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Language and Identity: An Analysis of Socio-Cultural Issues of the
Migrants in District Bhimber (A.K.)
Lubna Aram Azam
M.Phil Scholar in Linguistics
Lecturer in Department of English
Mirpur University of Science and Technology, MUST.
Pakistan
Dr. Muhammad Shahbaz
Assistant Professor, Department of English,
College of Education
Majmaah University, Al-Zulfi, KSA
Abstract
This paper aims at to investigate the socio-cultural issues of migrants in a case study of Bhimber
(A.K). This paper works on their linguistics levels how they are different and having different
identities being linguistically poles apart. Their accent is different. Focusing on the socially
constructed and culturally figured nature of language, tools, and interactions in learning
contexts, this approach assists in the appreciation of how migrant navigate through and develop
an understanding of themselves in different social contexts. To this end, Social identity theory of
Henri Tajfel 1974 is used as theoretical framework for this study. Henri Tajfel's greatest
contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Tajfel provides three mental processes
which analyze how individuals construct their identities by categorizing themselves in social
environment. To explore the potential of theses sociocultural issues, a case study is described
involving triangular methodology in which is a likert scale questionnaire was distributed among
40 participants, researcher’s observation and a series of interviews with migrants about their
self-perceptions in social contexts. The case study highlights how different worlds and identities
are formed in the city Bhimber where immigrants community and native lives. It is concluded
from this research that the accent, culture of the migrants is different and food system is also
different which marks their identity different with the native. It is revealed that their social,
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economic and political identities are diverse due to their different accents and culture.
Linguistically different accent constitutes the different identity of migrants.
Keywords Migrants, Identity, Culture, social-identification, social-comparison,
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1. Introduction
It is appealing to note that in the 1970s and 1980s, second language researchers interested in
the relationship between identity and language learning might have drawn distinctions between
social identity and cultural identity. While “social identity” was seen with reference to
the
relationship between the individual and the larger social world, as mediated through institutions
such as families, schools, workplaces, social services, and law courts (e.g. Gumperz, 1982),
“cultural identity” referenced the relationship between an individual and members of a particular
ethnic group (such as Mexican and Japanese) who are considered to share a common history, a
common language, and similar ways of understanding the world.
In more recent years, however, the difference between social and cultural identity is seen to
be theoretically more fluid, and the intersections between social and cultural identities are more
significant than their differences. In this more recent second language research, identity is seen as
sociocultural constructed, and scholars draw on both institutional and community practices to
understand the conditions under which language learners speak, read, and write the target language.
A sociocultural conception of identity conceives of identity as dynamic and constantly
changing across time and place. Indeed, a recurring theme throughout much research on identity
and language learning is that of "transition." Many of the participants in research projects on
identity and language learning are undergoing significant changes in their lives, whether moving
from one country to another (Kanno, 2003) or from one institution to the next (Harklau, 2000). As
Kanno (2003, p. 135) notes: Most researchers note that identity constructs and is constructed by
language. As Pavlenko (2004, p. 54) argues, “Language is seen in this paradigm as the locus of
social organization and power, and as a form of symbolic capital as well as a site of struggle where
subjectivity and individual consciousness are produced.”
Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which
people belong to are an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social
identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. Migrant’s groups or community gives them a
sense of social identity in the majority community of natives. No doubt their groups are fully aware
of their esteem and pride of their different culture but in spite of this fact they feel sociocultural
problems while living in the society. Therefore we divided the world into “them” and “us” based
through a process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social groups). We can say
“Them” are migrants and “us” are natives. This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them).
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Social identity theory states that the in-group will categorize against the out-group to enhance their
self-image. The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group
will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image. In other words
we can say that in-group means natives will deconstruct the identity of out-group and this concept
of deconstruction will enhance the self-image of out-group. Simply it is stated that on the one hand
natives are constructed the identity of migrants but at the same time natives are giving the sense of
self-esteem to migrants to maintain their identity. In this way migrants are highlighted having
different identities in social context.
1.1. Research Questions
1.
Why migrants have different identities from native?
2.
What are the sociocultural issues of migrants in the community?
3.
Why do migrants have different culture from natives?
4.
Why do migrants have different language from natives?
1.2. Social Identity Theory Outline
Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that there are three mental processes involved in
evaluating others as “us” or “them” (i.e. “in-group” and “out-group”). It means how natives
construct the different identities of migrants. These take place in a particular order.
The first is categorization. We categorize objects in order to understand them and identify
them. In a very similar way we categorize people (including ourselves) in order to understand the
social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Migrants, Australian, Christian,
Muslim, student, and bus driver etc because they are useful. In the context of this study, native
categorizes out-groups as migrants to give them different social identity that they are different
people behaving differently. This categorization, no doubt, enhances the self-esteem of migrants but
on the same time they feel sociocultural problems as well.
In the second stage, of social identification, we adopt the identity of the group we have
categorized ourselves as belonging to. If for example we have categorized others as a student, the
chances are they will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways they believe
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students act (and conform to the norms of the group). Likewise the natives categorize migrants and
they try to behave like migrants in other social context having different culture and language. There
will be an emotional significance for migrants to identification with a group, and their self-esteem
will become bound up with group membership.
The final stage is social comparison. Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a
group and have identified with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups. If
our self-esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare favorably with other groups. This is
critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals they are
forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem. Competition and hostility
between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources like jobs but also the result of
competing identities. At this final stage i.e. social comparison migrants feel different sociocultural
problems. They tend to compare their groups and esteem with the natives and face many problems.
Sometimes, they intermingle with natives but at some settings they never compromise with their
language, accent and culture. These different norms mark their identity different from that of
natives.
1.3. History of Jammu and Kashmir and Bhimber (A.K)
The state of Jammu and Kashmir is positioned at the incredible and wonderful western
division of the huge and immense Himalayan range where it merges with Hindu Kush, the
Karakorams and central Asia. It has a whole area of 84,471 square miles. On the whole, the state is
enclosed within the arms formed by the Indus and the Ravi; the major arteries delimited by the state
are the Jhelum and the Chenab.
The Muslims of Bhimber and the Muslims of Jammu and Kashmir started resisted against
Dogras ruler and acted as forerunner to get rid of this rule. The Muslim conference of all Jammu
and Kashmir demanded maharaja for contiguity with Pakistan on the basis of Majority of Muslim
population of Jammu and Kashmir. But Hindu Dogra was so dominate on his decisive power that he
started to take practiced steps for contiguity with India. So the Muslims of Bhimber started proper
militarily struggle to check the evil design of Maharaja. The Muslim got success one after the other
and on 22nd October 1947, the Muslims of Bhimber continued their military struggle against Indian
army to fail Maharajas’ conspiracy. After a great struggle, more than 33 thousand mile area
including Bhimber was occupied and given under free and independent Government of AJK. The
Muslims had to migrate from Nosharha, pooch towards Bhimber and Mirpur.
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1.4. Caste system and Culture
Among Jammu province the most important castes are the Brahmans, the Rajput, the
Khattris, and the Thakkars, the Dogras, the Chibs, the Gujjars. The Gujjars main business moved up
to the splendid grazing- ground with their buffaloes and goats. They were Musalmans by religion,
and many of the Gujar tribes speak their own known as Parimu. They are of fine tall race of men,
either rather stupid faces or large prominent teeth. While the Kashmir Valley is predominantly
Muslim, Jammu has a majority of Hindus. Apart from their majority religious denominations, all
the areas have minority population of Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. According to Jenkins,
(2004) “Identity denotes the way in which individuals and collectivities are distinguished in their
relations with other individuals and collectivities.” (P.18).
The food of Jammu and Kashmir’s Muslims differs from region to region. The Hindus,
Dogras and Muslims of Jammu being predominantly vegetarian, eat a staple diet of rice, wheat and
beans. They also used locally produced vegetables and fruits, goat meats.
Kashmiri food is
characterized by its vast assortment of dishes cooked over a long period of in striking spices.
Jammu and Kashmir have multiphase, multireligious and multi-ethnic cultures. A long line of
sophisticated rulers amalgam these diverse strains into a prosperous cultured heritage unifying all
religious, ethnic and linguistic divisions.
The migrants were of caste named, Rajput, Mughal, Jaat, Gujar and Chip. Mostly Rajput
and Chip of Pounch established in Bhimber. They lived and believed in Baradri system. They
verbalize Pahari language. Migrants of Nosharha valley also converse Pahari language. But the
migrants of Rajori address Gojjri language, in this way their cultural identities seemed different.
Their accent is furthermore different. Migrants of Rajori they suffered very critical period, because
of their Gojjri language. A few tribes tried to live on the fields and started their livelihood by having
animals like goat and buffaloes. Their language is entirely different and costume is moreover
different. But with the rally round of natives, they started to mingle their identities in the midst of
the natives and developed a miscellaneous culture and assorted Languages of Pahari and Punjabi.
2. Literature Review
The concept of identity became one prominent way to reconceptualize self over the last few
decades. In general terms, self is now viewed as a set or series of identities that can be invoked
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individually or simultaneously in situations, but once evoked, individuals’ actions are directed at
having others verify an identity or identities. At the same time, identities can act as filters of
selective perception and interpretation as individuals mutually role-take with one another.
A sociological approach to self and identity begins with the assumption that there is a
reciprocal relationship between the self and society (Stryker, 1980). The self influences society
through the actions of individuals thereby creating groups, organizations, networks, and institutions.
And, reciprocally, society influences the self through its shared language and meanings that enable
a person to take the role of the other, engage in social interaction, and reflect upon oneself as an
object. The latter process of reflectivity constitutes the core of selfhood (McCall & Simmons, 1978;
Mead, 1934). Because the self emerges in and is reflective of society, the sociological approach to
understanding the self and its parts (identities) means that we must also understand the society in
which the self is acting, and keep in mind that the self is always acting in a social context in which
other selves exist (Stryker, 1980). In this paper self of migrants is being analyzed in the society
which is comprised of natives.
Tajfel’s Social identity theory is used as theoretical framework for this paper. The main idea
of social identity theory is argued that individuals categorize themselves and others into groups to
establish and maintain their self esteem and reduce uncertainty (Abrams and Brown, 1989, Brown,
2000). No doubt migrants have different entities, and they comprise of a different identity, on the
behalf of language. Migrants’ language and accent is different from that of natives and they
categorize themselves in different groups and having their esteem high. According to Jenkins,
(2004), “Identity is the human capacity – rooted in language – to know ‘who is who? (p.5). While
describing the role of language in social identity, Giles et al explain ‘individuals’ language is used
in positive or negative differentiations, thereby expressing ethnic identity. (Giles et al. 1977, Giles
and Johnson, 1981). In the view of Giles, researcher shows agreement that migrants’ language is
different and their different language expresses their ethnic identity.
Social identity theory which, here I took as encompassing the more recent development
known as social categorization theory, focused on group and intergroup processes and relations.
(Tajfel 1974; Tajfel and Turner 1979, 1986; Turner 1985, 1999; Turner et al. 1987). As in identity
theory, the self is conceptualized as a collection of identities; however, in this case, the identities are
social identities, each associated with membership in a social category: “The basic idea is that a
social category (e.g., nationality, political affiliation, sports team) into which one falls, and to which
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one feels one belongs, provides a definition of who one is in terms of the defining characteristics of
the category – a self-definition that is a part of the self-concept” (Hogg et al. 1995:259). Each of
these social identities confers self-enhancement (Hogg et al. 1995:260), contributes to selfconceptualization (Hogg et al. 1995:262), and generates self-esteem (Hogg et al. 1995:263; see also
Brown 1986:551) and status (Hornsey and Hogg 2002). These social identities crucially shape a
variety of further behavioral phenomena, in particular, intergroup behavior (Hogg at al.1995;
Hornsey and Hogg 2002; Ellemers et al. 2002).
In articulating the theory, Tajfel argued that human interaction ranges on a spectrum from
being purely interpersonal on the one hand to purely intergroup on the other. A purely interpersonal
interaction (which Tajfel and Turner believed to be rare) involves people relating entirely as
individuals, with no awareness of social categories. It is found by the researcher that migrants’
interpersonal interaction is very polite and satisfactory but they are not aware of how they are being
categorized by the natives. A purely intergroup interaction is one in which people relate entirely as
representatives of their groups, and where one’s idiosyncratic, individualizing qualities are
overwhelmed by the salience of one’s group memberships likewise migrants are representatives of
their own groups having different qualities and natives have their own. It was argued that sliding
from the interpersonal to the intergroup end of the spectrum results in shifts in how people see
themselves and each other.
Furthermore, Giles and Byrnes (1982) assert that “a language group is also an ethnic group,
since language is one of the most characteristics marker of identity.” Language, in other words,
becomes the embodiment of ethnicity. According to Giles and Byrnes (1982), “this is one of the
reasons that language is often the focal point of inter-ethnic conflicts”. Although Giles describes
ethnic identity as a subjective phenomenon, he also argues that the vitality of the language group is
determined by objective criteria, such as group size and economic status and so on (Giles et
al.1977).It is observed that the social identity of migrants is being put on the platform due to the
link between social identity and language. According to Jenkins, (2004) “Identity does not, and
cannot, make people do anything: it is, rather, people who make and do identity, for their own
reasons and purposes.” (P.9).
By examining previous literature on this issue, I came to realize that the commonalities in
the conceptions of identity, as articulated by the different researchers, were more marked than their
differences. But in the present research I do commit the difference in the identities of migrants
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which are constructed by the natives. I argue that the apparent differences between the theoretical
orientations of the researchers might be explained in terms of the disciplines and research traditions
that informed their work and the different emphases of their research projects. Morgan (1997),
working within an institutional context, and committed to social change, adopted a more
sociological approach to his conception of identity. Schecter and Bayley (1997), whose research
focused on the language socialization of a particular group of people with a common linguistic
heritage, adopted a more anthropological approach to their analysis of identity.
The aim of this article is to examine and describe that, language constitute the social identity
of migrants among the native of Bhimber (A.K).Migrants carry different social-cultural background
and in this way their identity, their society, their culture, their language everything would be
different. According to Jenkins, (2004) “Principle of social constructionism, groups are real if
people think they are: they then behave in ways that assume that groups are real and, in so doing,
construct that reality” (P. 12). “Identity should, thus, be understood as a form that is a actualized as
the necessary fiction of a group, depending on the situation This may be aided by linguistic terms
that create practices of self-representations” (Pavlenko and Blackledge, 2004).So, language
provides a great chance to remain engaged in the social interaction and provide a main agent to the
individual for interacting into cultural and social group. In anthropological theories, the
organization of identities is constantly constructed and reconstructed in interactions (Anderson,
1990).
The relationship between language and identity is mutually constitutive in at least two ways.
On the one hand, languages supply the linguistics means with which identities are constructed and
negotiated. On the other hand, ethnic identification guides ways in which individuals use linguistic
resources to categories their identities and to evaluate the use of linguistics resources by other
(Pavlenko and Blackledge, 2004).
3. Methodology
This research is conducted through mixed methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative
approaches are used. In qualitative approach, triangular process that is questionnaire, interview and
observations of the researcher are used.
Interviews: interview means mutual view of each other. It is called a conversation with a
purpose. During this research, researcher conduct interviews with migrants to exchange ideas, to get
information about their past, interpret the present situation of research. Face-to-face verbal
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interchange helped the researcher to endeavor information and expression of opinion from migrants
regarding this particular research. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data.
Researcher also conducted focused interview, in this interview. The migrants were given
considerable freedom to express their personal reactions, specific emotions by defining mental
associations with their original places, these associations with their original places were provoked
by a certain stimulus, e.g. repeatedly using the word migration from their original places. In this
way, the migrants easily started giving information to researcher, i.e. how they came to this area,
which kinds of problems the had to face etc. researcher, through interview got relatively dependent
able information about the issue of migration, their problems and the status among natives.
Triangular methodology is used for conducting this research. The second angle of this
research is focus group discussion. A focus group is recognized as a group of selected people in
which the researcher asked them about their perception opinions beliefs and attitudes towards the
research.
In this angle questions were asked in an interactive group setting where the participants are
allowed to talk freely about the issue. Researcher also distributed 3 questionnaires comprised of the
questions about their political, social and cultural issues. 40 participants were included in this
research. For the data analysis SPSS was used.
Researcher focused on eight families of migrants to discuss problems of migrants while
migration, about their social identity in the natives of Bhimber and about marital problems. These
eight families were considered as focus group, and the researcher approached these families, for
three times at their homes and for three times researches called theses people at her home, for tea
party at evening.
During this session researcher raised different questions, and these people
answered these questions frankly and helped out the researches to highlight the issues of migrants.
4. Data Collection and Analysis
For the data collection researcher did survey among the society to search out the migrants.
Researcher selected Eight families of migrants to collect data related this research. The above
mentioned methodology is used to collect data. It has been discussed above, that the migrants who
have migrated from Nosharha and, Rajori and Pooch settled in Mirpur and Bhimber. The language
of migrants is Pahari and the natives are Punjabi. The research shows that the migrants constitute
different accent which marks their identity different from the native.
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Accent marks the identity of migrants different from natives. Accent is a platform which highlights
the different identity of migrants in the native society.
Accent of Natives
Accent of Migrants
Kithay chale o. (Where are you going?)
Kuthey julay o
Khe karne o. (What are you doing?)
Kh karaya karne o
Me sher jasan. (I Shall go to city.)
Me sher julsan
Ae meri kataab a (This is my book.)
Ae mari katab ae
Tasan na naa ki ae. (What is your name?)
Tara na kh a
The above mentioned accent show how the migrants have been considered as different
identities in the society of natives living in Bhimber A.K. Questionnaires having questions about,
socio-cultural issues, socio-political issues, socio-identical-issues have been distributed among the
migrants. Their identity is different only due to their accent.
The researcher distributed questionnaires about, Socio- economic and socio-political level of
migrants. 40 participants participated in this process and they answered about the queries of
researcher. Data that has been collected is interpreted and analyzed in the following, with the help
of bar charts. These bars show the response of migrants. The following graphs show the response
according to the sequence of question.
Researcher distributed the questionnaire which is based on the socio-political level. Its aim
was to judge the views of migrants at political level. Its aim was to judge migrant’s identity at
political level. First question was asked, “You have the rights of voting”. For this question 25 %
were strongly agreed and 60% agreed on the issue. It means their identity is considered different
and they are allowed to use their right of voting in majority community.
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Second question was about the quota scheme for migrants in Govt. Services, i.e. “There is any
quota scheme for migrants in Govt. Services”. 50 % of the migrants are strongly agree and 40 % are
agree that they have been facilitated on the quota system in Govt. Service.
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Third question was about the attitude of the native with them at political level. They were asked, do
the native promote them at political level. 33 % are agree but at the same time 32% do disagree. It
shows that native do create problems for migrants at political level. No doubt migrants have the
right of voting but native deconstruct their identity by creating different problems for them.
In the fourth question they were asked about the district court, does it help them in solving their
problems. 18 % were strongly agreed and 27 % are agreed, but at the same time 25% do disagree
and 2% do strongly disagree which show that migrants also faced problem in court for solving their
problem and treat the migrants as different identity living in the majority of native.
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In the fifth question they were asked, do they live a peaceful life on the political level. 18 % were
strongly agreed and 28 % are agreed and 25% do disagree at this point. This unsatisfactory
response of migrants indicates that they feel insecure at political level and being treated differently
at political level.
Data collected from the above questionnaire shows that migrants have different sociopolitical level
and faces many problems at political level. In the second questionnaire, migrant’s view at economic
level was being asked. 45 % are agreed at this point. In shows that, no doubt migrants feel
insecurity at political level but at the same time they do maintain their self-esteem to live the social
context of native.
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In the second question, they were asked that, “Your income is an adequate amount for your daily
associations”. 3 % were strongly agreed and 48 % are agreed on the given question, but at the same
time 28% do disagree and 2% do strongly disagree by showing that their income is minimum source
for their daily expenditure.
In the third question they were asked that, “You have the property rights. 48 % are agreed and the
12 % do strongly agreed on the given question but 29% do disagreeing showing that they were
being restricted to enhance their property at some stages.
In the following questionnaire migrants were asked about their culture to get the idea of
sociocultural issues of migrants among native living in cit Bhimber. First question was asked that,
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“The native be fond of to get marriage amongst you”. 34% were disagreeing and 20 % were
strongly disagreeing. It clearly indicated natives were not fond of marriages among the migrants
they treat them different identities and never intermingle among their culture and identity.
In the second question they were asked no doubt their culture is same, still the natives promote and
encourage them in their activities and customs about different events.20 % were strongly agreed
and the 30 % were agreed about the positive attitude of the natives towards the migrants.
In the third question they were asked, do the native appreciate their events, culture etc. 40% was
strongly agreed and 28 % were agreed. It shows that the natives help and support them in every
possible way.
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In the fourth question they were asked about their command over the native language. 38 % were
strongly agreed and 42 % were agreed about the answer that they can speak the native language.
The fifth question was about the difference of accent language of migrants than the native. 32 %
were strongly agreed and 48 % were agreed that their accent is different from the native’s language.
It shows that the socio-identity of migrants is different only on the base of their accent. Migrants are
recognized in the District Bhimber due to this reason that their accent is different.
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In the last question they were asked, do their food is different from natives. 4 % were strongly
agreed and 38 % were agreed that their food is different from the natives. Because the migrants are
fond of rice that the natives.
5. Observation and Discussion:
Result from the graphs has clearly showed the exact position of migrants among natives at
three different levels. Now both the migrants and natives started to behave openly with each other.
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The study shows that on the political, cultural and economic level migrants are treated as different
identities and are considered different due to different language accent and food system. This
research answered the assumed questions that migrants do have different identities due to the
reasons that their language and accent is different, they have different language and accent and food
systems. Data shows that they feel insecurity at political and cultural level it means they face sociocultural problems in society. Their culture and customs are different from natives.
6. Conclusion:
It is concluded from this research that the accent, culture of the migrants is different and
food system is also different which marks their identity different with the native. It is revealed that
their social, economic and political identities are diverse due to their different accents and culture.
Linguistically different accent constitutes the different identity of migrants.
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