio¡ of the book is clcvotccl to the development ol cuitutal
forms and llarratives witì1in tr¿ûsr'ì¿rtional co¡texts ând new commltnicâtion technologies. Ilobe¡to Zurb¡no's chaptcr on the emcrgence of rap
rnusic in Flast Havan¡ shows the influence that North Amcrican rap and
its ¿rssocrated racial expericnce had among Cuban youth; yet it âlso shows
that your'ìg rappers owned ir by both incligcnizing lyrics ancl rhythms
irncl agreeing ro inscribe thcmselves within ¡ cultural bnreauclacy that
plcviously excluclecl ¡hcm. l,isa Maya I(nauer, in turn) writes about the
citcularion of rumb¿ rnusic ând da¡ce between New York anci Havana
th¿rnks ro the populâLizr'rtion of digital cameras aud the increasing facrlity of travel betwee¡ the îwo citres. She shows the mutual influence that
nmtbetos ín New Yo¡k and Flavana holcl on each othef to both Ìnaint¿in
stanclards of t¡¡dìrion and intovatiou within mntually :rccepted pârâmerers,
Ïb end, Antooìo Eligio Fernández, -fonel, examines thc clcvclopment of postmoclern painring ancl viclco-alt among CLlb¿û arrists, some of who¡¡ resicle
6
Writing the Special
ArianaHernandez-Reguant
ou¡sicle the islancl. He l¿ccs rl'ìeir influence
fron an iconographic tradi-
tion linkccl to Cuban colonial and posrcolonial history, yer ¡heir wotk
cleveloped tlìânks to both rhe inrrocluction of ncw audiovisual technolo-
Perlod
7
vis-à-vis his or he¡ interlocnro|s was alw¿ys questionâble, as the conrributions
in rhis book implicitly and explicitly ad<[ess.
gies in Cuba in the 1990s and an awâreÌìess of tlìe contemporâry concerns
of inrernatio¡al
ar t.
Fot these scholars, both forcign ancl Cuban, whosc outlook was framed
by the concelns of posrcolonial ancl postmodern paracligms as well as by
models of cr.rltural circul¿rtion that emphasizecl Black Atlanric circnits ancl
multiple directionalìcies, quesrions of tra¡sirion werc not centtal. Instead)
their concern was change; a typc of chânge tbat corìld be non-dialectical ard
non-teleological, ancl thar could only bc apprehended throngh examining thc
contingelcies of the every day, withoLrr forgctting broâ(ler contexts of circùlation. Hence, thc expression of social iden¡iries and rhe specrfic fo¡ms that
creativity took during the Special Period wcre placed wirhin fields of action
rhat wcnt beyond the island, This book therefore ârgLres thar the Special
Period, despite rrs interrse demand for a commi¡me¡t to the here ancl the now,
requiled the engagement wìth trends beyond ¡he island, As a result, subjectivities and idenci¡ies-often iden¡ifiecl with a mnlticultu¡al sort of postinclnstrial capitalism-found exprcssion and vrsrbility during this pcriod, even
às the state apparâtlrs sought to maintain thc rÌâtion turilecl in a common
culture. Hence cultural expressions, while inextricable from the expe{iences
of daily lifc at th¿t time, we¡e often flamed within lrânsnational scâles of
rcfereuce. In so doing they showed a co¡sciousness of connecteclness that
¡ranscended rhe island territory, and valuecl elelneûts such as tace, religion,
ancl gencration, which hacl bcen uaclitionally unclerplayed wi¡hin a revolu-
Af¡et Fidel Casrro's illness in 2006 a¡d his resignation in Febtuary 2008,
popnlar expectations of transition picked up steam, leading to congratularory stalement$ by exiled inrellectuals such as "Cul¡a has Iejoinecl rhe present" (de la Nuez 2008). Soon, however, ir became apparent that Raírl Castro's
governmel1l wa¡i olìe of coutìnuity. Thelc was no official end to the Special
Period.l6 WithoL¡¡ the Soviel Union, rhe Cuban Revolution snrvived by rurning itself inro a new temporal câtegory: the Special Penod, Cuba becarnc,
fo¡ Cubans and foreigners alike, an islancl outsicle history, lingcring in a sor t
of timcless ctcr¡al-to nsc Edwald Said's famous expression. This book
focuses on rhe decade of the 1990s, when the Special Periocl mcant stagnation (political) but it also meant change. During that tirne, the uncertai¡ty
of Crrba's position in the world brought a wrclespread ideological pessimisrn,
while market refolm generated expectatìons of change. The result was a popular sea¡ch for meaning as well as for means of cxpression, This book brings
to tl'ìe fole the new aesrhe¡ic fotms, expressive cultures, ethical practices,
visions of the future, and considerations of communiry rhat forever changecl
the landscape of what was known as che Cuban Rcvolution.
Notes
tionary framework.
All ¡he tex¡s in this book reveâl the i¡te¡se dialogue betweer their anthols
and ¡hose communities they wrire about. All but two cootributo,s bo¡u and
raised in the isìancl, Tonel ancl Zurbano, coulcL be considered neither tourists
¡or nâtives-âs archtopologist and lilmmaker Ruth Behar (2002) put it in
reference to herself. Rather, they are intimate onlookers, par ticipant observe¡s whose lives were inte¡trvined with their sLrbjecrs in economies of favors
and affects that generated mutual expectations and often provoked a sort
of double conscious¡ess i¡ ¡he Cubans they engaged with, who at times s:rw
thernselves throLrgh the foreignels'lens and ac¡ecl accordingly. The unequal
¡elation be¡ween foreign scholars and cheir Cuban interlocuto¡s was a direcr
and unavoidable consequence of life in Special Periocl Cuba, whcn hicrarchy
was clefined by access not only to foreign culrcncy bnt, most dramatically,
to a foreign passport. Fueled by the influential concerns of the booming
postcolonial thcory, the manifest ineqLrality between foreign resiclenrs and
Cuban citizens ¡aised clLrestions as ro the hietarchical distance between these
scholars and rheir orherwìse pecrs, In a glegarious society in which inter-
"'I am indebted to Jorge ¡'errer, Anitra Grisales, Berta Jottâr', Lour<les MarrinezEchazábaÌ, l,ucía Suárez, and Ignacio Vcrr for cheir cricic¿lcommencaries ancl helpful
input, which have grcady improved this inrroduction.
l.
2.
(C¡stro 1990d),
3,
4.
5.
actions werc always ambiguons-ideologically, materially, sexually-and
where inrimacy and distrust coexisted, the position of the foreign person
¡-idel Câsüo (1989) begÂr ¿ddiug "socialisn or deâth" (soci¡lisnþ o rnllerte) as
¡ second line to hìs usual nrotto of "Iatherland or (leâch" (Patri¿ o muerte) in
Dcce r¡l¡er 1989.
See also Castro (1990b and 1990c). On Septembcr 28, 1990, in a speech to thc
Commitrees of Defense of the Revolutron, he annorrnced the inevitabrlity of the
Speciâl Period: "VithorÌ â doLrbr we are ellterirrg the Speciâl Periocl. Ir is almost
er¡avoiclable that we will have to expcr iencc th:rr special pcriod in a time of pcace"
6,
According to Maulicio Vicent (1993d), black-outs lasted longer in the provinces
th¿rn in Llâv^nâr betwec¡ 16 and 20 hours a day,
¡\ ûeuricis epiclemic was wirlely reportecl in the internâtional press. See Vicent
(1993b). Conccrning food recrpcs on radio and tclcvisìon, scc Vicenr (:1993a).
Scc Grunma Internatianal in 1990 and 1991. Every issrrc included ncws on thc
latest measures, See also then uumerous articles by Mar.rricro Vicent in IL P.41S
rlunng these years.
See Jatar-Hausrnann (1999).
l8
Ar ana l-lernandez-Reguant
7, 'lhis had been the
casc, briefly, cluLing the eàrly 1980s (sec Jatar-llaLrsrnanrt
t999).
8. 'Ihese laws followcd, r'espectivcly, Cr,rba's shooring of two U.S.'basecl rescue
planes that allcgcdly entered its air space (in March, t996), alcl the Varela
Project, io 1998r au ¡bortecl citizens'illiti,rtive to rcform tlre Collstitutit¡r al1d
l¡unch dcnrccr¿tic ¡eforms. Sce Alvirrez García rnd González Núlez (2001)
9. Chal¿n (2001) note(l tlìe rev:rluîliorì of (jrâr¡sciân Mârxisrnirl the l990s, preciscly becausc of Granrsci's pragnratic npproach to m¡rkct rel¡tiorls ¿s iì mcâns to
maintain socialisc govcrnance.
10, Scc, e.g., llaurnan (1994), I(umtL (1992), Ptzeworski (1993), Vcrclely (t99:tb),
¡nd Yurch¿k (2006).
(1995).
L L See, e.g., Carranza Valclés, Gutiérrez Urdaneta, ancl Monreal C o¡zlLlez
12, See Manzor-Co¡rs ân¿ M?Ìrtiatu Terry (1995) for an account of the lheatcr scene
in these years.
t3.
film Trcþico!.! \1997), slþt rnostly io I-Iâv¿nâ in lhe
early 1990s, created an inprovisatory spâce in which actors powerfully and critically courmented on thc commodrficatiol of social relations occutring in Cuba
Steve !-¿gin's cxperimcntal
¡t the lilìe.
14. 'Ihe Teatto clcl Obstáculo þr'Iheater of Obsr.rcles) use(l "aesdletics of ¿ifficulty" as thcir-rnotþ, âccor¿ing to Mânzot-Coâts antl Martiatu Terry \1995).
also Oroza, Maja Asa:r et nl, (n.cl.),
these, there were filnr studenls suclì as the Sp¿nrâId Benito Zarnbrano,
foreign rÌtrsic plowlìo went on to direct dìe Íilro Habana Blues (2002)
^bout
cluccls seeking to corììmercrâhze Cuban orusic abroacl, ancl jotrtnahsts such as
longtime E/- ¡'A1S colresporderlt Mauricio Vicelt, who since 1991 pttblishecl
hunclrecls ofchronicles of the SpccialPetrod's claily life
ThroLrgh the 2000s, Ficlcl Castro (2001, 2005) has continued to tefcr to tlìe
SpecialPeriod as ongoiÌrg. I owc this point ro Ignacro Vera.
See
15. Among
16.
---Fi
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