1. health and fitness
2. disease

Spread
of Dental Infection
bio
he healthy body usually lives in
balance with a number of resident normal
flora. However, pathogens can invade
and initiate an infectious process.1 Dental
infections involving the teeth or associated tissues are caused by oral pathogens
that are predominantly anaerobic and
usually of more than one species.2 These
infections can be of dental origin or from
a nonodontogenic source. Those of dental
origin usually originate from progressive
dental caries or extensive periodontal
disease. Pathogens can also be introduced
deeper into the oral tissues by the trauma
caused by dental procedures, such as the
contamination of dental surgical sites
(e.g., tooth extraction) and needle tracks
during local anesthetic administration.
Treatment consists of removal of the
source of infection, systemic antibiotics,
and area drainage.
Margaret J. Fehrenbach, RDH,
MS, is an Oral Biologist,
Dental Hygienist, and Educational Consultant, Seattle,
Washington, and a Clinician
with Woodall and Associates,
Fort Collins, Colorado.
Susan W. Herring, PhD, is an
Anatomist, Researcher, and
Professor of Orthodontics
at the School of Dentistry,
University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington.
This article is a modified excerpt from:
Fehrenbach MJ, Herring SW. Illustrated
Anatomy of the Head and Neck.
Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1996. The text, figures, and modified illustrations are reprinted with
permission of the publisher.
Practical Hygiene
5
Dental infection can be a serious complication for
patients, especially those without adequate dental or medical care. This modified excerpt from Illustrated Anatomy
of the Head and Neck discusses dental infection lesions. It
also examines the spread of dental infections from the
teeth and associated oral tissues to vital tissues or
organs, as well as prevention and management of this
potentially life-threatening complication. Discussion of
medically compromised patients is also included.
Some dental infections are secondary
infections incited by an infection in the
tissues surrounding the oral cavity, such as
the skin, tonsils, ears, or sinuses. These
nonodontogenic sources of infections
must be diagnosed and treated early.
Prompt referral to the patient’s physician
will prevent further spread and potential
complications. However, many people
today do not have adequate dental or
medical care.
Dental infections can result in different types of lesions, depending on the
location of the infection and the type of
tissue involved. An oral abscess occurs
when there is localized entrapment of
pathogens, with suppuration from a dental infection in a closed tissue space
(Figures 1 and 2). A periapical abscess
formation can occur with progressive
caries, when pathogens invade the pulp
and the infection spreads apically.3
Pathogens can become entrapped in deep
pockets with severe periodontal disease
or around an erupting third molar, causing periodontal abscess or pericoronitis,
respectively.4 Abscess formation may not
be detectable radiographically during the
early stages.5 In the later stages of infection, abscess formation can also lead to
the formation of a passageway, or fistula,
in the skin, oral mucosa, or even bone in
13
abstract
T
Margaret J. Fehrenbach, RDH, MS
Susan W. Herring, PhD
order to drain the infection and suppurate at the surface (Figures 1 and 2). The
infectious process causes the overlying
tissues to undergo necrosis, forming a
canal in the tissue, with a stoma. If the
dental infection is surrounded by the alveolar bone, it will break down the bone in
its thinnest portion (either the facial or lingual cortical plate), following the path of
least resistance.2
The soft tissue over a fistula in the
alveolar bone may also have an extraoral
or intraoral pustule — a small, elevated,
circumscribed, suppuration-containing
lesion of either the skin or oral mucosa.6
The position of the pustule is largely
determined by the relationship between
the fistula and the overlying muscle
attachments. Again, the infection will follow the path of least resistance (Table 1).
The muscle attachments to the bones
serve as barriers to the spread of infection, unlike the other facial soft tissues.2
Cellulitis of the face and neck can
also occur with dental infections, resulting
in the diffuse inflammation of soft tissue
spaces.2 The clinical signs and symptoms
are pain, tenderness, redness, and diffuse
edema of the involved soft tissue space,
causing a massive and firm swelling
(Table 2). There may also be dysphagia or
restricted eye opening, if the cellulitis
September/October 1997
occurs within the pharynx or orbital
regions, respectively. Usually, the infection remains localized and a facial abscess
can form that, if not initially treated, may
discharge upon the facial surface. Without
treatment, cellulitis could spread to the
entire facial area, due to perforation of
the surrounding bone. Cellulitis is treated
by administration of antibiotics, and
removal of the cause of infection.
Another type of lesion related to dental infections is osteomyelitis, an inflammation of the bone marrow.1 Osteomyelitis
can locally involve any bone in the body
or be generalized (Figure 3). This inflammation develops from the invasion of the
tissue of a long bone by pathogens usually
from a skin or pharyngeal infection. For
those involving the jaw bones, the
pathogens are most often from a periapical abscess, from an extension of cellulitis,
or from contamination of surgical sites2
(Figure 3). Osteomyelitis most frequently
occurs in the mandible and rarely in the
maxilla, because of the mandible’s thicker
cortical plates and reduced vascularization.
Continuation of osteomyelitis leads
to bone resorption and sequestra formation. Bone damage is easily detected by
radiographic evaluation.5 Paresthesia, evidenced by burning or prickling, may
develop in the mandible if the infection
involves the mandibular canal that carries
the inferior alveolar nerve.2, 6 Localized
paresthesia of the lower lip may occur if
the infection is distal to the mental foramen where the mental nerve exits. Treatment consists of drainage, surgical
removal of any sequestra, antibiotic
administration, and, in some patients, the
additional use of hyperbaric oxygen.
MEDICALLY COMPROMISED
PATIENTS
Figure 1. A periodontal abscess of the maxillary central incisor with fistula and stoma
formation (probe inserted) in the maxillary vestibule.
Figure 2. Abscess formation can lead to formation of a fistula in order to drain the
infection. (Photography courtesy of Dr. Michael A. Brunsvold.)
Normal flora usually do not create an
infectious process. If, however, the body’s
natural defenses are compromised, then
they can create opportunistic infections.7
Medically compromised individuals
include those with AIDS, Type I diabetes,
and those undergoing radiation therapy.
Some patients, due to their medical history, have a higher risk of complications
from dental infections. Patients in this category include those at risk for infective
endocarditis.
SPREAD OF DENTAL INFECTIONS
Many infections that initially start in the
teeth and associated oral tissues can have
significant consequences if they spread to
vital tissues or organs. Usually a localized
abscess establishes a fistula in the skin, oral
mucosa, or bone, allowing natural drainage
of the infection and diminishing the risk of
the infection’s spread. This process can be
interrupted by dental or medical treatment.
Practical Hygiene
Figure 3. Osteomyelitis of the mandible, with swelling.
14
September/October 1997
Table 1
Most Common Teeth and Associated Periodontium Involved
in Clinical Presentations of Abscesses and Fistulae
Maxillary vestibule
Maxillary central or lateral incisor, all surfaces, and roots.
Maxillary canine, all surfaces, and roots (short roots below levator anguli oris).
Maxillary premolars, buccal surfaces, and roots.
Maxillary molars, buccal surfaces, or buccal roots (short roots below buccinator).
Penetration of nasal floor
Maxillary central incisor, roots.
Maxillary canine, all surfaces, and root (long root above levator anguli oris).
Palate
Maxillary lateral incisor, lingual surfaces, and roots.
Maxillary premolars, lingual surfaces, and roots.
Maxillary molars, lingual surfaces, or palatal roots.
Perforation into maxillary sinus
Maxillary molars, buccal surfaces, and buccal roots (long roots).
Maxillary molars, buccal surfaces, and buccal roots (long roots above buccinator).
Mandibular first and second molars, buccal surfaces, and buccal roots (long roots
below buccinator).
Mandibular vestibule
Mandibular incisors, all surfaces, and roots (short roots above mentalis).
Mandibular canine and premolars, all surfaces, and roots (all roots above
depressors).
Mandibular first and second molars, buccal surfaces, and roots (short roots
above buccinator).
Submental skin region
Mandibular incisors, roots (long roots below mentalis).
Sublingual region
Mandibular first molar, lingual surfaces, and roots (all roots above mylohyoid).
Mandibular second molar, lingual surfaces, and roots (short roots above mylohyoid).
Submandibular skin region
Mandibular second molar, lingual surfaces, and roots (long roots below mylohyoid).
Mandibular third molars, all surfaces, and roots (all roots below mylohyoid).
Table 2
Possible Space,Teeth, and Periodontium Involved With a Clinical Presentation
of Cellulitis from the Spread of Dental Infection
CLINICAL
PRESENTATION
OF LESION
SPACE INVOLVED
MOST COMMON TEETH
AND ASSOCIATED
PERIODONTIUM INVOLVED
IN INFECTION
Infraorbital region,
zygomatic region,
buccal region
Buccal space
Maxillary premolars,
and maxillary and
mandibular molars
Posterior border
of mandible
Parotid space
Not generally of
odontogenic origin
Submental region
Submental space
Mandibular anterior teeth
Unilateral
submandibular region
Submandibular space
Mandibular posterior
teeth
Bilateral submandibular
region
Submental, sublingual,
and submandibular
spaces with Ludwig’s
angina
Parapharyngeal space
Lateral cervical region
Practical Hygiene
Spread of mandibular
dental infection
Spread of mandibular
dental infection
15
Occasionally, a dental infection will spread
to the paranasal sinuses, through the blood
system, or through the lymphatics.
SPREAD TO THE PARANASAL
SINUSES
The paranasal sinuses of the skull can
become infected through the direct spread
of infection from the teeth and associated
oral tissues, resulting in a secondary sinusitis. A perforation in the wall of the sinus
can also be caused by an infection. Secondary sinusitis of dental origin occurs
mainly with the maxillary sinuses, since
the maxillary posterior teeth and associated tissues are in close proximity to these
sinuses (Figure 4). Thus, maxillary sinusitis can occur through a spread of infection from a periapical abscess initiated by
a maxillary posterior tooth that perforates
the sinus floor to involve the sinus
mucosa. A contaminated tooth or root
fragment also can be displaced into the
maxillary sinus during an extraction, stimulating infection.
Most infections of the maxillary
sinuses are not of dental origin, but caused
by an upper respiratory infection, when
infection in the nasal region spreads to
the sinuses.2 An infection in one sinus can
also travel through the nasal cavity to other
sinuses, leading to serious complications
for the patient, such as infection of the
cranial cavity and brain. Thus it is important
that any sinusitis be treated aggressively
by the patient’s physician to eliminate the
initial infection.
The symptoms of sinusitis are headache, usually near the involved sinus, and
foul-smelling nasal or pharyngeal discharge, possibly accompanied by fever
and weakness. The skin over the involved
sinus can be tender, hot, and red due to
inflammation in the area. Dyspnea occurs,
as well as pain, when the nasal passages
and the sinus ostia become blocked by
the effects of tissue inflammation. Early
radiographic evidence of the sinusitis is
thickening of the sinus walls. Subsequent
radiographic evaluation may show
increased opacity and, possibly, perforation.5 Acute sinusitis usually responds to
antibiotic therapy, with drainage aided
through the use of decongestants. Surgery
may be indicated for chronic maxillary
sinusitis to enlarge the ostia in the lateral
walls of the nasal cavity, so that adequate
drainage can diminish the effects of the
infection.2
SPREAD BY THE BLOOD SYSTEM
The blood system of the head and neck
can allow the spread of infection from the
teeth and associated oral tissues, because
pathogens can travel in the veins and drain
the infected oral site into other tissues or
organs. The spread of dental infection by
September/October 1997
way of the blood system can occur from
bacteremia or an infected thrombus.2 Bacteria traveling in the blood can cause transient bacteremia following dental treatment. Individuals with a high risk for
infective endocarditis may have these bacteria lodge in the compromised tissues,
promoting significant infection deep in
the heart, that can result in massive and
fatal heart damage. These patients may
need antibiotic premedication to prevent
bacteremia from occurring during dental
treatment.7
An infected intravascular clot or
thrombus can dislodge from the inner
blood vessel wall and travel as an embolus. Emboli can travel in the veins, draining the oral cavity to areas such as the
dural venous sinuses within the cranial
cavity. These dural sinuses are channels by
which blood is conveyed from the cerebral veins into the veins of the neck, particularly into the internal jugular vein.
Because these veins lack valves, however,
blood can flow both into and out of the
cranial cavity.
The cavernous sinus is most likely to
be involved in the potentially fatal spread
of dental infection.2 The cavernous sinus is
located on the side of the body of the
sphenoid bone.8 Each cavernous venous
sinus communicates with the one on the
opposite side, and also with the pterygoid
plexus and the superior ophthalmic vein,
which anastomoses with the facial vein
(Figure 5). These major veins drain teeth
through the posterior superior and inferior alveolar veins and the lips through
the superior and inferior labial veins.
None of the major veins that communicate with the cavernous sinus have valves
to prevent retrograde blood flow back
into the cavernous sinus. Therefore, dental infections that drain into these major
veins may initiate an inflammatory
response, resulting in an increase in blood
stasis, thrombus formation, and increasing
extravascular fluid pressure. Increased
pressure can reverse the direction of
venous blood flow, enabling the transport of the infected thrombus into this
venous sinus, and thus cause cavernous
sinus thrombosis.
Needle-track contamination can also
result in a spread of infection to the
pterygoid plexus if a posterior superior
alveolar anesthetic block is incorrectly
administered.2 Nonodontogenic infections originating from what physicians
consider the dangerous triangle of the
face — the orbital region, nasal region,
and paranasal sinuses — also may result
in this thrombosis.
The signs and symptoms of cavernous
sinus thrombosis include fever, drowsiness,
and rapid pulse. In addition, there is loss of
function of the abducent nerve, since it
Practical Hygiene
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinuses
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoid sinus
Figure 4. Lateral view of the skull and the paranasal sinuses.
Supraorbital
vein
Cavernous
venous sinus
Ophthalmic
vein
Superior
labial vein
Pterygoid plexus
of veins
Facial vein
Inferior
labial vein
Submental
vein
Internal
jugular vein
External
jugular vein
Figure 5. Pathways of the internal jugular vein and facial vein, as well as the location
of the cavernous venous sinus.
16
September/October 1997
Submandibular lymph nodes
Submandibular
salivary gland
External jugular
lymph nodes
Mylohyoid
muscle
Submental
lymph nodes
External jugular
vein
Sternocleidomastoid
muscle
Hyoid bone
Anterior jugular
lymph nodes
Anterior jugular
vein
Figure 6. Superficial cervical lymph nodes and associated structures.
Sternocleidomastoid
muscle (cut)
Digastric
muscle
Jugulodigastric
lymph node
Accessory lymph
nodes
Hyoid bone
Superior deep
cervical lymph nodes
Accessory nerve
Omohyoid muscle
Jugulo-omohyoid
lymph node
Internal jugular vein
Inferior deep cervical
lymph nodes
Supraclavicular
lymph node
Clavicle (cut)
Thoracic duct
Figure 7. Deep cervical lymph nodes and associated structures.
Practical Hygiene
17
runs through the cavernous venous sinus,
resulting in nerve paralysis. Because the
muscle supplied by the abducent nerve
moves the eyeball laterally, the inability to
perform this movement suggests nerve
damage. Also, the patient will usually have
double vision because of the restricted
movement of the one eye. There will also
be edema of the eyelids and conjunctivae,
tearing, or exophthalmos, depending on
the course of the infection. With cavernous
sinus thrombosis there may also be damage
to the other cranial nerves, such as the
oculomotor and trochlear, as well as the
ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the
trigeminal and changes in the tissues they
innervate, since all these nerves travel in
the cavernous sinus wall.8 Finally, this
infection can be fatal because it may lead
to meningitis, which requires immediate
hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics and anticoagulants.1
SPREAD BY LYMPHATICS
The lymphatics of the head and neck can
allow the spread of infection from the
teeth and associated oral tissues. This
occurs because the pathogens can travel
in the lymph through the lymphatics that
connect the series of nodes from the oral
cavity to other tissues or organs. Thus,
these pathogens can move from a primary
node near the infected site to a secondary
node at a distant site.6
The route of dental infection traveling
through the nodes varies according to the
teeth involved8 (Figures 6 and 7). The submental nodes drain the mandibular incisors
and their associated tissues. Then the
submental nodes empty into the submandibular nodes, or directly into the deep
cervical nodes. The submandibular nodes
are the primary nodes for all the teeth and
associated tissues, except the mandibular
incisors and maxillary third molars. The
submandibular nodes then empty into the
superior deep cervical nodes, the primary
nodes for the maxillary third molars and
their associated tissues. The superior deep
cervical nodes empty into either the inferior deep cervical nodes or directly into
the jugular trunk and then into the vascular system. Once the infection is in the vascular system, it can spread to all tissues
and organs as previously discussed.
A lymph node involved in infection
undergoes lymphadenopathy, which
results in a size increase and a change in
consistency of the lymph node so it
becomes palpably firm.3 Evaluation of
the involved nodes can determine the
degree of regional involvement of the
infectious process, which is instrumental in diagnosis and management of the
infectious process.2
September/October 1997
Sublingual
salivary
gland
Sublingual
space
Mandible
Submandibular
space
Mylohyoid
muscle
Submandibular
salivary gland
Diagastric
muscle
Investing
fascia
Hyoid
bone
Platysma
muscle
Figure 8. Frontal section of the head and neck highlighting the submandibular and
sublingual spaces.
SPREAD BY SPACES
The spaces of the head and neck can
allow the spread of infection from the
teeth and associated oral tissues because
the pathogens can travel within the fascial
planes, from one space near the infected
site to another distant space, by the spread
of the related inflammatory exudate.2
When involved in infections, the space
can undergo cellulitis, which can cause
a change in the normal proportions of
the face (Table 2).
If the maxillary teeth and associated
tissues are infected, the infection can
spread into the maxillary vestibular space,
buccal space, or canine space. If the
mandibular teeth and associated tissues
are infected, the infection can spread into
the mandibular vestibular space, buccal
space, submental space, sublingual space,
submandibular space, or the space of the
body of the mandible. From these spaces,
the infection can spread into other spaces
of the jaws and neck, possibly causing
serious complications, such as Ludwig’s
angina.2
Ludwig’s angina is a cellulitis of the
submandibular space (Figure 8).6 This
involves a spread of infection from any of
the mandibular teeth or associated tissues to one space initially, either the
Practical Hygiene
submental space, sublingual space, or
even the submandibular space itself. Then
the infection spreads to the submandibular space bilaterally, with a risk of
infiltration to the parapharyngeal space
of the neck. With this complication, there
is massive bilateral submandibular
regional swelling, which extends down
the anterior cervical triangle to the clavicles. Swallowing, speaking, and breathing
may be difficult; high fever and drooling
are evident. Respiratory obstruction may
rapidly develop because the continued
swelling displaces the tongue upwards
and backwards, thus blocking the pharyngeal airway. As the parapharyngeal
space becomes involved, edema of the
larynx may cause complete respiratory
obstruction, asphyxiation, and death.
Ludwig’s angina is an acute medical emergency requiring immediate hospitalization and may necessitate an emergency
cricothyrotomy to create a patent airway.
PREVENTION OF THE SPREAD
OF DENTAL INFECTIONS
Early diagnosis and treatment of dental
infections must occur for all patients. Particular care must be taken not to contaminate surgical sites, such as those from
extractions or implant placement. There
must also be a strict adherence to aseptic
18
protocol during nonsurgical dental treatment, such as restorative and periodontal
debridement therapy, to prevent the
spread of infection.4 This may include the
removal of heavy plaque accumulations
or the use of an antiseptic prerinse prior
to treatment. During treatment, the use
of a rubber dam or an antimicrobial-laced
external water supply with ultrasonics or
irrigators may be of help in preventing
the spread of infection. After treatment,
this might include an antiseptic postrinse
at home or antibiotic coverage. Finally, it
is important to not administer a local anesthetic through an area of dental infection,
as this could move pathogens deeper into
the tissues.
A thorough medical history with
periodic updates will allow the dental
professional to perform safe treatment
on medically compromised patients, to
avoid serious complications of their dental diseases. These patients may require
antibiotic premedication before dental
treatment to prevent any serious sequelae or other changes in the dental treatment plan.7 A medical consultation is
indicated when there is uncertainty
regarding the risk of opportunistic infection for the individual patient.9, 10
CONCLUSION
Dental infections can have significant
medical ramifications, including death.
As the health care practitioner most familiar with patients’ oral health, the dental
hygienist must be knowledgeable of the
appearances, causes, and symptoms of
dental infection lesions.
REFERENCES
1. Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 28th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1994.
2. Hohl TH, Whitacre RJ, Hooley JR, Williams BL.
Diagnosis and Treatment of Odontogenic Infections. Seattle, WA: Stoma Press; 1983.
3. Bath-Balogh M, Fehrenbach MJ. Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy.
Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1997.
4. Perry DA, Beemsterboer PL, Taggart EJ. Periodontology for the Dental Hygienist. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1996.
5. Kasle MJ. An Atlas of Dental Radiographic
Anatomy. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1990.
6. Ibsen OC, Phelan JA. Oral Pathology for the
Dental Hygienist. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB
Saunders Company; 1996.
7. Tyler MT, Lozada-Nur F. Clinician’s Guide to
Treatment of Medically Compromised Dental
Patients. New York, NY: American Academy of
Oral Medicine; 1995.
8. Gray H. Gray’s Anatomy. 37th ed. New York,
NY: Churchill and Livingstone; 1989.
9. Genco RJ, Newman MG, et al, eds. Annals of
Periodontology. Chicago, IL: American Academy of Periodontology; 1996.
10. Bottomley WK, Rosenberg SW. Clinician’s Guide
to Treatment of Common Oral Conditions. 3rd
ed. New York, NY: American Academy of Oral
Medicine; 1993.
September/October 1997
To submit your CE Exercise
answers, please use the
enclosed Answer Card found
opposite page 52, and complete
it as follows: 1) Complete the
5
address; 2) Identify the Article/
Exercise Number; 3) Place an x
UTHSCSA
in the appropriate answer box
for each question. Return the
completed card to the indicated address.
The 10 multiple-choice questions for this CE exercise are based on the article “Spread of Dental
Infection” by Margaret J. Fehrenbach, RDH, MS,
and Susan W. Herring, PhD. This article is on pages 13-18. Answers for this
exercise will be published in the November/December 1997 issue of The
Journal of Practical Hygiene.
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Publicatio
Learning Outcomes:
• Cite the cause of dental infection.
• Cite the potential consequences of various dental lesions.
• Describe the spread of dental infection throughout the body.
1. What directly causes dental infection involving the teeth or
associated tissues?
A. A specific, aerobic oral pathogen predominant in the oral mucosa.
B. Cellulitis of the ethmoid sinus.
C. Oral pathogens that are mainly anaerobic and usually of more than one
species.
D. Proliferating bacteria transferred via the blood system of the head and
neck.
2. What is a potential consequence of orofacial cellulitis?
A. Edema of the diaphragm.
B. A facial abscess that may discharge upon the surface.
C. The lodging of bacteria deep within the lungs.
D. Osteoarthritis.
3. Continuation of orofacial osteomyelitis can lead to:
A. Abscesses of the inner ear.
B. Bone resorption and sequestra formation.
C. Paresthesia of the lower extremities.
D. Weakening of the central nervous system.
4. Most infections of the maxillary sinuses are of dental origin.
A. True.
B. False.
5. What early radiographic evidence indicates sinusitis?
A. A localized abscess of the sinus walls.
B. Decreased opacity of the sinus ostia.
C. Enlargement of the sinus ostia.
D. Thickening of the sinus walls.
6. What is a potential consequence of sinusitis?
A. Increased opacity and perforation of the sinus walls.
B. Localized paresthesia of the lower lip.
C. Dysphagia.
D. Nerve damage.
7. How can infection from the teeth and associated oral tissues
spread throughout the body?
A. Always due to overall decreased immunity.
B. Through infectious saliva.
C. Through the blood system of the head and neck.
D. Through the transference of infectious cells.
8. Which of the following is most likely to be involved in the potentially fatal spread of dental infection?
A. The carotid sinus.
B. The cavernous sinus.
C. The dural venous sinuses.
D. The lymphatic sinus.
9. What are the potential consequences of Ludwig’s angina?
A. Decreased blood flow to the brain.
B. Decreased metabolism.
C. Muscle atrophy.
D. Respiratory obstruction, asphyxiation, and death.
10. Why should a local anesthetic not be administered through an
area of dental infection?
A. Decreased area blood flow increases toxicity.
B. Needle causes a negative ionic field.
C. This could move pathogens deeper into the tissues.
D. Pathogens may enter saliva and be swallowed.
Practical Hygiene
19
September/October 1997