Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
281
Diagnosis and Management of Pelvic Fractures
Richard McCormack, M.D., Eric J. Strauss, M.D., Basil J. Alwattar, M.D.,
and Nirmal C. Tejwani, M.D.
Abstract
The diagnostic and therapeutic modalities utilized in the
management of pelvic ring fractures depend on patient
characteristics, mechanism of injury, and hemodynamic
status at the time of presentation. Knowledge of the complex
anatomy and biomechanics of pelvic stability may guide
appropriate initial management strategies. Even with the
development of specific treatment algorithms and advances
in both diagnostic and operative techniques, fractures of the
pelvis continue to cause significant morbidity and mortality.
The current paper reviews the diagnosis and management
of pelvic ring fractures, focusing on current concepts with
respect to initial assessment and treatment protocols, including the identification of associated injuries and emergency
methods of provisional pelvic stabilization.
S
ince the initial description of a “double vertical”
fracture as a combination of pubic rami fractures and
a fracture of the iliac wing by French surgeon Joseph
Malgaigne in his 1859 atlas of traumatology, pelvic fractures
have received a considerable amount of attention in the
orthopaedic literature, having to do with their complexity
and associated morbidity and mortality.1
Classic anatomic and biomechanical studies in pelvic disruption, performed during the mid-20th century by George
F. Pennal,2 a Canadian surgeon, helped define the three main
Richard McCormack, M.D., is a Resident; Eric J. Strauss, M.D., is
Assistant Professor, Division of Sports Medicine; Basil J. Alwattar,
M.D., at time of submission, was a Chief Resident; and Nirmal C.
Tejwani, M.D., is Associate Professor, Division of Orthopaedic
Trauma in the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at the NYU
Hospital for Joint Diseases, NYU Langone Medical Center, New
York, New York.
Correspondence: Nirmal C. Tejwani, M.D., Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases, 301 East 17th
Street, New York, New York 10003; [email protected].
types of pelvic fractures “by direction of force”: lateral
compression (LC), anteroposterior compression (APC), and
vertical shear (VS). That these categories are still used in
pelvic fracture classification systems is testimony to Pennal’s
work. During this time-period and up until the mid-1970s,
pelvic injuries generally were managed nonoperatively, using compression devices, plaster casts, and bed rest. Over
time, outcome studies demonstrated that posttraumatic
anatomic deformities and pelvic instability correlated with
persistent pain and functional limitation.
The poor outcomes associated with conservative management of pelvic fractures spurred the development of
various operative treatment strategies for these injuries.
Expanding indications for pelvic fracture surgery coupled
with improved techniques and instrumentation helped reduce
the morbidity and mortality associated with pelvic trauma
in the 1970s and 1980s. During the last two decades, advances in radiographic imaging, critical care management
of the polytrauma patient, and minimally invasive surgical
approaches, as well as the development of specific treatment
algorithms, have continued to improve the outcomes seen
in pelvic fracture patients.
Epidemiology
Incidence
Fractures of the pelvic ring have been reported to comprise
2% to 8% of all skeletal injuries3-6 and are often associated
with high-energy trauma, most commonly, motor vehicle
accidents and falls from a height. The incidence of pelvic
fracture appears to be increasing, secondary to increases in
the number of high-speed motor vehicle accidents and the
number of patients surviving these accidents, due to airbags
and safer car designs. Among multiply injured patients with
blunt trauma, almost 20% have pelvic injuries.
A classic epidemiologic assessment of pelvic fractures
presenting to the Mayo Clinic was reported by Melton and
McCormack R, Strauss EJ, Alwattar BJ, Tejwani NC. Diagnosis and management of pelvic fractures. Bull NYU Hosp Jt Dis. 2010;68(4):281-91.
282
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
colleagues.7 The overall reported incidence in this patient
cohort was 37 per 100,000 person-years. Among patients 15
to 25 years of age, the incidence was significantly greater
in males compared to females, with the majority associated
with severe trauma. After age 55, there was an exponential
increase in the incidence of pelvic fracture in both genders,
with elderly females having a reported incidence of 446
fractures per 100,000 person-years. A similar incidence
of 24 fractures per 100,000 person-years was reported by
Ragnarsson and Jacobsson8 in their review of cases presenting to a Swedish center over a 10-year period. Once again,
high-energy, unstable pelvic fractures were more common
among younger male patients, while lower energy, stable
fracture types were seen with increased incidence among
elderly females. Gansslen and coworkers9 in a multicenter
study out of Germany, reported on 3260 pelvic fractures
treated over a 3-year period. These investigators also
identified a bimodal distribution of injuries, with peaks
in frequency occurring in patients aged 15 to 30 years
and those 50 to 70 years old. Higher-energy, unstable Tile
type C fractures were more commonly seen in the younger
patient population.
Open pelvic fractures in which direct communication exists between a skin, vaginal, or rectal wound and the fracture
site have been reported to comprise 2% to 4% of all pelvic
injuries.4,10,11 They are most commonly seen in young males
involved in traffic accidents and range from small puncture
wounds to complete traumatic hemi-pelvectomy. Secondary
to the transmission of the high-energy impact associated with
open pelvic fracture, there is often disruption of the pelvic
floor musculature, leading to the loss of the tamponade effect
and persistent bleeding.5 Even with standardized treatment
protocols, aggressive fracture care, and advances in critical
care, the mortality rates associated with open pelvic fractures
remain as high as 25% to 50% in some reported series.12-15
Associated Injury
Secondary to the high-energy mechanisms of injury required
to cause a pelvic fracture, these injuries are commonly associated with injuries to other body systems. Epidemiologic
studies have reported that 12% to 62% of patients with pelvic
fractures had additional injuries to the thorax, brain, long
bones, and abdominal organs, to include the genitourinary
system, spine, and the peripheral nervous system.9,16,17 In
Gänsslen’s multicenter review, of the 312 pelvic fracture
patients with associated injuries, 63% had injury to the bladder or urethra, 35% had associated head injuries, 24% had
nerve injuries, and 20% had intestinal injuries.9 Basta and
associates18 found the location and displacement of anterior
pelvic fractures were predictive of the presence of urethral
injury in a case control study of pelvic fracture patients with
and without associated urethral injury. They observed that
each millimeter of pubic diastasis or inferomedial pubic
bone fracture fragment displacement was associated with a
10% increased risk of urethral injury.
Mortality
Mortality rates associated with pelvic fractures range from as
low as 5% to 10% to as high as 50% to 60% in the orthopaedic surgery and trauma literature.9,11,14,16,19,20 This variability
in reported mortality rates is likely related to significant
differences in patient cohorts and fracture types reported in
these studies. Hemodynamic instability and multiple organ
failure (MOF) as direct consequences of pelvic hemorrhage
have been identified as the primary causes of death following pelvic fracture. Smith and colleagues19 reported an
overall mortality rate of 21% in their review of 187 hemodynamically unstable patients with pelvic fractures. Among
patients who did not survive their injuries, autopsy findings
demonstrated that the principal cause of death in 74% was
exsanguination, while MOF was the primary cause in 18%.
The investigators found that, while fracture pattern and
treatment with angiography-embolization did not correlate
with mortality, Injury Severity Score (ISS), Revised Trauma
Score (RTS), age (greater than 60 years), and transfusion
requirement (more than 6 units in the first 24 hours) were
directly correlated. Demetriades and coworkers16 reported
a 16.5% mortality rate among their 1545 pelvic fracture
patients. In their study, an ISS greater than 25 was identified
as the only risk factor associated with increased mortality.
O’Sullivan and associates21 examined 174 consecutive patients with unstable pelvic fractures in an effort to identify
specific risk factors for mortality. The investigators reported
an overall mortality rate of 20% and found that an ISS of
more than 25, an RTS score less than 8, an age greater than
65, systolic blood pressure under 100 mmHg, a Glasgow
Coma Scale under 8, transfusion requirements of more than
10 units in the first 24 hours, and a colloid infusion of more
than 6 liters in the first 24 hours were all associated with
an increased risk of death from injury. The RTS was most
predictive in this study, with a score less than 8 correlating
with a 65% mortality rate.
Kido and colleagues22 performed a retrospective review
of 102 consecutive patients with bleeding pelvic fractures
and severe associated injury (ISS greater than or equal to 3)
at their level I trauma center, to identify patient characteristics associated with increased early mortality (within 24
hours). At their institution, all patients with a pelvic fracture
and signs of intraperitoneal bleeding (hypotension) receive
a computed tomography (CT) scan with IV contrast after
initial fluid resuscitation to evaluate for bleeding. In the
study, patients diagnosed with pelvic arterial bleeding (by
extravasation of contrast) underwent transarterial embolization. Patients with intraperitoneal fluid collection on CT were
taken to the operating room for exploratory laparotomy. Of
the 102 patients, 47 died within 24 hours: 47% from hemorrhagic shock and 21% from central nervous system injuries.
Head and neck injuries and shock symptoms (hypotension)
were associated with increased risk of death, whereas the
mechanism of injury and pelvic fracture type did not show
an appreciable impact on mortality.22
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
Relevant Anatomy and Biomechanics
Pelvic Ring
The adult pelvic ring is composed of three bones: two innominate bones and the sacrum. Each innominate bone is
formed by the fusion of the embryonic ilium, ischium, and
pubis, which occurs at the tri-radiate cartilage.17,23,24 The osseous structures of the pelvis meet anteriorly in the midline at
the pubic symphysis and posteriorly at the sacroiliac joints.
Pelvic stability is primarily conferred by its ligamentous
connections, with the majority of support provided by the
posterior supporting ligaments. The sacroiliac (SI) joint is
not a true synovial joint. The sacral portion is covered in
cartilage, whereas the iliac portion is covered with fibrocartilage. There is minimal motion occurring at these joints
with weightbearing and activity. Superior to the articular
surfaces are the sacral and iliac tuberosities. The interosseous SI ligaments, which attach to these tuberosities, are
among the strongest ligamentous connections in the body.
Additional posterior support is provided by the anterior and
posterior sacroiliac ligaments, along with the iliolumbar
ligaments, which connect the transverse processes of the L5
vertebral body to the iliac crest. Altogether, these posterior
structures function as a tension band resisting rotational and
VS displacement forces. The sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments of the pelvic floor also play a role in resisting
external rotation and VS forces. The sacrospinous ligament
is a strong transverse band running from the lateral aspect
of the sacrum to the ischial spine, where the sacrotuberous
ligament travels to connect the dorsal portion of the sacrum
to the ischial tuberosity. Anterior pelvic stability is provided
by the symphysis pubis, the midline articulation of the pubic
bones. At the symphysis, the opposing bony surfaces are
covered by cartilage and united by layers of fibrocartilage
and fibrous tissue.
The arcuate line and the sacral promontory create the
pelvic brim, which separates the pelvis into a true and false
pelvis. The floor of the true pelvis is created by the pelvic
diaphragm (levator ani and coccygeal musculature), through
which the anal canal, vagina, and urethra traverse. In addition
to providing structural support during weightbearing and
activity, the bony and ligamentous components of the pelvis
create a stable, protective compartment for the contained
visceral, neural, and vascular structures. Those structures
that are at risk of injury with pelvic fractures include the
nerves of the lumbosacral-coccygeal plexus (terminates in
the sciatic, pudendal, obturator, superior, and inferior gluteal
nerves); the median sacral, superior rectal, internal iliac,
and external arteries; and their associated venous plexi, the
urethra, vagina, and anal canal.
The osseous and ligamentous components of the pelvis
creates a situation where it functions biomechanically as
a ring. As described in other areas of the body, disruption
of one portion of the pelvic ring should raise suspicion of
disruption in a second location. In an often cited study by
Gertbein and Cheno,25 six patients with presumed single,
283
isolated injuries to the pelvic ring underwent follow-up radiographs and bone scans. The investigators found evidence
on bone scan of a second injury site (posteriorly at the SI
joint or acetabulum) in each case, confirming the ring theory
of pelvic injuries. With weightbearing, the anterior structures
of the pelvis act as a strut to prevent anterior collapse.
Biomechanics and Pelvic Stability
Biomechanical studies have demonstrated that the anterior
structures of the pelvis contribute up to 40% of pelvic stiffness and stability, especially in scenarios such as a twolegged stance, where the symphysis is under tensile loads.
However, in situations where there is absence of anterior
support (congenital absence, after tumor resection, or with
isolated symphyseal injuries) the pelvis remains stable.
Sectioning studies by Pennal and coworkers26 found that
cutting the pubic symphyseal ligaments resulted in a diastasis of up to 2.5 cm. Further pelvic opening appeared to be
resisted by the anterior sacroiliac ligaments, along with the
sacrospinous ligaments. Sectioning of the anterior SI ligaments and the sacrospinous ligaments allowed the pelvis to
completely open, until the point of bony abutment by the
posterior superior iliac spines (PSISs). However, even in
this situation of complete rotational instability, the pelvis
remained stable to vertical loads, due to the integrity of the
posterior SI ligamentous complex. Subsequent to sectioning of the posterior structures, the entire hemipelvis was
noted to be unstable. An understanding of the anatomic and
biomechanical contributions of the bony and ligamentous
pelvic structures becomes important once the mechanisms
of pelvic injury and their influence on the diagnosis and
management of pelvic fractures are considered.
Mechanisms of Injury
The inherent stability of the pelvic ring afforded by its
osseous and ligamentous anatomy typically requires highenergy traumatic events to cause fracture. Various clinical
and biomechanical studies have demonstrated that the force
vector applied to the pelvis dictates the resultant fracture
pattern. LC forces, as those commonly seen in side-impact
motor vehicle accidents and falls, apply an internal rotation
moment on the pelvis. This results in fracture of the pubic
rami anteriorly. If the posterior elements of the sacroiliac
joint remain intact, the internal rotation of the pelvis causes
anterior compression of the anterior sacrum. If the anterior
injury occurs directly though the symphysis, overlap may
be seen of one pubic body over the other.
Anterior to posterior directed forces on the pelvis, which
may be seen with head-on motor vehicle accidents, falls, and
crush injuries, typically impart an external rotation moment
on the hemipelvis, leading to an “open-book” type injury.
With this mechanism of injury, anteriorly, the pubic symphysis is disrupted or, less commonly, fracture of the pubic
rami occurs. Continued external rotation of the ilium may
tear the anterior SI ligamentous structures until the PSISs
284
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
abut. Vertical stability is maintained via the intact posterior
SI ligaments.
Shearing forces applied to the pelvis during falls from a
height, typically, result in pelvic instability. Posteriorly, the
SI ligamentous structures are disrupted, as the applied force
is directed perpendicular to these soft tissue attachments.
Anteriorly, there is either disruption of the pubic symphysis
or fracture of the pubic rami. Loss of both the anterior and
posterior ligamentous structures leads to vertical displacement of the hemipelvis.
The term combined mechanical injury (CMI) has been
used to describe the mechanisms of pelvic fractures that
contain different aspects of the various applied forces
causing pelvic injury. Fractures resulting from combined
mechanisms are unstable by definition, as the posterior SI
ligamentous structures are typically completely disrupted.
Classification Systems
The classification of pelvic fractures requires adequate plain
films (anteroposterior, inlet, and outlet views2), along with
thin-cut (3 mm) CT scans. Presently, three main classification systems are used in the evaluation of pelvic fractures,
all of which are adaptations of the original work of Pennal
and Tile.2,17,24,26 Their utilization helps the treating surgeon
develop a management strategy and predict potential associated injuries and prognosis.17
Tile
In Tile’s classification, the pelvis is divided into the posterior arch (posterior to the acetabulum) and the anterior arch
(anterior to the acetabulum). Fracture type is dictated by
the stability of the posterior arch (sacroiliac complex), with
a spectrum ranging from stable type A injuries to unstable
type C fractures (Table 1).24 Tile type A fractures are those
where the pelvic ring is stable. They are subdivided into A1
injuries, which are avulsion fractures that do not involve the
pelvic ring; A2 injuries, which are iliac wing fractures or
stable minimally displaced anterior arch fractures; and A3
injuries, which are stable, transverse fractures of the sacrum
or coccyx. Tile type B injuries are defined as being partially
stable. Rotational instability is present, but the pelvis is stable
vertically, secondary to an incomplete disruption of the
posterior arch structures and the presence of an intact pelvic
floor. Type B1 injury is an external rotation open-book type
fracture, where there is disruption of the anterior pelvic arch
through the symphysis pubis or through the rami, and the
rotation hinges on an intact posterior SI complex. Type B2
fractures are internal rotation LC injuries in which there is a
combination of anterior and posterior arch fractures. These
injuries are subdivided into type B2-1 fractures, where the anterior arch disruption is ipsilateral to the compression fracture
present posteriorly, and type B2-2 fractures (“bucket-handle”
injuries), where the lesions are contralateral to each other.
Type B3 pelvic fractures are bilateral, partially stable injuries.
They include bilateral open-book fractures (B3-1), bilateral
lateral-compression injuries (B3-2), and combinations of the
two. In Tile type C fractures, the pelvis is rendered unstable
both rotationally and vertically, due to complete disruption
of the anterior arch, posterior arch, and pelvic floor. Type
C1 fractures are unilaterally unstable, type C2 fractures are
comprised of an unstable pattern on one side of the pelvis and
a partially stable (type B injury) contralaterally, and type C3
fractures are bilaterally unstable.
The Young-Burgess classification is based primarily on
the mechanism of injury and is currently the most widely
used system reported in the orthopaedic literature. This
system was based initially on a retrospective analysis of the
clinical and radiographic appearance of 142 pelvic fracture
cases.27 The investigators identified three main force vectors
causing pelvic fracture (Table 2). In fractures caused by anteroposterior compression (APC) forces, there is injury to the
anterior structures in the form of pubic symphysis separation
or vertically oriented pubic rami fractures, along with varying degrees of posterior injury. APC I injuries demonstrate
no posterior instability, with diastasis of the pubic symphysis
limited to less than 2.5 cm. APC II fractures are associated
with some degree of posterior instability, due to injury to the
anterior sacroiliac complex allowing greater than 2.5 cm of
symphyseal diastasis and anterior SI widening; however, the
posterior SI ligaments are intact. In APC III injuries, there
is complete disruption of the SI joint, leading to widening
and instability. Fractures caused by LC forces are associated
with horizontally oriented pubic rami fractures anteriorly
and variable injuries posteriorly. In LC I injury, the internal
rotation of the pelvis causes a compression fracture of the
sacrum on the side of impact. LC II fractures have a crescent
fracture present on the side of impact, and LC III fractures
have an LC I or LC II fracture on the side of impact, with an
associated open-book type injury present contralaterally. VS
pelvic fractures are the most unstable injury patterns, with
vertical displacement of the hemipelvis due to symphyseal
diastasis or rami fractures, anteriorly, and iliac wing fractures, sacral fractures, or sacroiliac joint dislocations present
posteriorly.
Orthopaedic Trauma Association
The pelvic fracture classification developed by the Orthopaedic Trauma Association (OTA) is a more comprehensive
system designed to standardize and more accurately report
various fracture patterns (Table 3). OTA type 61A fractures
are defined as stable pelvic injuries, including type 61A1
fractures, which are avulsion fractures of the innominate
bone; type 61A2 fractures, which are fractures of the innominate bone; and type 61A3 fractures, which are transverse fractures of the sacrum and coccyx. OTA type 61B
fractures are defined as being partially stable, with type
61B1 characterizing a unilateral disruption of the posterior
arch (external rotation, APC, open-book type injury), type
61B2 fractures being a unilateral disruption of the posterior
arch (internal rotation, LC injury), and type 61B3 fractures
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
285
Table 1 Tile Classification
Type
Type A
A1
A2
Type B
B1
B2
B3
Type C
C1
C2
C3
Description
Stable
Fractures of the pelvis not involving the ring; avulsion injuries
Stable, minimal displacement of the ring
Rotationally unstable; vertically stable
External rotation instability; open-book injury
LC injury; internal instability; ipsilateral only
LC injury; bilateral rotational instability (bucket handle)
Rotationally and vertically unstable
Unilateral injury
Bilateral injury, one side rotationally unstable, with the contralateral side
Bilateral injury, both sides rotationally and vertically unstable, with an associated acetabular fracture
LC, lateral compression.
Table 2 Young-Burgess System Classification
Category
LC
I
II
III
APC
I
II
III
VS
CMI
Distinguishing Characteristics
Transverse fracture of pubic rami, ipsilateral or contralateral to posterior injury
Sacral compression on side of impact
Crescent (iliac wing) fracture on side of impact
LC I or LC II injury on side of impact; contralateral open-book (APC) injury
Symphyseal diastasis or longitudinal rami fractures
Slight widening of pubic symphasis (less than 2.5 cm) or anterior SI joint; stretched but intact SI, sacrotuberous, and
sacrospinous ligaments; intact posterior SI ligaments
Symphyseal diastasis greater than 2.5; widened anterior SI joint; disrupted anterior SI, sacrotuberous, and
sacropsinous ligaments; intact posterior SI ligaments
Complete SI joint disruption with lateral displacement, disrupted anterior SI, sacrotuberous, and sacrospinous
ligaments; disrupted posterior SI ligaments
Symphyseal diastasis or vertical displacement anteriorly and posteriorly, usually through the SI joint, occasionally
through the iliac wing or sacrum
Combination of the injury patterns, LC/VS is most common
APC, anteroposterior compression; CMI, combined mechanical injury; LC, lateral compression; SI, sacroiliac; VS, vertical shear.
Table 3
OTA Classification of Pelvic (Six) Ring (One) Fractures
Type
Description
A
Lesion sparing (no displacement of posterior arch)
Fracture of innominate bone, avulsion
Fracture of innominate bone, direct blow
Transverse fracture of sacrum and coccyx
Incomplete disruption of posterior arch, partially stable
Unilateral, partial disruption of posterior arch, external rotation (open-book
Unilateral, partial disruption of posterior arch, internal rotation (LC injury)
Bilateal, partial lesion of posterior arch
Complete disruption of posterior arch, unstable
Unilateral, complete disruption of posterior arch
Bilateral, ipsilateral complete, contralateral incomplete
Bilateral, complete disruption
1
2
3
B
1
2
3
C
1
2
3
LC, lateral compression.
demonstrating bilateral partial lesions of the posterior arch.
OTA type 61C fractures are unstable injuries, secondary to
complete disruption of the posterior arch. Type 61C1 injuries
are unilateral, type 61C2 injuries are complete ipsilaterally
and incomplete contralaterally, and type 61C3 injuries have
bilateral complete disruptions. Within this classification
system, there are many subgroups and divisions that accurately describe increasingly specific fracture patterns; these
subdivisions are useful for research purposes, but relatively
cumbersome for routine use.
Evaluation and Initial Management
Information obtained from emergency medical personnel regarding details of the mechanism of injury and initial patient
presentation may be useful in raising suspicion for a pelvic
fracture and the presence of associated injuries. Pre-hospital
286
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
protocols, including cervical spine immobilization, protection of the airway and maintenance of adequate ventilation,
intravenous access, and circulatory support, in addition to
rapid transport to a trauma center, have been instituted in an
effort to optimize initial patient management.17
ATLS Assessment and Management
Initial hospital evaluation and management in the emergency
room proceeds according to the guidelines of the Advanced
Trauma Life Support (ATLS) protocol.5 The primary survey
includes an assessment of the patient’s airway and breathing,
while intravenous access is obtained with two large bore IVs,
allowing for resuscitation to occur simultaneously with the
diagnostic evaluation.
Hemodynamic stabilization is of paramount importance
in the initial management phases of suspected pelvic
fractures. Once the airway has been adequately secured,
a search for potential sources of bleeding is started. Inspection during the primary survey may identify signs of
injury-associated hemorrhage, such as flank ecchymosis or
scrotal edema. Trauma radiographs, including anteroposterior views of the chest and pelvis, may also help localize
a bleeding source. The focused assessment sonogram for
trauma (FAST) may be utilized in the emergency setting
to identify intraperitoneal fluid.5,17 In many centers, a positive FAST exam in a hemodynamically unstable patient is
an indication for immediate abdominal exploration.28 In a
recent retrospective review of the utility of FAST exams in
pelvic fracture patients, Tayal and associates29 reported an
overall sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 87%. In cases
where the FAST is equivocal and ongoing hemorrhage is
suspected, a diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) is a useful
additional assessment tool.17,30,31 Using a supra-umbilical
insertion site, a DPL yielding more than 8 cc of blood is
considered positive for intraperitoneal bleeding, prompting
emergent abdominal exploration.17 The supra-umbilical
site is preferred in pelvic fracture patients to avoid the
possibility of false positive results occurring, secondary
to aspiration of the pelvic fracture hematoma.
Physical Examination of the Pelvis
Once active hemorrhage and life-threatening associated
injuries have been ruled out during the primary survey, the
physical examination can then be focused on the pelvis.
Recent studies have demonstrated that clinical examination
can be sensitive in the identification of pelvic fracture in the
conscious and interactive patient. Gonzalez and colleagues,32
in their review of 2176 blunt trauma patients, reported that
a focused physical examination had a 93% sensitivity for
the diagnosis of pelvic fracture.
Significant shortening or external rotation of one of the
patient’s lower extremities on inspection may help identify a
VS or an open-book APC type pelvic injury. Palpation of the
anterior pelvis may demonstrate a symphyseal gap indicative of diastasis. Compression testing in the anteroposterior
direction through applied downward pressure on the anterior
superior iliac spines (ASISs) and in the lateral direction via
compression of the iliac crests is performed in an effort to
identify pelvic rotational instability. Pelvic compression
should be limited to a single attempt, in an effort to limit
repeated disruption of fracture site clots.
Rectal and pelvic examinations are of utmost importance
during the initial evaluation to rule out the presence of an
open fracture. Blood in the vaginal vault or in the rectum
should raise the level of suspicion for an open injury. Palpable bony spicules within the rectum or vagina may be
present indicating an open injury. A high-riding prostate
may also be detected on rectal examination, indicating the
presence of a periurethral or periprosthetic hematoma occurring secondary to genitourinary injury.17,23
When possible, a complete neurologic examination
should be performed, focusing on sciatic nerve and sacral
plexus function, as these nerves are at risk for injury. Evaluation of rectal tone and the presence of the bulbocavernosus
reflex are included in the initial neurologic evaluation.
Diagnosis of Associated Injuries
Genitourinary
Large case series have reported that genitourinary injury occurs in as many as 15% to 20% of pelvic fracture
cases.17,18,33-36 Identification of blood at the urethral meatus,
gross hematuria, or significant penile or scrotal swelling or
ecchymosis should raise suspicion for injury to the bladder
or urethra and warrant a urology consult and further work-up,
including a urethrogram or possible operative exploration.
Additionally, the pelvic fracture pattern, as seen on the initial anteroposterior trauma pelvic radiograph, may predict
the risk of genitourinary injury. Basta and coworkers,18 in
a case-control review of 119 pelvic fracture patients, correlated anterior pelvic fractures (in particular, inferomedial
pubic bone fracture or pubic symphysis diastatis with 1 cm
or more of displacement) with associated urethral injury. The
investigators found that each millimeter of pubic symphysis
diastasis or inferomedial pubic bone fracture displacement
was associated with a 10% increased risk of urethral injury.
Andrich and associates37 reviewed 108 males and females
with pelvic ring fractures at their institution and found that
27 (25%) had lower urinary tract injuries (LUTI). Although
the study failed to show a correlation between pelvic fracture
mechanism (Tile A, B, or C) and the presence of a LUTI, the
study did find that more severe urethral injuries (complete
urethral disruption and complex LUTI) occurred only in
males with Tile C injuries. In a retrospective review of 721
patients with blunt trauma pelvic fractures, Avey and colleagues38 found 37 bladder ruptures (5%), all of which had
hematuria greater than 30 RBC/HPF (red blood cells per
high-power field). Pelvic injuries associated with bladder
injury included diastasis of the pubic symphysis greater than
1 cm and fracture of the obturator ring, with a displacement
greater than 1 cm.38
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
287
Gastrointestinal
Intra-abdominal injuries can occur with pelvic fractures.
Bowel can become entrapped within a pelvic fracture and
present as an acute intestinal obstruction or intermittent
ileus. Stubbart and Merkley39 reported a case of descending and sigmoid colon herniation resulting from an ilium
fracture. Although a review of the literature shows that
bowel entrapment is a relatively rare complication, it can
be fatal and must be differentiated from adynamic ileus, a
more benign condition that occurs in up to 5% to 18% of
pelvic fractures, which lasts an average of 3 days. Patients
with pelvic fractures and a persistent ileus should undergo
a CT with enteric contrast to rule out occult bowel injury,
such as entrapment at the pelvic fracture site.39
rhage, including an emergency room hematocrit of less than
30, a pulse greater than 130 BPM, displaced obturator ring
fracture, and pubic symphyseal wide diastasis (greater than
1 cm used for displacement). Patients with zero predictors
had a 2% change of major hemorrhage, whereas patients with
three or more predictors had a greater than 60% chance of
having hemorrhage. In a retrospective review of 382 patients
with isolated pelvic or acetabular fractures, Magneussen and
colleagues44 found that isolated pelvic fractures with major
ligament disruption (APC I or II, LC III, VS, or CMI) were
more likely to require transfusions (44%) than other pelvic
fractures (8.5%). Patients with APC 3 and VS fractures required the most amount of blood (12.6 units and 4.6 units,
respectively).
Hemorrhage
All pelvic fractures are associated with some form of bleeding. Sources of blood loss include cancellous bone at the
fracture site, laceration of retroperitoneal veins in the pelvis,
and laceration of branches of the internal iliac artery, which
accounts for approximately 25% of hemodynamically unstable pelvic fractures.40,41 It is difficult to determine whether
a patient is hemorrhaging from a venous or an arterial bleed.
Arteriography can identify arterial bleeding, venography
shows venous bleeding (although it is difficult to distinguish between major or minor bleeds), and pelvic CT can
show the presence of a hematoma (which is suggestive of
a bleed, but not specific). Huittinen and Slätis42 performed
a cadaveric study of 27 patients with pelvic fractures who
died from hemorrhage. Postmortem anatomic dissection
and arteriography of the hypogastric artery was performed.
Extravasation from the hypogastric artery through the
cancellous bone and torn tissues was seen in 23 cadavers.
Based upon their findings, Huittinen and Slätis concluded
that “accurate reposition of the dislocated pelvic fracture is
preferable to ligation of the hypogastric arteries for control
of severe hemorrhage from pelvic fractures.”
Early identification of patients with hemorrhage is critical
in management. Although evaluation of patients with blunt
abdominal injury, typically, involves a focused assessment
with sonography for trauma (FAST) exam, in patients with
pelvic fractures, a negative exam does not rule out intraperitoneal hemorrhage. Friese and coworkers43 performed a
retrospective review of 96 patients with pelvic fracture and
risk factors for hemorrhage (systolic blood pressure less than
100 mmHg or an unstable fracture pattern) who underwent
a FAST and either operative exploration or CT scan for
confirmation. In the study, there were 11 true positives, 52
true negatives, two false positives, and 31 false negatives
(sensitivity of 26% and negative predictive value of 63%).43
Clinical factors can be used to help predict which patients
with pelvic fractures are more at risk of bleeding. Blackmore
and associates40 performed a retrospective cohort study of
627 patients with pelvic fractures (20% of whom had major
pelvic hemorrhage) and identified four predictors of hemor-
Emergency Methods of Provisional Pelvic
Stabilization
In the emergent setting, the orthopedic surgeon has a number of options for provisional pelvic stabilization to help
tamponade bleeding in patients with pelvic fractures who
are hemodynamically unstable, including using a pneumatic
anti-shock garment (PASG), wrapping a sheet around the
pelvis, or placing a pelvic binder on arrival, as well as more
definitive fixation with an anti-shock pelvic clamp (C-clamp)
or traditional anterior external fixation.
Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment
PASG, also known as a military anti-shock trouser, is
sometimes used in the pre-hospital and emergency room
setting to increase blood pressure, reduce pelvic fractures,
and tamponade hemorrhage. A number of problems have
occurred with the PASG, however, including lower extremity
ischemia and compartment syndrome. The PASG is bulky,
and when in place, it is difficult to access the abdomen,
genitourinary system, and lower extremities. 45-47 While
there may be theoretical benefits to the PASG, Chang and
colleagues48 showed in a prospective randomized study of
248 patients with traumatic shock that PASG provided no
mortality benefit or difference in hospital stay as compared
to no PASG.
Wrapping Sheet
Circumferential compression with a sheet around the pelvis
or a pelvic binder can be used as an emergent method of stabilizing the pelvis and reducing pelvic volume in open-book
pelvis fractures. The sheet should be placed at the level of the
greater trochanter and wrapped tightly around the patient and
secured with a clamp or cable ties. A bolster should be placed
under the knees and the lower thighs, and ankles should be
bandaged together to help stabilize the pelvis. Nunn and
coworkers49 presented a series of seven hemodynamically
unstable patients with pelvic fractures (APC II, APC III, LC
III, and CMI), showing that circumferential compression
with a sheet helped stabilize the patient by increasing blood
pressure and reducing tachycardia; patients still required
288
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
significant fluid resuscitation and blood transfusions over
the subsequent 12 hours.
Pelvic Clamping
Ganz and associates50 introduced the C-clamp as a tool to
rapidly stabilize posterior pelvic ring fractures in hypotensive patients. Using their instructions to place the C-clamp,
the PSIS is first palpated. The entry point of the Steinmann
pins is noted to be three to four fingerbreadths anterolateral
to the PSIS, along a line drawn between the ASIS and the
PSIS. A stab incision is made over the entry point, the pins
are advanced to bone and driven in 1 cm with a hammer.
The hemipelvis is compressed with the sidearms using a
wrench.50
In a retrospective review of 14 patients in hemorrhagic
shock with unstable B or C pelvic ring fractures and who
were treated with a pelvic C-clamp, Sadri and colleagues51
found that five patients remained hemodynamically unstable
and required arterial angioembolization. Although exact
times were not reported, they stated patients who required
pelvic C-clamps were taken to the operating room within 2
hours of arrival to the hospital, and a C-clamp was placed
within 20 minutes; thus, extrapolating these results to practice requires an efficient triage set-up and readily available
orthopaedic and support staff.51
External fixation via anterior stabilization can be performed for partially stable (type B) pelvic fractures. There
are two sites for anterior pin placement, either in the superior
iliac crest above the ASIS or lower between the iliac spines
(which allows easier access to the abdomen). The pullout
strength at these two sites is comparable. Pins can be placed
percutaneously or through an open technique. Two or three
pelvic pins are placed in each crest and connected via a
rectangular or trapezoidal frame. Reduction of the pelvic
fracture occurs by correction of the displacement (typically,
with internal rotation for open-book fractures or external
rotation for LC fractures). Unstable pelvic fractures (type
C) can be mechanically fixed with either a pelvic C-clamp
or traditional external fixation and distal femur skeletal traction.52
Bassam and coworkers53 prospectively evaluated external
fixation, as compared to angiography, in 15 patients with
pelvic fractures who were hemodynamically unstable.
Based upon a previous study, which showed that posterior
arterial bleeding from the internal iliac artery or its posterior
branches was more common in unstable posterior pelvic
fractures, this group divided these patients into either anterior pelvic ring fractures (APC I and LC I) or posterior
pelvic ring fractures (APC II, APC II, LC II and LC III).
Patients with anterior fractures were treated initially with
emergent external fixation, whereas patients with posterior
fractures were treated initially with arterial angiography and
embolization. Of note, patients with anterior and posterior
pelvic ring fractures were treated with an external fixator
if the fracture was vertically stable and with angiography
if the fracture was vertically unstable. Eight patients were
treated initially with external fixation, whereas seven patients
underwent angiography. Four of the eight patients who
were treated with external fixation required angiography
for continued hemodynamic instability, whereas none of the
patients who were treated initially with angiography required
external fixation. Three patients in the external fixator group
suffered large buttock and thigh hematomas (as compared
to no hematoma complications in the angiography group).
From these results, Bassam and associates53 concluded that
all patients with pelvic fractures who were hemodynamically
unstable should be treated with arterial angioembolization,
regardless of fracture type.
Biffl and colleagues28 performed a retrospective review
of 216 patients with pelvic fractures requiring blood transfusions pre-introduction (143 patients) and post-introduction
(73 patients) of a newly instituted clinical pathway that
involved having an orthopaedic trauma attending available
on presentation to the emergency department, closing the
pelvis on arrival by wrapping the pelvis with a sheet, and
taping the knees and ankles together, using a pelvic C-clamp
for mechanical stabilization as an alternative to traditional
external fixator devices. Although it is difficult to isolate how
each change affected outcomes, overall mortality decreased
from 31% to 15% (16% to 5% within the first 24 hours) and
death from exsanguinations decreased from 9% to 1%.
Imaging Evaluation
The standard trauma radiographs are an anteroposterior (AP)
view of the chest, a lateral view of the cervical spine, and
an AP view of the pelvis. The AP of the pelvis can be used
to look for anterior injuries (pubic rami fractures and symphysis displacement), sacroiliac joint and sacral fractures,
iliac fractures, and L5 transverse process fractures. Inlet and
outlet views should be performed. The inlet view is taken
with the patient supine and the X-ray beam directed 60°
caudally (i.e., perpendicular to the pelvic brim). The inlet
view is used to look for anterior or posterior displacement of
the sacroiliac joint, sacrum, or iliac wing. Internal rotation
deformities in ilium or sacral impaction fractures are also
apparent on the inlet view. The outlet view is taken with the
patient supine and the X-ray beam directed 45° cephalad;
the view is used to look for vertical displacement of the
hemipelvis. The Judet views (iliac and obturator oblique)
are pelvic radiographs taken at 45° external and internal
rotation, showing the posterior column-anterior wall of the
acetabulum and anterior column-posterior wall, respectively.
A stress view can be performed to assess vertical stability. A
push-pull force is applied through the limb; the hemipelvis
is unstable if it moves greater than 0.5 to 1 cm. A CT scan
is helpful in evaluating the sacroiliac complex.
In classifying pelvic fractures, it is important to determine
if a fracture is stable or unstable (rotationally and vertically). Radiographic signs of instability include: sacroiliac
displacement of greater than 0.5 mm in any plane; a poste-
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
rior fracture gap; or avulsion of the fifth lumbar transverse
process, the lateral border of the sacrum (implying a tear in
the sacrotuberous ligament), or the ischial spine (implying
a tear in the sacrospinous ligament).54
A patient with a pelvic fracture, who is hemodynamically unstable despite aggressive fluid resuscitation and
mechanical stabilization, may be a candidate for pelvic
angiography. Fangio and coworkers55 evaluated the use of
pelvic angioembolization as first-line treatment for hemodynamic instability. They performed a retrospective study
of 311 patients with pelvic fractures, of whom 32 were hemodynamically unstable and underwent pelvic angiography;
25 patients required angiographic embolization, 24 of whom
had a “successful” outcome, as determined by cessation of
contrast extravasation, and 21 patients showed hemodynamic
improvement.
Some institutions advocate taking hemodynamically
unstable patients for angioembolization regardless of CT
findings. Brown and associates56 showed that pelvic CT
findings of no hematoma or blush still may have bleeding
requiring angioembolization. In a retrospective review of 37
patients with pelvic fractures, who underwent pelvic CT on
admission and pelvic angiography, they found that in the six
patients who did not have evidence of hematoma, five had
bleeding requiring angioembolization, and of the 31 patients
who did not have blush on CT, 22 had bleeding requiring
angioembolization.
There are some concerns regarding angioembolization for
control of bleeding in patients with pelvic fractures. First,
arterial angioembolization stops pelvic arterial bleeding;
however, it does not control venous bleeding or bony hemorrhage, two major sources of bleeding associated with pelvic
fractures. Second, taking a patient to the angiography suite
can be time consuming and may delay taking a patient to
the operating room. In a patient with a pelvic fracture, who
may require emergent abdominal or thoracic exploration, this
delay may be fatal. In a prospective study, Cothren and colleagues57 treated 28 consecutive patients with hemodynamic
instability (defined as persistent systolic blood pressure less
than 90 mmHg, despite 2u PRBC) and pelvic fracture with
preperitoneal packing (PPP) and skeletal fixation (either
anterior external fixator or a pelvic C-clamp placement)
as initial treatment of instability. With PPP, the pelvis was
directly packed through a preperitoneal approach. Packing
was removed 24 to 48 hours after the initial procedure. PPP
resulted in lower transfusion requirements (preoperative
transfusion requirement of 12 units on average as compared
to 6 units postoperatively). The mortality rate in this study
was 25%, which is lower than what had previously been
reported in similar patients (typically, greater than 40%).56
Summary
A pelvic ring fracture is a high-energy injury and should be
suspected in any patient whose presenting history includes a
suspicious mechanism (motor vehicle accident, crush injury,
289
or fall from a height). The diagnosis of patients with a pelvic
ring fracture should focus on determining the stability of the
pelvic ring, which can be assessed clinically and radiographically. As with any high-energy fracture, a careful physical examination should be performed to rule out an open
fracture. The stability of the pelvic ring is determined by
the integrity of the posterior weightbearing sacroiliac complex, which includes the sacroiliac (posterior and anterior),
sacrospinous, and sacrotuberous ligaments. Direct lateral
pressure on the iliac crests indicates if rotational instability
exists. Movement of the hemipelvis as manual traction is
applied to the lower extremity indicates vertical instability.
At minimum, an AP of the pelvis should be performed to
help classify the fracture and evaluate the sacroiliac joint as
a marker for instability. A CT scan is helpful in evaluating
the sacroiliac complex to determine if vertical instability is
present. If possible, the pelvic fracture should be classified
according to the Tile and Young and Burgess systems.
Management of patients with pelvic ring fractures begins
in the pre-hospital setting. In patients with hemodynamic
instability, a pelvic binder should be placed to help decrease
the pelvic volume and stabilize the pelvis. On arrival to the
emergency department, the trauma surgeon should direct assessment and management. A major risk factor for mortality
in patients with pelvic ring fractures is hypotension not responsive to fluid resuscitation. After a chest plain film (to rule
out hemothorax) and a FAST (to rule out hemoperitoneum
and need for exploratory laparotomy) have ruled out other
sources of hemorrhage, the most likely source of bleeding
is from the pelvic venous and arterial system or from the
cancellous bone at the fracture site. The pelvis should be
stabilized with a pelvic binder. If the patient continues to be
unstable, the patient should be taken for arterial angiography
and embolization. After a patient is hemodynamically stabilized, full imaging (including inlet, outlet, Judet, and CT
scan) can be performed. If the pelvic fracture type is unstable
(Tile B or C; Young and Burgess APC II, APC III, LC II,
LC III, VS), the patient will require operative fixation and
can be treated with more definitive stabilization, such as an
external fixator or a pelvic C-clamp (if posterior instability
exists) in the interim.
Conclusion
There are a number of areas of uncertainty in the initial triage and management of patients with pelvic ring fractures.
While it is clear that hemodynamically unstable patients
have a higher mortality, the source of bleeding (venous,
arterial, or bony) is typically not clear. A better understanding of the source would help determine if patients would be
more likely to benefit from emergent arterial angiography
or pelvic stabilization. With regard to pelvic stabilization,
more head-to-head studies need to be performed to determine
what the best method of emergent stabilization would be.
Pelvic ring fractures present a diagnostic and management
challenge to orthopaedic surgeons and require the coordi-
290
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
nation of emergency room physicians and trauma surgeons
to rapidly diagnose unstable fractures and stabilize hemodynamically unstable patients prior to definitive operative
fixation as needed.
Disclosure Statement
None of the authors have a financial or proprietary interest
in the subject matter or materials discussed, including, but
not limited to, employment, consultancies, stock ownership,
honoraria, and paid expert testimony.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
15.
16.
17.
18.
Malgaigne JF. Double vertical fractures of the pelvis. 1859.
Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2007;458:17-9.
Tile M. The pelvis: a tribute to George F. Pennal. Clin Orthop
Relat Res. 1980;151:2-3.
Giannoudis PV, Pape HC. Damage control orthopaedics in
unstable pelvic ring injuries. Injury. 2004;35(7):671-7.
Grotz MR, Allami MK, Harwood P, et al. Open pelvic fractures: epidemiology, current concepts of management and
outcome. Injury. 2005;36(1):1-13.
Mohanty K, Musso D, Powell JN, et al. Emergent management
of pelvic ring injuries: an update. Can J Surg. 2005;48(1):4956.
Mucha P Jr, Farnell MB. Analysis of pelvic fracture management. J Trauma. 1984;24(5):379-86.
Melton LJ 3rd, Sampson JM, Morrey BF, Ilstrup DM. Epidemiologic features of pelvic fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
1981;155:43-7.
Ragnarsson B, Jacobsson B. Epidemiology of pelvic fractures
in a Swedish county. Acta Orthop Scand. 1992;63(3):297-300.
Gänsslen A, Pohlemann T, Paul C, et al. Epidemiology of
pelvic ring injuries. Injury. 1996;(27 Suppl 1):S-A13-20.
Hanson PB, Milne JC, Chapman MW. Open fractures
of the pelvis. Review of 43 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br.
1991;73(2):325-9.
Perry JF Jr. Pelvic open fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
1980;151:41-5.
Brenneman FD, Katyal D, Boulanger BR, et al. Long-term
outcomes in open pelvic fractures. J Trauma. 1997;42(5):7737.
Jones AL, Powell JN, Kellam JF, et al. Open pelvic fractures.
A multicenter retrospective analysis. Orthop Clin North Am.
1997;28(3):345-50.
Maull KI, Sachatello CR, Ernst CB. The deep perineal
laceration-an injury frequently associated with open pelvic
fractures: a need for aggressive surgical management. A
report of 12 cases and review of the literature. J Trauma.
1977;17(9):685-96.
Raffa J, Christensen NM. Compound fractures of the pelvis.
Am J Surg. 1976;132(2):282-6.
Demetriades D, Karaiskakis M, Toutouzas K, et al. Pelvic fractures: epidemiology and predictors of associated abdominal
injuries and outcomes. J Am Coll Surg. 2002;195(1):1-10.
Durkin A, Sagi HC, Durham R, Flint L. Contemporary management of pelvic fractures. Am J Surg. 2006;192(2):211-23.
Basta AM, Blackmore CC, Wessells H. Predicting urethral
injury from pelvic fracture patterns in male patients with blunt
trauma. J Urol. 2007;177(2):571-5.
19. Smith W, Williams A, Agudelo J, et al. Early predictors of
mortality in hemodynamically unstable pelvis fractures. J
Orthop Trauma. 2007;21(1):31-7.
20. Poole GV, Ward EF. Causes of mortality in patients with pelvic
fractures. Orthopedics. 1994;17(8):691-6.
21. O’Sullivan RE, White TO, Keating JF. Major pelvic fractures:
identification of patients at high risk. J Bone Joint Surg Br.
2005;87(4):530-3.
22. Kido A, Inoue F, Takakura Y, Hoshida T. Statistical analysis of
fatal bleeding pelvic fracture patients with severe associated
injuries. J Orthop Sci. 2008;13(1):21-4.
23. Dyer GS, Vrahas MS. Review of the pathophysiology and
acute management of haemorrhage in pelvic fracture. Injury.
2006;37(7):602-13.
24. Tile M. Acute pelvic fractures: I. Causation and classification.
J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 1996;4(3):143-51.
25. Gertzbein SD, Chenoweth DR. Occult injuries of the pelvic
ring. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;128:202-7.
26. Pennal GF, Tile M, Waddell JP, Garside H. Pelvic disruption: assessment and classification. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
1980;151:12-21.
27. Young JW, Burgess AR, Brumback RJ, Poka A. Pelvic fractures: value of plain radiography in early assessment and
management. Radiology. 1986;160(2):445-51.
28. Biffl WL, Smith WR, Moore EE, et al. Evolution of a multidisciplinary clinical pathway for the management of unstable
patients with pelvic fractures. Ann Surg. 2001;233(6):843-50.
29. Tayal VS, Nielsen A, Jones AE, et al. Accuracy of trauma ultrasound in major pelvic injury. J Trauma. 2006;61(6):1453-7.
30. Gonzalez RP, Ickler J, Gachassin P. Complementary roles
of diagnostic peritoneal lavage and computed tomography
in the evaluation of blunt abdominal trauma. J Trauma.
2001;51(6):1128-34; discussion 1134-6.
31. Pryor JP, Reilly PM. Initial care of the patient with blunt
polytrauma. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;422:30-6.
32. Gonzalez RP, Fried PQ, Bukhalo M. The utility of clinical
examination in screening for pelvic fractures in blunt trauma.
J Am Coll Surg. 2002;194(2):121-5.
33. Cass AS. Bladder trauma in the multiple injured patient. J
Urol. 1976;115(6):667-9.
34. Cass AS. Urethral injury in the multiple-injured patient. J
Trauma. 1984;24(10):901-6.
35. Fallon B, Wendt JC, Hawtrey CE. Urological injury
and assessment in patients with fractured pelvis. J Urol.
1984;131(4):712-4.
36. Palmer JK, Benson GS, Corriere JN Jr. Diagnosis and initial
management of urological injuries associated with 200 consecutive pelvic fractures. J Urol. 1983;130(4):712-4.
37. Andrich DE, Day AC, Mundy AR. Proposed mechanisms of
lower urinary tract injury in fractures of the pelvic ring. BJU
Int. 2007 Sep;100(3):567-73; Epub 2007 Jul 3.
38. Avey G, Blackmore CC, Wessells H, et al. Radiographic and
clinical predictors of bladder rupture in blunt trauma patients
with pelvic fracture. Acad Radiol. 2006;13(5):573-9.
39. Stubbart JR, Merkley M. Bowel entrapment within pelvic
fractures: a case report and review of the literature. J Orthop
Trauma. 1999;13(2):145-8.
40. Blackmore CC, Cummings P, Jurkovich GJ, et al. Predicting
major hemorrhage in patients with pelvic fracture. J Trauma.
2006;61(2):346-52.
Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 2010;68(4):281-91
41. Schmal H, Markmiller M, Mehlhorn AT, Sudkamp NP. Epidemiology and outcome of complex pelvic injury. Acta Orthop
Belg. 2005;71(1):41-7.
42. Huittinen VM, Slätis P. Postmortem angiography and dissection of the hypogastric artery in pelvic fractures. Surgery.
1973;73(3):454-62.
43. Friese RS, Malekzadeh S, Shafi S. Abdominal ultrasound is
an unreliable modality for the detection of hemoperitoneum
in patients with pelvic fracture. J Trauma. 2007;63(1):97-102.
44. Magnussen RA, Tressler MA, Obremskey WT, Kregor PJ.
Predicting blood loss in isolated pelvic and acetabular highenergy trauma. J Orthop Trauma. 2007;21(9):603-7.
45. Morse SS, Strauss EB, Sumpio BE. Apparent arterial occlusion due to pneumatic antishock garment: pitfall in
trauma angiography (case report). AJR Am J Roentgenol.
1986;147(2):391-2.
46. Connolly B, Gerlinger T, Pitcher JD. Complete masking of
a severe open-book pelvic fracture by a pneumatic antishock
garment. J Trauma. 1999;46(2):340-2.
47. Vahedi MH, Ayuyao A, Parsa MH, Freeman HP. Pneumatic
antishock garment-associated compartment syndrome in
uninjured lower extremities. J Trauma. 1995;38(4):616-8.
48. Chang FC, Harrison PB, Beech RR, Helmer SD. PASG: does
it help in the management of traumatic shock? J Trauma.
1995;39(3):453-6.
49. Nunn T, Cosker TD, Bose D, Pallister I. Immediate application
of improvised pelvic binder as first step in extended resuscitation from life-threatening hypovolaemic shock in conscious
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
291
patients with unstable pelvic injuries. Injury. 2007;38(1):1258; Epub 2006 Sep 22.
Ganz R, Krushell RJ, Jakob RP, Küffer J. The antishock pelvic
clamp. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1991 Jun;267:71-8.
Sadri H, Nguyen-Tang T, Stern R, et al. Control of severe
hemorrhage using C-clamp and arterial embolization in hemodynamically unstable patients with pelvic ring disruption.
Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2005;125(7):443-7.
Yang AP, Iannacone WM. External fixation for pelvic ring
disruptions. Orthop Clin North Am. 1997;28(3):331-44.
Bassam D, Cephas GA, Ferguson KA, et al. A protocol for
the initial management of unstable pelvic fractures. Am Surg.
1998;64(9):862-7.
Tile M. Pelvic ring fractures: should they be fixed? J Bone
Joint Surg Br. 1988;70(1):1-12.
Fangio P, Asehnoune K, Edouard A, et al. Early embolization and vasopressor administration for management of
life-threatening hemorrhage from pelvic fracture. J Trauma.
2005;58(5):978-84; discussion 984.
Brown CV, Kasotakis G, Wilcox A, et al. Does pelvic
hematoma on admission computed tomography predict active bleeding at angiography for pelvic fracture? Am Surg.
2005;71(9):759-62.
Cothren CC, Osborn PM, Moore EE, et al. Preperitonal pelvic packing for hemodynamically unstable pelvic fractures:
a paradigm shift. J Trauma. 2007;62(4):834-9; discussion
839-42