1. science
2. medicine
3. surgery

A
P P L I E D
R
E S E A R C H
Iatrogenic Paresthesia in the Third Division
of the Trigeminal Nerve:
12 Years of Clinical Experience
• René Caissie, DMD, MSc •
Jacques Goulet, DMD, FRCD(C) •
• Michel Fortin, DMD, PhD, FRCD(C) •
• Domenic Morielli, BSc, DDS •
•
A b s t r a c t
Background: Iatrogenic paresthesia in the third division of the trigeminal nerve remains a complex clinical problem
with major medicolegal implications. However, most lawsuits can be prevented through better planning of
procedures and by obtaining informed consent. The purpose of this article is to present the authors’ clinical
experience over the past 12 years, to review the principles of prevention and management of trigeminal
paresthesia and to highlight the resulting medicolegal implications.
Methods: The files of all 165 patients referred to the oral and maxillofacial surgery department for evaluation of
iatrogenic paresthesia in the third division of the trigeminal nerve were reviewed. The characteristics of the
subgroup of patients who had taken an attending dentist to court were compared with those of the other
patients.
Results: Surgical extraction of impacted molars was the main cause of paresthesia in 109 (66%) of the 165 subjects.
The alveolar nerve was affected in 89 (54%) subjects, the lingual nerve in 67 (41%) subjects, and both
nerves were affected in 9 (5%) subjects. There were more female than male patients (ratio 2.2:1). Lawsuits
were initiated in 33 (20%) of the cases; patients who initiated lawsuits were younger, were more likely to
have experienced anesthesia and were more likely to need microsurgery (all p < 0.001). Poor surgical
planning and lack of informed consent were the most common errors on the part of the dentists.
Conclusions: An accurate evaluation of surgical indications and risk, good surgical technique, preoperative
informed consent and sufficient postoperative follow-up should help to reduce the frequency of neurosensory
deficits after dental treatment and attendant lawsuits.
MeSH key words: molar, third/surgery; postoperative complications; sensation; trigeminal nerve/injuries
© J Can Dent Assoc 2005; 71(3):185–90
This article has been peer reviewed.
C
hanges in feeling in the orofacial region may
interfere with speaking, chewing and social
interactions.1 Even apparently minor changes can
significantly affect a patient’s quality of life.2 Trauma to a
peripheral nerve may result in a deficiency ranging from
total loss of sensation (anesthesia) to a mild decrease in feeling (mild hypoesthesia). These sensory deficits may be
either temporary or permanent. Some patients may also
experience dysesthesia, which is characterized by abnormally painful sensations. Such pain may be caused by a
Journal of the Canadian Dental Association
neuroma located at the site of the trauma, changes in the
autonomic nervous system (sympathetically mediated pain)
or alterations in the central nervous system (central
neuropathic pain). Allodynia is a type of dysesthesia
characterized by a painful response to normally nonpainful
stimuli, such as light touching or shaving. Hyperalgesia is
an exaggeration of the pain response to stimuli, whereas
hyperpathia is an exaggerated response to pain that persists
even after the stimulus has been removed.3 The pathophysiology of these neuropathies is complex, and treatment
March 2005, Vol. 71, No. 3
185
Caissie, Goulet, Fortin, Morielli
Table 1 Causes of paresthesia in the third division of the trigeminal nerve
Nerve affected; no. (and %) of patients
Cause of injury
Exodontics
Injection
Osteotomy
Implant
Endodontics
Accident
Parodontics
Alveolar nerve
(n = 89)
Lingual nerve
(n = 67)
Both
(n = 9)
Total
(n = 165)
52 (78)
14 (21)
0
1 (1)
0
0
0
7 (78)
0
2 (22)
0
0
0
0
109 (66)
19 (12)
17 (10)
9 (5)
5 (3)
4 (2)
2 (1)
Total
(n = 165)
p value
50 (56)
5 (6)
15 (17)
8 (9)
5 (6)
4 (4)
2 (2)
Table 2 Factors influencing probability of lawsuits
No. (and %) of patients
Factor
Lawsuit
(n = 33)
Mean age (years)
Sex ratio (F/M)
Anesthesia
Dysesthesia
Microsurgery required
Lingual nerve affected
32.8
21/12 (1.75)
9 (27)
5 (15)
17 (52)
14 (42)
No lawsuit
(n = 132)
36.1
93/39 (2.38)
9 (7)
31 (23)
16 (12)
62 (47)
results are often disappointing.4 The presence of anesthesia,
dysesthesia or spontaneous pain also indicates poor
prospects for recovery without surgical intervention.
Overall, 25% of patients with iatrogenic paresthesia suffer
permanent effects.5
The risk of iatrogenic paresthesia of the third division of
the trigeminal nerve depends on the procedure performed,
the technique used and the surgeon’s experience. Iatrogenic
paresthesia remains a complex clinical problem with major
medicolegal implications. The purpose of this article is
to present the authors’ clinical experience over the past 12
years, to review the principles of prevention and management of trigeminal paresthesia and to highlight the resulting medicolegal implications.
Methods
The files of all patients referred to the authors’ oral and
maxillofacial surgery department between 1990 and 2001
for evaluation of iatrogenic paresthesia in the third division
of the trigeminal nerve were reviewed. All patients had been
seen and treated by the same surgeon. The data extracted
from the files included age, sex, description of the trauma,
lesion location, initial diagnosis, need for microsurgery and
type of surgery performed. The sample was divided into
2 subgroups according to whether the patient had initiated
a lawsuit against the dentist who had performed the surgery.
These subgroups were compared by the Student t-test to
determine whether any of the independent variables were
associated with initiation of lawsuits.
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March 2005, Vol. 71, No. 3
35.4
114/51 (2.2)
18 (11)
36 (22)
33 (20)
76 (46)
< 0.001
0.46
< 0.001
0.35
< 0.001
0.68
Results
The cohort consisted of 165 patients. The most
common cause of paresthesia in the third division of the
trigeminal nerve was extraction of impacted third molars
(109 patients), followed by trauma due to injection
(19 patients) (Table 1). In 135 patients, the lesion was
located at the level of a single nerve, the lower alveolar nerve
in 82 (61%) of these patients and the lingual nerve in
53 (39%). Twenty-one patients had bilateral pain in the
lower alveolar or the lingual nerve, and 9 patients had pain
in both of these nerves on the same side. One hundred and
fourteen (69%) of the subjects were female (ratio of women
to men 2.2:1). During the initial evaluation, most patients
presented with hypoesthesia (103 [62%]) or anesthesia
(17 [10%]). Dysesthesia was seen in 36 (22%) of the cases,
and the proportion of female subjects was significantly
higher in this subgroup (p = 0.007). Thirty-three patients
(20%) underwent microsurgery for ablation of a neuroma,
reanastomosis or neural decompression.
Legal proceedings were initiated by 33 (20%) of the
165 patients. Patients who initiated lawsuits were younger,
were more likely to have experienced anesthesia and were
more likely to have needed microsurgery (Table 2). The
average amount granted in the legal proceedings was
$17,956, which was 42% of the average amount requested,
$43,047 (Table 3). The highest amount awarded was
$35,347 and the lowest $5,167. Most disputes were settled
amicably or out of court. In general, higher amounts were
granted to patients who had recourse to a lawyer’s services.
Journal of the Canadian Dental Association
Iatrogenic Paresthesia in the Third Division of the Trigeminal Nerve
Table 3 Settlements for lawsuits
Average amount ($)
Lawsuit
No.
Requested
Awarded
Amicable settlement without legal proceedings or lawyer
Amicable settlement without legal proceedings but with lawyer
Legal action and unfavourable judgement to the patient
Legal action and favourable judgement to the patient
Legal action, settled out of court
Legal action, not settled
Denial of responsibility with lawyer, without any action taken
Discontinuation of suit before court case
Preventive notice without any action taken
Overall
6
8
2
1
6
5
3
1
1
33
19,478
40,437
60,868
39,000
59,878
138,689
30,031
38,000
NA
17,956
12,838
19,997
28,733
0
17,062
NA
NA
NA
NA
43,047
NA = not applicable
Table 4 Indications and contraindications for
extraction of lower third molars
Indications
Prevention and treatment of infection
Prevention and treatment of dental and periodontal pathology
Prevention and treatment of cysts and odotongenic tumours
Orthodontic considerations (facilitate alignment, prevent relapse)
Contraindications
Advanced age (> 30 years)
Very young age (< 12 years)
Imminent damage to adjacent structures
Possibility that tooth might erupt or serve as an abutment
Orthodontic considerations (tooth needed as an anchor
or for the alignment of teeth)
Patient refusal to accept risks associated with extraction
Discussion
The reported incidence of paresthesia after extraction of
impacted third molars varies between 0.2%6 and 22%7 for
the lingual nerve and between 0.4%8 and 7%9 for the lower
alveolar nerve. These variations can be explained by differences in procedures and technique, in particular with regard
to clinical evaluation and diagnostic criteria, as well as
differences in the surgeon’s experience. The risk of paresthesia depends on the clinical situation. It may be almost
nonexistent under the best conditions (young patient,
incompletely formed roots, mandibular canal not in close
proximity) but could exceed 50% in other circumstances
(elderly patient, unfavourable position of the tooth, proximity of the mandibular canal). A good clinical evaluation
can be used to inform the patient about the potential risks
of surgery. Written informed consent, after the patient has
received a complete description of these risks, must be
obtained in all cases of nontherapeutic surgical removal of
the molars (i.e., preventive treatment). Consent is also
strongly recommended in cases of therapeutic surgical
extraction (treatment of pathology) for semi-impacted or
impacted third molars.
Journal of the Canadian Dental Association
Among patients with iatrogenic paresthesia in the third
division of the trigeminal nerve, 75% regain normal sensitivity without further treatment.5 In most cases, complete
recovery occurs 6 to 8 weeks after the trauma, although it
may take up to 24 months. If paresthesia is not completely
resolved within about 2 months, the probability of a permanent deficit increases significantly; it is unlikely that
complete resolution will occur if the deficit is still present
after 9 months.10 The prognosis of spontaneous recovery is
better for the lower alveolar nerve than for the lingual
nerve.8
In the preoperative evaluation for nontherapeutic extraction of impacted third molars, the surgeon must decide
whether the risks of surgery exceed the expected benefits.
This study and the authors’ clinical experience have shown
that, too often, the risk of surgery had been poorly evaluated and, in certain cases, the treatment is not even indicated. The surgeon must be familiar with the indications for
removal of impacted third molars (Table 4). He or she must
also be familiar with the radiologic signs indicating the
proximity of the lower alveolar nerve. The presence of
a radiolucent band at the apex of the third molar, loss
of continuity of the upper or lower bony cortex in the
lower alveolar canal and shrinking or deviation of this canal
are all reliable signs indicating closer proximity of the
lower alveolar nerve to the root of the wisdom tooth
(Figs. 1 to 3).11
Management
Perioperative Precautions
If the patient feels a sensation like an electric shock when
the needle is inserted, the needle should be withdrawn by a
few millimetres before the solution is administered. If the
position of the extracted tooth allows the lower alveolar
nerve to be seen at the bottom of the alveolus, many
surgeons prefer to place a piece of absorbable gelatin
in the alveolus (e.g., Gelfoam, Pharmacia & Upjohn
Co, Kalamazoo, Mich.) before closing. However, the
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Caissie, Goulet, Fortin, Morielli
Figure 1: A 34-year-old patient who
underwent extraction of tooth 48.
Anesthesia in the area of the lip and chin
was noted upon initial examination. Neural
decompression with debridement revealed
that the nerve had been partially cut, and
there was intense scarring at the affected
site. Legal proceedings were initiated
against the dentist. Note the presence of a
radiolucent band at the apex of the third
molar.
Figure 2: A 32-year-old patient who
underwent extraction of tooth 38. After the
surgery, the patient presented with severe
dysfunctional hypoesthesia as well as
hyperalgesic neuralgia and eventually
launched a lawsuit. Note the classic signs of
very close proximity between the lower
alveolar nerve and the apex of the third
molar, i.e., loss of continuity of the bony
cortex of the lower alveolar canal, as well as
its shrinking and deviation at the apex.
Figure 3: A 32-year-old patient who was
evaluated for hypoesthesia of the lip and
chin and the vestibular mucosa after
extraction of tooth 38. There is major
deviation of the lower alveolar canal,
indicating close proximity between the
canal and the tooth.
Figure 4: Mapping of the affected area can
delimit the scope of the problem and can
be used to follow its development.
Figure 5: A swab may be used to evaluate
the patient’s sensations in the affected area.
Only the point of the swab should come
into contact with the subject’s tissues, so as
to obtain a reliable reading.
Figure 6: A soft hairbrush can be used to
assess the patient’s ability to detect
direction of movement.
1. Map the affected area by pencil outline on a drawing or
a photograph of the patient (Fig. 4).
2. Determine the sensations felt by the patient when a
cotton swab is lightly applied to the affected area (Fig. 5).
3. Determine the ability of the patient to detect the direction of a sweeping motion (in an area of about 1 cm),
applied with a resin applicator or the tip of a rolled-up
tissue (Fig. 6).
Figure 7: The flat tip of a 27-gauge needle is
used to evaluate the patient’s perception of
painful stimuli.
effectiveness of this measure, which aims to minimize fibrosis and thus prevent paresthesia, has not been established.
Clinical Evaluation
Patients with postoperative paresthesia must be treated
promptly and should be seen as soon as possible for clinical
evaluation. The clinical evaluation should comprise the
following elements:
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March 2005, Vol. 71, No. 3
4. Describe the patient’s sensations when a 27-gauge hard
needle is applied in the affected region with sufficient
pressure to indent the skin without penetrating it (Fig. 7).
The presence of dysesthesia or spontaneous pain must
be noted. Each test must be conducted at 3 sites: the lower
lip, the lip–chin fold and the chin. Any patient with paresthesia should receive corticosteroids to minimize the
inflammatory response.12 Empiric treatment with prednisone (50 mg once daily) for 7 days is often used in the
authors’ oral surgery department. This medication must be
started as soon as possible, ideally the day after surgery.
Journal of the Canadian Dental Association
Iatrogenic Paresthesia in the Third Division of the Trigeminal Nerve
Seven-day antibiotic treatment with penicillin, the gold
standard for patients without penicillin allergy, or clindamycin is commonly prescribed to prevent infection,
which would slow the healing process and decrease the
likelihood of full recovery of the nerve. Clinical evaluation
should be repeated once a month to assess the presence or
absence of functional recovery.
Referring the Patient
Some patients must be referred to an oral and maxillofacial surgeon. Microsurgery may be indicated in the
following cases: confirmed transection of a nerve; total
anesthesia of the affected area 2 months after the trauma;
lack of protective reflexes (on biting or burning of the
tongue or lower lip) 2 months after trauma, with little or
no improvement; or dysesthesia.13
Microsurgery involves general anesthesia, a period of
convalescence and a few weeks off work. The surgeon
dissects the affected nerve and, if the damage is extensive,
joins the proximal and distal portions. This surgery should
ideally be done within 4 months after the trauma to prevent
atrophy of the distal part of the nerve.14 Therefore, if it is
felt that the patient’s condition might be improved through
surgery (on the basis of the criteria listed above), he or she
should be referred immediately to allow the surgeon to
make his or her own assessment and measure the lack of
functional recovery over a period of 2 months before intervening. Although considerable functional improvement is
seen in many patients after surgery,13,15 regaining normal
sensation is not possible. Just under half of patients experience no improvement, and all patients who undergo
surgery will have some permanent sensory deficit. In cases
of dysesthesia, a more medical approach is required, since
surgery is rarely useful in these cases, especially for patients
with sympathetically mediated pain or central neuropathic
pain.16
Conclusions
Most cases of iatrogenic paresthesia can be prevented.
However, when this problem occurs, follow-up must be
initiated quickly, since the first few months may determine
the degree of nerve healing. If there is a high risk of nerve
trauma, the patient should be referred preoperatively to an
oral and maxillofacial surgeon. Most patients recover
normal sensation without treatment. However, permanent
deficits are often poorly tolerated, as indicated by the high
proportion of lawsuits in such cases. More than half of
lawsuits are associated with lack of preoperative informed
consent.17 In-depth knowledge of anatomy and surgical
principles is also imperative. It is often easy to treat slight
hypoesthesia, but treatment becomes complex in cases of
sympathetically mediated pain or central neuropathic pain.
If a large area has been affected, it is impossible to regain
normal sensation regardless of the therapeutic measures
Journal of the Canadian Dental Association
undertaken. The well-informed general dentist should be
able to perform an initial assessment and then refer the
patient to a maxillofacial surgeon at the appropriate time to
maximize the chances of functional recovery of the affected
nerve. C
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the Fonds d’assurance responsabilité of the Quebec Order of Dentists, as well as
Pauline O’Brien and Valérie Savoie-Rosay for their contributions in
writing this article.
Dr. Caissie is a doctoral student in experimental
medicine at Laval University’s faculty of medicine in
the Experimental Organogenesis Laboratory (LOEX),
Quebec City, Quebec, and a second-year resident in
the oral and maxillofacial program, Hôpital de
l’Enfant-Jésus, Quebec City.
Dr. Goulet is an oral and maxillofacial surgeon at the
Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu de St-Jérôme, St-Jérôme, Quebec.
Dr. Fortin is an oral and maxillofacial surgeon at the
Hôpital Enfant-Jésus de Québec, Lévis, Quebec. He is
also a Fellow in surgical oncology and reconstructive
surgery from the Jackson Memorial Hospital,
University of Miami.
Dr. Morielli is an oral and maxillofacial surgeon at the
Hôpital de l’Enfant-Jésus and a clinical professor at
Laval University’s faculty of dentistry, Quebec City,
Quebec.
Correspondence to: Dr. Jacques Goulet, 208–200, rue Durand, StJérôme, QC J7Z 7E2. E-mail: [email protected].
The authors have no declared financial interests in any company
manufacturing the types of products mentioned in this article.
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