Committee 10 C Conservative Treatment in Women Chairman P. D. WILSON (New Zealand) Members K. BO (Norway), J HAY-SMITH (New Zealand), I. NYGAARD (USA), D. STASKIN (USA), J. WYMAN (USA), Consultant A. BOURCIER (France) 571 CONTENTS Chapter 10C I. INTRODUCTION V. ANTI-INCONTINENCE DEVICES IN THE FEMALE PATIENT II. LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS 1. INTRODUCTION 2. DEVICES THAT TREAT INCONTINENCE SECONDARY TO FAILURE TO EMPTY (DETRUSOR UNDERACTIVITY / OUTLET OVERACTIVITY) IN THE NON-NEUROGENIC ADULT FEMALE 3. DEVICES THAT TREAT FAILURE TO STORE (OUTLET UNDERACTIVITY) IN THE NON-NEU- 1 BACKGROUND 2. WEIGHT LOSS 3. PHYSICAL FORCES (EXERCISE, WORK) 4. SMOKING 5. DIETARY FACTORS 6. CONSTIPATION 7. OTHER ROGENIC AMBULATORY ADULT FEMALE POPULATION 4. BLOCKAGE III. PHYSICAL THERAPIES OF URINARY OCCLUDING EGRESS 1. INTRODUCTION 2. PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING (PFMT) 3. BIOFEEDBACK AND/OR INTRAVAGINAL RESISTANCE 4. ELECTRICAL STIMULATION 5. WEIGHTED VAGINAL CONES 6. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING OUTCOME 7. PREVENTION LEAKAGE BY - OCCLUSIVE DEVICES VI. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS & SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 1. REGARDING LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS 2. REGARDING PHYSICAL THERAPIES 3. REGARDING BLADDER RETRAINING 4. REGARDING ANTI-INCONTINENCE DEVICES: VII: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH IV. BLADDER RETRAINING 1. LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS 2. PHYSICAL THERAPIES 3. BLADDER RETRAINING 4. DEVICES 1. INTRODUCTION 2. BLADDER RETRAINING 3. BLADDER RETRAINING IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER ADJUNCTS (PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING AND MEDICATIONS) 4. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTCOMES OF BLAD- APPENDIX 1 1. SEARCH STRATEGIES 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DER RETRAINING 5. ADVERSE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH BLADDER RETRAINING 572 Conservative Treatment in Women P. D. WILSON, K. BO, J HAY-SMITH, I. NYGAARD, D. STASKIN, J. WYMAN, A. BOURCIER and recommendations on efficacy made on the best available level of evidence reviewed. (see Introduction to Management Chapters Reference É..) I. INTRODUCTION Conservative treatment is any therapy that does not involve pharmacological or surgical intervention. In women, it includes principally, lifestyle interventions, physical therapies, bladder retraining (all encompassed by the term Òbehavioural therapyÓ used in some countries) and anti-incontinence devices. On the whole these treatments are simple, low cost remedies with a low risk of adverse effects and do not prejudice other subsequent treatment options. As the prevalence of female urinary incontinence is high, and with the current constraints on the healthcare economy, conservative treatment constitutes the principal form of management at primary care level. It is the first line of treatment for women with stress and/or urge incontinence. It is also indicated for those women for whom other treatments, in particular surgery, are inappropriate, for example, those who are unwilling to undergo or who are not medically fit for surgery, and those who plan future pregnancies (as these may adversely affect surgery). Other indications include patients awaiting or who wish to delay surgery and women whose symptoms are not serious enough for surgical intervention. To date, only a relatively small number of objective clinical comparative studies with large numbers have been carried out to assess the effectiveness of conservative treatment. II. LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS 1 BACKGROUND Various lifestyle factors may play a role in either the pathogenesis of, or later, the resolution of incontinence. While published literature about lifestyle factors and incontinence is sparse, alterations in lifestyle are frequently recommended by health care professionals and lay people alike. However, to date, most studies about lifestyle report associations only and do not assess the actual effect of applying or deleting the behaviour in question on incontinence. Currently, only a relatively small number of randomized trials have been carried out to assess the effect of a specific lifestyle on incontinence. This section will examine the evidence for the association and use of lifestyle interventions in the management of female urinary incontinence. A summary of the search strategy and inclusion/exclusion criteria is given in Appendix 1. To date, however, only a relatively small number of objective clinical comparative studies of adequate patient numbers have been carried out to assess the effectiveness of conservative treatment of urinary incontinence. This chapter reviews the main types of conservative treatment particularly with regard to their effectiveness. This information assists the counselling of neurologically ÒnormalÓ adult women regarding these treatment options (readers are directed to the chapters on men, children, the elderly and neuropathic patients for discussion on the effect of these conservative treatments in these specific groups). A systematic review of the literature has been carried out, comment made on the quality of all relevant studies identified, Regarding lifestyle interventions, most studies to date have reported associations only and have not assessed the actual effect of applying or removing the behaviour in question. 2. WEIGHT LOSS a) Quality of data 1 Two prosOne randomized pilot study was found [1]. 573 c) Summary pective cohort studies [2],[3] 2 3 evaluated the effect of weight loss. Other study designs were cross-sectional, retrospective cohort, or case-control studies. Obesity is an independent risk factor for the prevalence of urinary incontinence. Massive weight loss significantly decreases incontinence in morbidly obese women. Preliminary evidence suggests that moderate weight loss may also result in decreased incontinence. (Level of Evidence: 1/2). Sample sizes for the interventional trials were 12 [2], 2 [3], 1 Sample sizes for studies which assessed 3 and 10 [1]. the association between obesity and incontinence, but in which no intervention was done, ranged from 193 [4] 4 to 7949 [5]. 5 The case control study had a sample size of 108 cases and 108 controls [6]. 6 d) Recommendation Weight loss is an acceptable treatment option for morbidly obese women. At this time, there is scant information on whether weight loss resolves incontinence in women who are moderately obese. At least one such larger trial is now ongoing. Based on the current evidence, maintaining normal weight through adulthood may be an important factor in the prevention of the development of incontinence. Given the high prevalence of both incontinence and obesity in women, the dual issues of weight loss and prevention of weight gain should receive high research priority. The outcome measure in all studies with the exception of Bump [2] 1 was subjective, as determi2 and Subak [1] ned by a self-administered questionnaire. Bump also utilized objective measures including urodynamics, bladder diary and standardized fluid loss quantification test. Subak also utilized a 7-day urinary diary. Follow-up periods for the interventional studies were one year after gastroplasty surgery [2] 2 , 6 months after completion of weight reduction, either by means of low calorie liquid or reduced calorie solid diet [1] 1 and not stated [3]. 3 b) Results GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: B Many researchers [7], 6 [8] 5 7 [6], 8 [9], 9 [4], 10 [11], 11 [5] 4 [10], and [12] 12 reported an association between increased weight, or increased body mass index, and urinary incontinence. This association held after controlling for age and parity. In one multivariate analysis, Brown [11] 11 reported that the prevalence of daily incontinence increased by an odds ratio of 1.6 per 5 BMI (body mass index, kg/m2) units. In a multivariate analysis of a dif5 found that the prevalence ferent population, Brown [5] of at least weekly stress incontinence increased by 10% 13 (OR 1.1) per 5 units BMI. Similarly, Foldspang [13] reported an odds ratio of 1.07 for incontinence prevalence per BMI unit, after controlling for other factors. Obesity is an independent risk factor for urinary incontinence. There is level 2 evidence that weight loss in morbidly obese women decreases incontinence, and scant preliminary level 1 evidence that moderately obese women who lose weight have less incontinence than those who do not. 3. PHYSICAL FORCES (EXERCISE, WORK) a) Quality of data No randomized trials exist in which incontinence prevalence is compared between subjects assigned to heavy work or high impact activity versus sedentary activities. One case-control study compared the incidence of surgery for incontinence and/or prolapse [15], 15 while a second compared nulliparous women with and without stress incontinence symptoms [16]. 16 B¿ [17] 17 18 evaluated the difference in incontiand Nygaard [18] nence prevalence between women engaged in high ver19 described a series sus low impact activities. Davis [19] of women who became incontinent after parachute jumping. In a retrospective cohort study, Nygaard [18] 18 compared incontinence prevalence in high-impact ver20 compared sus low-impact former athletes. B¿ [20] incontinence prevalence between Norwegian Olympians and controls. 2 [3] Two groups [2], 3 reported resolution of incontinence in the majority of cases after massive weight loss in morbidly obese women undergoing surgical weight reduction procedures. While obesity is commonly considered a risk for stress incontinence, in BumpÕs [2] 2 study, women with urge incontinence were as likely to experience post-operative continence as women with stress incontinence. In SubakÕs [1] 1 pilot study of 10 women, all six of the women achieving a weight loss of at least 5% had at least a 50% reduction in incontinent episodes compared to one out of the four women with <5% weight loss. In a cross-sectional study of 1800 `Swedish women 14 15% incontinent women reported at least a 5 kg [14], weight loss in the preceding 5 years, compared to 11% of continent women (p=.05). This may be secondary to intentional weight loss as a treatment for urinary incontinence, rather than some effect of weight loss itself. Sample sizes range from 144 [18] 18 to 305 [17] 17 for the 19 cohort studies. One case series had nine subjects [19]. The population-based case control study compared 28,619 cases with 1,652,533 controls. The recent study 574 by B¿ [17] 17 compared 572 athletes, ages 15-39 years, with 574 controls. employed in various occupations that require heavy lifting and the paucity of scientific data about the association of such exertions and incontinence, this association should be investigated further. Specifically, research must establish whether heavy exertion is an etiologic factor in the pathogenesis of incontinence, and whether changing exertions can alleviate established incontinence. b) Results Minimal stress incontinence is common in young exercising women [21], 21 [17], 17 [16]. 16 College athletes participating in high impact activities are more likely to report the symptom of stress incontinence during exercise than those participating in low impact exercise [18]. 18 B¿ [20] 20 found no difference in incontinence prevalence between elite athletes and controls. However, the prevalence of stress and urge incontinence symptoms was higher in athletes who had a diagnosed eating disorder than those without such a diagnosis. There is little available information on whether strenuous exercise or activity causes the condition of incontinence later in life. In a study which questioned women who were Olympians approximately 25 years ago, those who competed in gymnastics or track and field were not more likely to currently report daily or weekly incontinence than Olympians who competed in swimming 22 Nygaard 1997. Certain provocations may cause [22] stress incontinence: a recent report described nine nulliparous infantry trainees who developed stress incontinence and pelvic floor defects for the first time during airborne training, which included parachute jumping [19]. 19 The precise number of total trainees is unknown but is estimated to be approximately 500. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C There is scant level 2 and 3 evidence that suggests that active women may be more likely to report incontinence than sedentary women, and that heavy occupational work may be associated with pelvic organ prolapse and urinary incontinence. However, there are no trials that assess the role activity plays in treating urinary incontinence. 4. SMOKING a) Quality of data One case-control study compared incontinent smokers with incontinent non-smokers [23], while a second 23 compared smoking behaviour between continent and incontinent women [24]. 24 Three large cross sectional studies evaluated multiple risk factors for incontinence, 25 including smoking [11], [25], [26]. 11 26 In vitro studies assessed the effects of nicotine on bladder muscle contraction. Surprisingly little information is available on the relationship between stressors in the workplace and urinary incontinence. Danish nursing assistants, who are exposed to frequent heavy lifting, were 1.6 fold more likely to undergo surgery for genital prolapse and/or incontinence than women in the general population; the study did not control for parity nor weight [15]. 15 Sample sizes were 189 [23], 23 160 [24], 24 7949 [11], 11 7338 [26], 26 and 1761 [25]. 25 b) Results Strenuous exercise is likely to unmask the symptom of stress incontinence during the provocation. There is no evidence that strenuous exercise causes the condition of incontinence. In a small number of women without other known risk factors, extreme provocations such as parachute jumping may cause incontinence. There is scant uncontrolled data that suggests that women engaged in occupations with heavy lifting may be predisposed to genital prolapse and/or incontinence. (Level of Evidence: 2/3). The data is insufficient to draw any firm conclusions. In spite of the fact that healthcare professionals commonly advise restricting exercise and heavy lifting following incontinence or prolapse surgery, there is no published evidence that this improves surgical outcome. Smokers were more likely to report incontinence than 26 but not in two non-smokers in two studies [24], 24 [26], others [11],[25]. 11 25 After adjusting for age, parity, type of delivery, and pre-pregnancy BMI, smokers had a 1.3 fold higher risk (95% CI 1.0-1.8) of reporting inconti26 nence at 16 weeks gestation than non-smokers [26]. Incontinent smokers were found to have stronger urethral sphincters and lower overall risk profiles than 23 therefore, it was propoincontinent non-smokers [23] sed that more violent coughing promotes anatomic defects which allow incontinence. In potential support of nicotine as a risk factor for incontinence, Hisayama and Koley [27] 27 found that nicotine produces phasic contraction of isolated bladder muscle probes in vitro. However, Milson [28] 28 reported an apparent paradoxical local estrogenic effect of nicotine on the vagina, resulting in a decrease in vaginal pH and an increase in lactobacilli. d) Recommendations c) Summary Given the large proportion of women who are The data relating to the association of smoking and c) Summary 575 incontinence is conflicting. Smokers may have a different mechanism causing their incontinence than nonsmokers (Level of Evidence 3/4). No data has been reported examining whether smoking cessation resolves incontinence. initial group of adults enrolled in the randomized trial 29 subjects who reduced caffeine intake to <100 mg [29] per day decreased daily incontinent episodes by 74% compared to a 32% reduction in those who continued normal caffeine intake during the one-month study period. No difference was seen in urgency or number of voids between the groups (though, as noted, the final sample size has not yet been achieved). In a multivariate analysis, [11] 11 found no association between coffee drinking or alcohol drinking and daily incontinence. d) Recommendations Further prospective studies are needed to determine whether smoking cessation prevents the onset, or promotes the resolution, of incontinence. ¥ Decrease fluid intake: GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C. In a geriatric population, there was a strong relationship between evening fluid intake, nocturia, and nocturnal voided volume; this relationship was weaker for diurnal 33 In incontinent women over age intake and voiding [33]. 55 years, there was a modest positive relationship between fluid intake and severity of incontinence in women with stress incontinence; fluid intake accounted for 14% of the explained variability in number of 34 incontinent episodes [34]. No such correlation was found in women with detrusor overactivity. In a rando36 32 women were assigned to one of mized trial [36], three groups: increase fluid intake by 500 cc over baseline, decrease by same amount, or maintain baseline level. While non-adherence to the protocol made results difficult to interpret, the authors reported that 20 women who had fewer incontinent episodes at the end of the trial attributed this to drinking more fluids. No data has been reported examining whether smoking cessation resolves incontinence. 5. DIETARY FACTORS a) Quality of evidence Preliminary results (in abstract form) of a randomized trial on the effects of caffeine upon frequency, urgency 29 One randomiand urge incontinence are available [29]. zed trial has assessed the efficacy of fluid management in the treatment of incontinence. No randomized trial was identified that addressed dietary changes. One study compared women with detrusor overactivity with continent women who received caffeine tablets 30 while another compared caffeine intake between [30], women with detrusor overactivity and those without [31]. 31 The effect of decreasing caffeine intake in a small cohort of incontinent women was examined in a prospective fashion [32]. 32 One large epidemiologic trial analyzed the effect of coffee drinking in a multivariate fashion [11]. 11 ¥ Alcohol: After adjusting for age and gender, no association was found between urinary incontinence and consumption of alcohol [35]. 35 ¥ Diet: Sample sizes were: 26 [29] 29 (target sample size is 90 subjects); 30 [30], 30 128 [33], 34 7949 [11], 11 6037 33 126 [34], [35], 159 [31], and 34 [32]. 31 35 32 Anecdotal evidence suggests that eliminating dietary factors such as artificial sweeteners and certain foods may play a role in continence. b) Results c) Summary ¥ Caffeine: Fluid intake plays a minor, if any, role in the pathogenesis of incontinence. The data on caffeine intake and incontinence are conflicting. While large cross-sectional surveys indicate no association, small clinical trials do suggest that decreasing caffeine intake improves continence (Level of Evidence: 2/3). Following caffeine intake, women with detrusor overactivity had increased detrusor pressure on bladder filling, while continent women had no such abnormality [30]. 30 In a population of 259 consecutive women pre31 131 women with detrusor senting for urodynamics [31], overactivity had a significantly higher mean caffeine intake (484 +/- 123 mg/day) than women without this diagnosis (194 +/- 123 mg/day). This association persisted after controlling for age and smoking. In 34 women with symptoms of urinary incontinence (mostly mixed) who decreased caffeine intake (from 900 mg/day to 480 mg/day), episodes of daily urine loss also decreased (from 2.33 to 1.0 per day) [32]. 32 In the d) Recommendations Given the fact that decreasing fluids may lead to urinary tract infections, constipation, or dehydration, this intervention should be reserved for patients with abnormally high fluid intakes. Caffeine consumption is pervasive in many societies and may play a role in exacerbating urinary incontinen- 576 c) Summary ce. Larger randomized trials to assess the effect of caffeine and other dietary factors are feasible and important. There is fair data to suggest that chronic straining may be a risk factor for the development of incontinence. (Level of Evidence:2/3). There are no intervention trials that address the effect of resolving constipation on urinary incontinence. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: B Fluid intake would appear to play a minor, if any, role in the pathogenesis of incontinence. d) Recommendations. Level 2 and 3 evidence is conflicting on whether caffeine intake is associated with urinary incontinence. There is scant level 1 evidence that decreasing caffeine improves continence. Further research is needed to delineate the role of straining in the pathogenesis of incontinence. If the association holds, public education, particularly of parents and pediatricians, is needed to make an impact on the common problem of straining in children. 6. CONSTIPATION GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C a) Quality of data Chronic straining may be a risk factor for pelvic organ prolapse and urinary incontinence No published trials were found which assess the effect of regulating bowel function on incontinence. An observational study compared the self-report of straining as a child with urogynecologic symptoms as an adult. Population-based studies assessed multiple risk factors for incontinence [37], 37 [38]. 38 (level 2 and 3 evidence). No intervention trials have examined the impact of resolving constipation on urinary incontinence. 7. OTHER Sample sizes range from 73 for the observational study 39 to 213 in a study correlating the surrogate mea[39] sures of perineal descent and pudendal neuropathy [40] 40 to 1154 and 1051 in the population-based studies [37], 37 [38] 38 respectively. a) Quality of data One study rigorously assessed urine loss during various postural changes (crossing legs and bending forward) [42]. 42 No study has evaluated whether postural changes are a satisfactory form of treatment outside of the laboratory setting. Timed voiding and relaxation techniques, particularly for urge incontinence, are discussed in (ChapterÉ). There are many other lifestyle interventions suggested either by health care professionals or the lay press for the treatment of urinary incontinence, including reducing emotional stress, wearing non-restrictive clothing, utilising a bedside commode, decreasing lower extremity edema, treating allergies and coughs, wearing cotton underwear, and increasing sexual activity. These interventions are, however, all anecdotal in nature. b) Results In a small observational study, 30% of women with stress incontinence and 61% of women with uterovaginal prolapse reported straining at stool as a young adult, compared to 4% of women without urogynecologic symptoms [39]. 39 In a large population-based study of 1154 women over age 60 years, those with urinary incontinence were slightly more likely to report constipation than those who were continent of urine (31.6% vs 24.7%) [37]. 37 After adjusting for demographic and obstetric confounders, women who reported straining at stool were 1.9 times (95% CI 1.3, 2.6) and 1.7 times (95% CI 1.2, 2.4) more likely to report stress inconti38 There appears to nence and urgency, respectively [38]. be an association between straining and pudendal nerve function. The mean pudendal nerve terminal motor latency (PNTML) increased after straining, correlated with the amount of descent, and returned to resting by 41 Others found evidence four minutes after a strain [41]. of pudendal neuropathy in only 25% of women with abnormal perineal descent; in this large group of patients with defecating dysfunction no relationship was seen between neuropathy and pelvic descent, leading to the conclusion that pelvic descent and neuropa40 thy may be two independent finding [40]. b) Results Postural changes: Urine loss during provocations can be significantly decreased by crossing the legs or by crossing the legs and bending forward [42]. 42 c) Summary There is no scientific evidence about whether other lifestyle changes except for some postural changes, affects either the treatment of, or the prevention of, urinary incontinence. (Level of Evidence 2/3). d) Recommendations As various lifestyle interventions are recommended by 577 physicians, studies evaluating the effect of implementing these factors on incontinence are warranted. While some lifestyle changes may prove beneficial for individual patients, it is unlikely that manipulating these factors will have a major effect on the overall incontinence problem. logical rationale for the use of PFMT in the management of stress incontinence is based on the reasoning that a strong and fast pelvic floor muscle (PFM) contraction will clamp the urethra, increasing the urethral pressure and preventing leakage during an abrupt increase in intra-abdominal pressure[46]. DeLancey 46 47 has also suggested that an effective contraction of [47] the PFM may press the urethra against the pubic symphysis, creating a mechanical pressure rise. The timing of the pelvic floor muscle contraction may also be important. It has been suggested that a well-timed, fast and strong PFM contraction may prevent urethral des48 cent during abrupt intra-abdominal pressure rise [48] and there is some evidence that the PFM ÒreflexÓ contraction is a feed-forward loop, as it may precede 49 the bladder pressure rise by 200-250 milliseconds [49]. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C. There is level 2 evidence that postural changes may decrease urinary incontinence. There is no evidence whether other such lifestyle changes decrease urinary incontinence. III. PHYSICAL THERAPIES 50 have demonstrated that voluntary Miller et al [50] contraction of the PFM before or during cough can effectively prevent urinary leakage after only a week of training. However in healthy continent women, cocontraction of the pelvic floor muscles before or during physical exertion is an automatic response and does not require conscious effort. Pre-contractions may be possible before single bouts of physical exertion but it is unlikely that women would be able to voluntarily contract the PFM throughout prolonged activities such as running or dancing. Therefore one aim of PFMT is to build the muscles to reach the automatic response level. 1. INTRODUCTION Graded muscle training alone, or in combination with other physical adjuncts such as biofeedback, electrical stimulation, and vaginal cones, is used to rehabilitate and strengthen the pelvic floor muscles. The physical therapy (physiotherapy) profession has a long tradition in the use of these physical agents for the prevention and treatment of incontinence [43],[44]. 43 44 This section will examine the evidence for the use of pelvic floor muscle training with and without adjuncts, electrical stimulation and vaginal cones in the prevention and management of adult female stress, urge and mixed urinary incontinence, and makes recommendations for effective treatment based on the findings. In order to present the best possible evidence and in an attempt to differentiate specific treatment effects from a host of other variables the review is restricted to the findings from systematic reviews of randomised clinical trials (RCTs), or the findings of RCTs where systematic reviews were not available. A summary of the search strategy used to identify systematic review and randomised trial reports is given in Appendix 1. The objective of PFMT in the management of stress incontinence is usually to improve strength and/or timing of the pelvic floor muscle contraction. Regular strength training increases the number of activated motor units, frequency of excitation (neural adaptation) and muscle volume (hypertrophy) [51], 51 [52]. 52 However, muscle fiber hypertrophy is a slow process and begins only after regular and intense strength training for more than eight weeks [52]. 52 With increased resistance, training hypertrophy may continue for years and a prolonged training period is needed to increase muscle volume. As the focus of this section was to present the evidence on the effect of physical therapies in neurologically ÔnormalÕ adult women, readers are directed to the chapters on men, children, the elderly, and neuropathic disorders for discussion on the effects of physical therapies in these specific groups. The use of PFMT (or voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction to control urge as part of a bladder training program) in the management of urge incontinence has a less substantial biological rationale. Godec et al demonstrated reflex inhibition of the detrusor muscle with an electrically stimulated contraction of the PFM. 55 have 54 and Morrison [55] 53 De Groat [54] Godec et al [53], both shown inhibition of the detrusor by unconscious contraction of the PFM experimentally. It has been suggested that reflex inhibition of detrusor contractions may accompany repeated voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction or maximum contractions [44], 44 [48], 48 [56]. 56 2. PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING (PFMT) a) Background In 1948 Arnold Kegel reported on the successful treatment of 64 cases of female urodynamic stress incontinence using pelvic floor muscle exercises, with a per45 The bioineometer for resistance and biofeedback [45]. For the purposes of this review PFMT was defined as any program of repeated voluntary pelvic floor muscle 578 contraction taught by a health care professional. This definition includes variations in the purpose of PFMT (e.g. PFMT for strengthening or urge suppression), the teaching of PFMT (e.g. individual or group teaching), the types of contractions (e.g. quick or held), and the number of contractions per day, etc. ¥ Random allocation concealment Of the 31 trials contributing to this section, random allocation concealment was adequate in five [63], 63 [64], 64 65 7 66 and probably inadequate in two [67], [65], [7], [66] 67 68 and in the remainder it was either unclear if allo[68], cation was adequately concealed, or the authors stated simply that allocation was at ÒrandomÓ. Pelvic floor muscle training has been used in preference to other previously used terms such as KegelÕs exercises, pelvic exercises, pelvic floor exercises and pelvic floor muscle exercises. The use of the term KegelÕs exercises no longer seems appropriate as current practice is very different to the program originally suggested 45 Descriptions that fail to include by Kegel in 1948 [45]. the word muscle seem equally inappropriate, as it is the muscular component of the pelvic floor that is the focus of any exercise program. Any term used should also state that the pelvic floor muscles, not the pelvic muscles in general, are the targets of the intervention. Further, the authors of this sub-chapter suggest that the use of the term training is more appropriate than exercise as exercise is commonly interpreted as one episode of training whereas training means repeated exercise over time. The effect of training is dependent on four factors; the type of exercise, frequency, intensity and 57 The dose response duration of the training period [57]. curve for training suggests that there is a baseline (or floor) below which training is ineffective, and an upper limit (or ceiling) above which over-training syndromes 58 The use of the term pelvic floor muscle are created [58]. training (PFMT) is proposed and used throughout. ¥ Masking of participants and assessors As in any physical intervention it can be difficult or impossible to adequately mask participants to the inter69 a comparison of PFMT and vention. Only one trial [69], placebo PFMT, attempted this. Masking of outcome assessors was clearly stated in nine of the 31 trials [64], 64 [70], 70 [71], 71 [68], 68 [50], 73 69 [66]. 72 [73],[69], 66 Two trials 50 [72], stated that outcome assessors were not masked [74], 74 [75] 75 and in the remainder this was not reported. ¥ Sample size and power calculation In six trials the size of the study population was based 67 [22], 64 [67], 75 63 [64], 22 [66], 66 [75]. on a power calculation [63], Six trials randomised more than 50 women to each 73 [76], 70 [68], 76 [7], 7 [75], 75 in 13 comparison group [70], 68 [73], 64 63 [64], trials the group sizes ranged from 25 to 49 [63], 77 [78], 78 [79], 79 [80], 80 [72], 72 [81], 66 81 [66], [71], 65 [67], 67 [77], 71 [65], [82], and the remaining 19 trials allocated less than 25 82 women to each comparison group. ¥ Losses to follow up Eight studies had no dropouts or losses to follow up [83], 86 [82]. 82 The propor83 [84], 85 [79], 79 [50], 69 [86], 84 [85], 50 [69], tion of dropouts was less than 10% in six trials [63], 63 [71], 81 and in the remainder it varied 73 [81] 71 [78], 68 [73], 78 [68], from 12% [64], 66 Only four trials clear64 [75] 75 to 37% [66]. ly reported some or all of their analysis on the basis of 70 [65], 72 64 [70], 65 [72]. intention to treat principles [64], This section reviews the evidence comparing PFMT with no treatment, placebo treatments, or any other single intervention (e.g. electrical stimulation, surgery, medication, etc). It also includes comparisons of different PFMT programs although PFMT with or without biofeedback or intravaginal resistance is reviewed separately in this section. There are four published systema59 [60], 61 60 [61], tic reviews pertinent to this section [59], [62]. 62 was 62 The Cochrane review by Hay-Smith et al [62] the most up to date of these reviews, and included metaanalysis of trial data where appropriate. Therefore the following summary of results and the recommendations are based upon the rigorous review of trials of PFMT identified by Hay-Smith et al. Readers are encouraged to seek out the full report for details of the method, results and further discussion. ¥ Post treatment follow-up Nine of the 31 trials followed women up beyond the 66 post treatment evaluation [78], 71 [87], 72 [66], 87 [72], 78 [71], [60], 83 [79]. 60 [74], 74 [83], 79 Length of follow up ranged from three months [71] 87 [60]. 71 to five years [87], 60 Overall, data from long-term follow up was sparse and difficult to interpret. Often trial participants for whom treatment had not been successful had gone on to receive alternative treatment. Therefore follow up data were usually presented for all women participating in the study rather than by original group allocation (e.g. [72]), or 72 only one of the comparison groups was followed up 63 (e.g. [63]). b) Quality of data A brief summary of the quality of the trials included in the systematic review by Hay-Smith et al is presented below [62]. 62 It is worth noting that there is one further trial awaiting assessment for possible inclusion in the Cochrane Review of PFMT [56] 56 that is relevant to this section. Readers may wish to locate this most recent trial to determine if the results are likely to alter the findings given below. c) Results ¥ PFMT programs There was considerable variation in the PFMT programs used in the included trials. The length of the trai85 and six months ning period was between six weeks [85] 579 [63], [76]. 63 [83], 83 76 Some programs included hourly contractions [78]; 78 others used sets of contractions repeated three times per day [63]. 63 The number of contractions per day ranged from 36 [63] 63 to 200 [71], 71 and the length of hold from three [71] 71 to 40 seconds [83]. 83 One program specifically included strength and 83 Individual teaching, endurance training elements [83]. training and supervision was a feature of some pro71 [78], grams [71], 78 [68] 68 whilst group teaching was used 73 and two trials used individual tea79 [73], in others [79], ching followed by group exercise [63], 63 [64]. 64 In general, many PFMT programs were poorly reported and other advice/education given concurrently was rarely detailed. Effective strength training relies on specificity (i.e. training reflects the functional activity of the muscle) and overload (i.e. increasing resistance to, or duration of, muscle contraction). To encourage specificity B¿ suggests that co-contraction of other related muscles (e.g. glutei, hip adductors) should be minimized so that the PFM are targeted and contraction of the PFM is not masked by strong contractions of other muscle groups [48] 48 . Research suggests that it is not possible to maximally contract the PFM without co-contraction of Transversus Abdominus [63], 90 Contraction of 63 [90]. Transversus Abdominus can be observed as a tucking in or bracing of the lower abdominal wall with no movement of the pelvis, and should be allowed in order to facilitate maximum contractions. In addition, PFMT in a variety of ÔfunctionalÕ positions such as sitting and standing, rather than the traditional supine lying [63], 63 and the use of voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction prior to anticipated rises in intra-abdominal pressure (e.g. with cough or sneeze) are more recent additions to many PFMT programs [83], 83 [91], 91 [50]. 50 In 1995 B¿ reviewed PFMT programs reported in the literature and compared these with existing evidence on the physiology of strength training in ÔnormalÕ voluntary muscle [48]. 48 Few studies had used programs that reflected current understanding of effective strength training. Similarly, the current review found considerable variability in the content of PFMT programs, which suggests there is still little knowledge, or consensus between practitioners, about what constitutes an effective PFMT program. While the following paragraphs make recommendations for PFMT based on the exercise science literature these should be viewed with caution. The extrapolation is based on the equivalence between the PFM of women with urinary incontinence and ÔnormalÕ skeletal muscle. As there is a growing body of research that documents nerve, muscle and connective tissue changes in women with urinary incontinence this equivalence is in doubt. However, as some women (e.g. nulliparous women) experience urinary leakage without any obvious signs of this damage it is possible that in these women the muscles are ÔuntrainedÕ rather than damaged. Similar training principles are used for untrained, damaged and healthy muscles, with training adapted to the needs and tolerance of each individual. Effective overload strategies are likely to include close to maximal voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction, increased length of contraction, increased number of contractions and reduced rest periods. Strength training theory suggests that near maximal contractions are the most significant factor in increasing strength [92] 92 and ideally contractions need to be sustained for 6-8 seconds to recruit an increasing number of motor units 93 There is a fixed recruitment and fast twitch fibers [93]. pattern during voluntary contraction. Slow twitch (ST) fibers are recruited first but with increasing resistance more and more fast twitch fibers (FT) are recruited. Fast twitch fibers possess low oxidative capacities and fatigue easily. However, they are needed during rapid movements and close to maximal contractions. All types of muscle fibers will hypertrophy in response to strength training but FT fibers have a greater potential for hypertrophy than ST fibers. As the strongest stimulation for strength increase is the intensity of the contraction (as close to maximum as possible), the main objective in training is to recruit as many motor units as possible, regardless whether they are ST or FT fibers. To improve the potential for strength gains, PFMT should be conducted over sufficient time that both neural adaptation and hypertrophy can occur. Thus, training periods of at least 20 weeks have been recommended (American College of Sports Medicine 1992). Success of PFMT will depend on ability to perform a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction initially [88], 89 [45]. 45 Therefore it seems appropriate 88 [89], that all women should be taught how to perform a voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction by a person with skills in the assessment and training of pelvic floor muscles, and examined to check that a correct contraction is taking place, before PFMT is undertaken. Prior to PFMT, a woman should be assessed by a person with skills in the assessment and training of pelvic floor muscles to ensure that a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction is being performed, and to determine if any facilitation techniques or adaptations are required to the recommended training program. Extrapolation from research in other skeletal muscle groups indicates that PFMT should include three sets of eight to 12 slow velocity maximal contractions, three to 52 and training needs to be contifour times a week [52] nued for 15 to 20 weeks (American College of Sports Medicine 1992). However, indiscriminate use of this 580 Follow up data was reported by three trials, at three months [71], 87 The 78 and five years [87]. 71 nine months [78]) most complete and best quality data comes from the follow up study undertaken by Lagro-Janssen and Van Weel [87]. 87 Data from 88 of the original sample of 110 women was reported. The number of continent women (25%) was the same after five years but a significant number of women reported their condition had worsened. Women with urge or mixed incontinence were less likely to be satisfied with the outcome of treatment at five years, although two thirds of all the women followed up remained satisfied with the outcome of treatment and did not want any further intervention. Nearly half (43%) of the women who had received PFMT were no longer training at all. For women with stress incontinence continued training was the only significant predictor of outcome at five years. protocol may have adverse effects due to muscle fatigue unless women are individually assessed to determine the strength/weakness of their PFM. Depending on assessment findings of fatigability a modified PFMT program may be needed initially, progressing to meet the above recommendations. The need for modification relates to the dose response curve for training. For example, a woman who is able to perform only four near maximal contractions will begin her training at this level. To recommend more than four near maximal contractions at the outset may result in problems associated with over training. Alternatively, an insufficient training dose inhibits progression and fails to maximize training effect. There is a marked lack of consistency in PFMT programs used in clinical practice. On the basis of extrapolation from exercise science literature, PFMT programs should include three sets of eight to 12 slow velocity maximal voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction sustained for six to eight seconds each, performed three to four times a week and continued for at least 15 to 20 weeks. The PFMT programs used in these seven trials varied considerably and yet Hay-Smith et al [62] 62 reported a consistent effect of PFMT. This raises a number of questions about which element, or combinations of elements, of training are most effective. The recent trial by Miller et al [50] 50 suggests for example that simply teaching a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction and the use of this contraction prior to an anticipated change in intra-abdominal pressure (i.e. ÒThe KnackÓ) may be one element of an effective training program. Anecdotally, contact with a health care professional with special training in continence management includes considerable advice/education on the anatomy and physiology of the bladder and pelvic floor, lifestyle advice, and information about good bladder habits. These elements of intervention are rarely reported and their effect has not been investigated. Where PFMT has been combined with other lifestyle and behavioural interventions it is difficult to determine if the effect of PFMT in comparison to Ôno treatmentÕ reflects the effect of PFMT, the effect of the advice/education, or a combination of both. Other issues worthy of consideration include the expertise of the person providing the PFMT, and the ÔintensityÕ of the PFMT program. There is some evidence that the latter is a factor (see below Ð ÒStandard versus intensive PFMTÓ). ¥ PFMT versus no treatment Seven trials, that randomised a total of 679 women, have compared PFMT with no treatment [71], 71 [78], 78 [84], 84 [50], 50 [73] 73 or a control treatment (i.e. B¿ et al offered women use of the Continence Guard and LagroÐJanssen et al provided advice on absorbent pro64 [68]. ducts) [64], 68 Three trials included women with only urodynamic stress incontinence [64], 64 [78], 78 [84]. 84 One trial included women with urodynamic diagnoses 71 The of urodynamic stress or mixed incontinence [71]. three remaining trials included women with symptoms 50 [73]. 73 68 [50], of urine leakage [68], The meta-analysis by Hay-Smith et al [62] 62 found that PFMT was significantly better than no treatment for self reported cure, self reported cure/improvement and leakage episodes in 24 hours in women with stress and/or mixed incontinence. A sensitivity analysis in women with stress incontinence alone (symptom or urodynamic) found that PFMT was significantly better than no treatment for the rate of self reported cure/improvement. The review also found that women in PFMT groups also had consistently greater reductions in urine leakage on short pad test, and greater improvements in measures of pelvic floor muscle acti62 vity [62]. It also suggested that self-reported cure/improvement was a more common outcome of PFMT than cure alone. Women in the PFMT groups were 7.25 times more likely to be cured than women in no treatment groups (RR 7.25, 95% CI 1.99, 26.49), and this increased to 23.04 times for combined cure/improvement (RR 23.04, 95% CI 7.56, 70.22). There is level 1 evidence that PFMT is better than no treatment for women with stress and/or mixed incontinence. ¥ PFMT versus placebo treatments Three trials, that randomised a total of 208 women, compared PFMT with placebo treatments. The placebos 69 placebo medication [70], 70 and were placebo PFMT [69], 85 The trials included placebo electrical stimulation [85]. women with symptoms of stress incontinence only 69 urodynamic stress incontinence [85]) [69], 85 and women 581 up by B¿ & Talseth continued to be satisfied with the outcome of PFMT and did not want any further treatment and 70% were continuing to train at least once a week five years after supervised training ceased [60]. 60 with detrusor overactivity with or without urodynamic 70 The meta-analysis by Haystress incontinence [70]. 62 found a consistent effect, namely that Smith et al [62] PFMT was significantly better than placebo treatment for self reported cure, self-reported cure/improvement and leakage episodes in 24 hours. There were not sufficient data available to make sensitivity analysis by diagnostic group appropriate. While not strictly a comparison of ÔstandardÕ and ÔintensiveÕ PFMT a single trial comparing inpatient and outpatient conservative management of urinary incontinence in women was found [94]. 94 Management included PFMT, bladder training, advice etc and the researchers found symptoms of both groups significantly improved with no clear benefit of inpatient over outpatient treatment. Ramsay et al [94] 94 concluded outpatient management was the more cost-effective option. There is level 1 evidence that PFMT is better than placebo treatments for women with stress, urge or mixed incontinence. ¥ ÔStandardÕ versus ÔintensiveÕ PFMT programs There is level 1 evidence to suggest that ÔintensiveÕ PFMT is better than ÔstandardÕ training programs for women with stress incontinence, and postnatal women with symptoms of urine leakage. Six trials, that randomised 1080 women, compared ÔstandardÕ versus ÔintensiveÕ PFMT programs. Two trials compared a standard home based training program with the same program reinforced on audiotape in women with urodynamic stress incontinence [67] 67 and women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity and mixed incontinence [72]. 72 Two trials, in postnatal women with urine leakage, compared standard postnatal care with an individualized postnatal PFMT program [7], 7 [66]. 66 The two remaining trials, both in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, compared home-based training with a program that included more contact with a physiotherapist [63], 63 [82]. 82 One of the six trials in this comparison did not report any urinary outcomes [67] 67 and another did not present the data by group allocation but by diagnosis [72]. 72 Consequently neither trial contributed data to the meta-analysis. Hay-Smith et al [62] 62 found that ÔintensiveÕ training was significantly better than ÔstandardÕ training for self reported cure and self reported cure/improvement in women with postnatal urine leakage and women with stress incontinence. A sensitivity analysis in women with urodynamic stress incontinence also found that ÔintensiveÕ PFMT was significantly better than ÔstandardÕ training for self reported cure. The findings from short pad tests and measures of pelvic floor muscle activity did not consistently favour one group over the other. For both these outcomes B¿ et al [63] 63 reported significantly greater improvement in the ÔintensiveÕ therapy group versus the ÔstandardÕ treatment group, whereas Wong et al [82] 66 82 and Wilson and Herbison [66] reported improvements in both standard and intensive groups with no significant differences between the groups. ¥ PFMT versus electrical stimulation (ES) Hay-Smith et al combined data from eight trials, in 295 women with urodynamic stress incontinence that com62 Interferenpared PFMT and electrical stimulation [62]. tial therapy was used in three trials [78], 78 [95], 95 [74], 74 four trials used some other form of pulsed alternating current [64], 96 and in one trial the type of 83 [86], 86 [96], 64 [83], stimulation was not specified [85]. 85 However the clinical heterogeneity (i.e. considerable variation in the types of electrical stimulation used, and the stimulation protocols) made it difficult to combine the findings of these studies in a meaningful way. Hay62 did not find any significant differences Smith et al [62] between PFMT and electrical stimulation groups for self reported cure although this comparison was extremely close to favouring PFMT. Similarly rates of self reported cure/improvement was not significantly different between the groups, However when the data from the two trials [64], 64 [83] 83 that compared PFMT with long term intravaginal stimulation in women with stress incontinence were combined this was statistically in favour of PFMT for self reported cure/improvement. The findings from a variety of pad tests were not consistent. Three trials reported follow up beyond post treatment 78 approximately two evaluation, at nine months [78], years [74] 74 and four years [83]. 83 The most complete and best quality data comes from the study by Hahn et al 83 who followed up 19 of the 20 women who partici[83] pated in the original trial. Five had incontinence surgery, four were further improved, eight were unchanged and two had recurrent symptoms. Three women were not doing any PFMT, six were training Ònow and thenÓ, and five were doing PFMT ÒregularlyÓ. Follow up beyond post treatment assessment was reported by three trials, at six months [72], 72 15 to 35 months 66 and five years [63]. [66] 63 There were difficulties interpreting the data from the two former trials, and the latter trial followed up only the women from the ÔintensiveÕ training group. Fourteen of the 23 women followed 582 Only the trial by Henalla et al [84] 84 included follow up beyond the end of treatment. At nine months three of 17 women in the PFMT had recurrent leakage whereas all three women who had initially improved with topical oestrogens had recurrent symptoms when oestrogen therapy was discontinued. Due to the variation in electrical stimulation types and protocols tested in the existing trials it was difficult to combine the findings in a meaningful way. At present there is insufficient evidence of the effect of PFMT versus electrical stimulation in women with stress incontinence. ¥ PFMT versus surgery ¥ PFMT versus weighted vaginal cones Two trials, in 94 women with urodynamic stress incontinence, compared surgery with PFMT. The surgical procedure varied in one trial depending on the basis of voiding cystourethrogram [79] 79 and in the other trial all women randomised to surgery had an open Burch col98 Unfortunately the trial by Tapp et al posuspension [98]. 98 [98] has only been reported in two abstracts. As there were inconsistencies in the data reporting between the abstracts the data were excluded from consideration. On the basis of one trial, in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, many more women in the surgery group reported cure post treatment, although there was no significant difference in the rate of self reported cure/improvement between the groups. Women in the surgery group also had significantly fewer leakage episodes in 24 hours post treatment. PFMT and vaginal cones were compared in seven trials that randomised a total of 539 women. Five trials inclu64 ded women with urodynamic stress incontinence [64], [65], 81 one trial included women with 65 [77], 77 [97], 97 [81], 80 and one trial symptoms of stress incontinence only [80] was in postnatal women with symptoms of urine leakage [66]. 62 found that women with 66 Hay-Smith et al [62] urodynamic stress incontinence had significantly fewer leakage episodes in 24 hours after PFMT than cones. All other outcomes were less clear-cut; with some trials favouring neither treatment while others favoured PFMT or cones. One trial [66] 66 included long-term follow up, at 15 to 32 months post treatment. It was difficult to interpret the findings as data from three of the comparison groups was combined (three groups received treatment from a physiotherapist but not all three groups received training with vaginal cones) and compared with the standard postnatal care group. For comparisons of PFMT with medication or surgery only a single trial was found for each comparison and/or the trial reporting was very poor. The following statements should be viewed only as hypotheses that require further testing. In women with stress and mixed incontinence there may be no difference between PFMT and phenylpropanolamine, but in women with detrusor overactivity with or without urodynamic stress incontinence PFMT may be better than oxybutynin chloride. In women with urodynamic stress incontinence PFMT may be better than topical oestrogens, but surgery may be better than PFMT. There is a lack of consistency in the findings from trials comparing PFMT and weighted vaginal cones. At present there is insufficient evidence of the effect of PFMT versus vaginal cones in women with stress incontinence or postnatal women with symptoms of urine leakage ¥ PFMT versus bladder retraining (behavioural therapy) (Please refer to the section on bladder retraining, Section IV) ¥ PFMT versus medication PFMT has been compared with topical oestrogens [78], 78 84 with anticholinergic (oxybutynin chloride) [70], [84] 70 and with alpha adrenergic (phenylpropanolamine) [76]. 76 Both oestrogen trials, in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, found that the PFMT group was more likely to be cured or improved on short pad test. PFMT was better than oxybutynin chloride for self-reported cure/improvement and the number of leakage episodes in 24 hours for women with detrusor overactivity with or without urodynamic stress incontinence, although there was no significant difference in the rate of self reported cure between the groups. The findings from the trial comparing PFMT with phenylpropanolamine in women with stress or mixed incontinence did not clearly favour one group over the other. d) Summary There is a lack of consistency in PFMT programs that implies an underlying lack of understanding of the physiological principles of rehabilitating (pelvic floor) muscle, or differences in muscle training philosophies. However, there is Level 1A evidence to suggest that in women with stress or mixed incontinence PFMT is better than no treatment, and placebo treatments. There is also Level 1 evidence that ÔintensiveÕ PFMT programs are more effective than ÔstandardÕ training programs. There is conflicting evidence and/or difficulties in combining the findings of trials comparing the effects of PFMT with electrical stimulation, vaginal cones, medications and surgery. Thus, the effectiveness of PFMT versus electrical stimulation, vaginal cones, medication and surgery is unclear. The long-term outcome of PFMT is also unclear, although on the basis of limited 583 data women may continue to be satisfied with the outcome of training for up to five years. ning (Figure 3) but may also give simultaneous BF. Presumably combination therapies have become popular as they are thought to be more effective than PFMT alone. e) Recommendations PFMT should be offered as therapy to women with stress and mixed incontinence (Grade of recommendation Ð A). For women with mixed and urge incontinence it may be appropriate to offer PFMT in combination with bladder training. On the basis of extrapolation from the exercise science literature B¿ suggests that PFMT programs include three sets of eight to 12 slow velocity maximal voluntary pelvic floor muscle contractions, sustained for six to eight seconds each, performed three to four times a week, and continued for 15 to 20 weeks [48]. 48 The addition of voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction in a variety of functional positions and prior to anticipated changes in intra-abdominal pressure is also recommended. Prior to PFMT a person with skills in the assessment and training of pelvic floor muscles should assess each woman to ensure that a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction is being performed and to determine what facilitation techniques or adaptations, if any, are required to the recommended training program to ensure an appropriate training intensity. (Grade of recommendation - C). Figure 1 : Surface EMG electrodes on vaginal probe More high quality RCTs, with long term follow up, are needed to investigate the effectiveness of PFMT relative to other physical therapies, conservative management strategies, pharmaceuticals and surgery. Further comparisons of different types of PFMT to determine which components, or combinations of components, are most effective are also required. 3. BIOFEEDBACK AND/OR INTRAVAGINAL RESISTANCE Figure 2 : Vaginal biofeedback (pelvic floor muscle contractility reflected on a lighted scale on the screen) a) Background Biofeedback (BF) is commonly used in conjunction with PFMT to assist with training. Intravaginal resistance devices (IVRD) are less common but have also been used to enhance the training process. BF involves the use of monitoring instruments to detect and amplify the various internal physiologic events or conditions of which the person is usually unaware [99]. 99 BF may involve vaginal or anal probes using pressure or electromyographic sensors with information produced in visual and/or auditory form (Figures 1, 2) Information about how the PFM are functioning is presented to the patient to facilitate awareness and co-ordination, and to provide motivation during strength training. Intravaginal resistance devices (e.g. balloon catheters, perineometers etc) provide resistance to enhance strength trai- Figure 3 : Perineometer 584 [103] 103 awaiting assessment for inclusion in the review by Hay-Smith et al. Readers may wish to locate this paper in order to judge for themselves if the results would affect the findings presented below. For the purposes of this review all forms of BF were included, e.g. pressure perineometers with visual or auditory display, electromyography from vaginal probes, etc. To be classified as a trial including BF, repeated use of the BF device was required. This excluded trials where the sole purpose of BF was to assist in the teaching of correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction and was not used thereafter (e.g. [70]). 70 IVRDs that used a pressure filled vaginal probe (e.g. water or fluid filled) were included. While weighted vaginal cones might be considered as a resistance-training device they have been reviewed separately as their proposed mode of action differs from that of pressure devices (see Weighted Vaginal Cones, Section III.5) (Figure 4). ¥ Random allocation concealment Of the 11 trials contributing to this section the random allocation concealment was adequate in two [102], 102 91 and in the remainder it was either unclear if allo[91], cation was adequately concealed or the authors stated simply that allocation was at ÒrandomÓ [71], 104 71 [104], 110 [105], 80 [107], 105 [106], 106 [80], 107 [108], 108 [109], 109 [110]. ¥ Masking of participants and assessors Two trials clearly stated that outcome assessors were masked to group allocation [102], 71 and in the 102 [71] remainder this was not reported. ¥ Sample size and power calculation None of the 11 trials reported the power calculation used to estimate the size of the study population. None of the trials was large. Only two trials randomised more than 25 women to each comparison group [71], 71 [80] 80 and in both cases the comparison groups number less than 50. The remaining trials all included less than 25 women per comparison group. ¥ Losses to follow up Four trials had no dropouts or losses to follow up [102], 102 [104] , [105], [106]. The proportion of dropouts was 105 106 104 109 and in the less than 10% in two trials [71], 71 [109] remainder it varied from 14% [107] 107 to 33% [80]. None of the studies clearly stated that the analysis was on the basis of intention to treat. Figure 4 : Vaginal Cones ¥ Post treatment follow-up Two trials followed women up beyond the post treat71 and two to three ment assessment, at three months [71]) 91 years [91]. This section reviews the trials comparing PFMT alone with BF assisted PFMT, or PFMT resisted by an intravaginal pressure device. Five systematic reviews that included trials comparing PFMT with or without BF 59 [100], 101 [102], 102 100 [101], and IVRD were identified [59], 62 The Cochrane review by Hay-Smith et al was the [62]. most up to date of these reviews, and included metaanalysis of trial data where appropriate. Therefore the following summary of results and the recommendations are based upon the rigorous review of trials of PFMT (with or without BF or IVRD) identified by Hay-Smith 62 Readers are encouraged to seek out the full et al [62]. report for details of the method, results and discussion. c) Results ¥ BF protocols There is some variation in the types of BF used. Five trials used BF from a vaginal probe with EMG elec71 [91], 91 [108], 108 [110]. 102 [71], 110 The other five trodes [102], trials used a vaginal probe sensitive to pressure changes 104 [106], 106 [80], 80 [107], 107 109 Visual feedback was [104], [109]. provided in all the trials, and two devices provided 102 , [106]. 106 Four trials used cliauditory feedback too [102] 71 102 110 and three recom91 nic only BF [102], [71], [91], [110], 107 Two trials 80 [107]. 104 mended daily BF at home [104], [80], 108 106 [108], used a mix of both clinic and home BF [106], and the remaining trial compared home and clinic BF 109 The number of treatments with BF and the ove[109]. rall length of treatment varied considerably, and in one b) Quality of Data A brief summary of the quality of the trials included in 62 is prethe systematic review by Hay-Smith et al [62] sented below. It is worth noting that there is one further trial, published as an abstract of a study in progress 585 trial the PFMT group had fewer clinic visits than the biofeedback group [91]. 91 effect of IVRD [105], 105 [109] 109 included any data that were able to contribute to the meta-analysis by Hay-Smith et al [62]. 62 Overall, there were not any significant differences between the IVRD and PFMT groups. ¥ BF assisted PFMT versus PFMT alone Ten trials, which randomised a total of 389 women with urodynamic stress (four trials), stress (four trials) or urodynamic stress incontinence with or without detrusor overactivity (two trials), compared BF assisted PFMT with PFMT alone. The meta-analysis by HaySmith et al [62] 62 found no statistically significant differences between the groups for rates of self reported cure or cure/improvement, or the number of leakage episodes in 24 hours. A similar trend was seen in the pad test data and measures of pelvic floor muscle activity. There were insufficient data in any of the comparisons to make sensitivity analysis on the basis of diagnostic group appropriate. However the data that suggested no difference between the groups for self reported cure/improvement all came from trials in women with urodynamic stress incontinence alone. d) Summary There is some variation in BF protocols that may reflect availability of BF equipment and the ongoing technical developments in this area. There is Level 1 evidence to suggest that BF assisted PFMT is no more effective than PFMT alone in women with urodynamic stress or mixed incontinence. There is insufficient evidence to make a judgment about the effectiveness of IVRD in women with stress incontinence. e) Recommendations There is no apparent difference in the effectiveness of PFMT with or without BF (Grade of recommendation A) although clinicians may find occasions when BF is a useful adjunct to treatment for the purposes of teaching, motivation, compliance, etc. Data from one trial [102] 102 suggested that the BF group improved more quickly than the PFMT only group (at six weeks), although there were no significant differences either at six weeks or post treatment (12 weeks) but this has not been investigated or confirmed by any other BF study to date. A group that are, anecdotally, reported to benefit from BF are those women who are not able to voluntarily contract their PFM initially but this hypothesis has not been investigated to date. Further large, high quality RCTs are required to investigate the effectiveness of BF assisted PFMT. Two areas requiring attention are women who are not able to voluntarily contract their PFM or have a very poor quality (intensity) of contraction at initial assessment, and the rate of improvement in BF assisted training versus PFMT alone. The effect of intravaginal pressure devices to assist PFMT has not been adequately investigated to date. Only two trials included follow up post treatment, and the most complete and best quality long-term follow up data was provided by Glavind et al [91]. 91 The BF group, who had more clinic visits than the women receiving PFMT alone, were more likely to report continued cure or improvement at two to three years, and were also more likely to be doing regular PFMT. 4. ELECTRICAL STIMULATION a) Background The literature concerning electrical stimulation in the management of urinary incontinence is very difficult to interpret. Perhaps the primary cause is the lack of a well-substantiated biological rationale underpinning the use of electrical stimulation. However, the theoretical basis of stimulation interventions is emerging with increasing understanding of the neuro-anatomy and physiology of the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is also becoming clear that the mechanisms of action may vary depending on the cause(s) of incontinence and the structure(s) being targeted by electrical stimulation, e.g. pelvic floor muscle or detrusor muscle, peripheral or central nervous system. In general, the aim of electrical stimulation for women with stress incontinence appears to be to improve the function of the pelvic floor muscles, while for women with urge incontinence the objective seems to be to inhibit detrusor overactivity. Overall, studies poorly report the biological rationale underpinning the application of electrical stimulation being tested. There is level 1 evidence that BF assisted PFMT is no more effective than PFMT alone for women with stress and mixed incontinence. At present there is insufficient evidence to determine the effect of IVRD in women with stress incontinence. ¥ PFMT with IVRD versus PFMT alone Four small trials, in women with stress incontinence, were included in this comparison. Two trials clearly sta105 [109]. 109 ted that an IVRD was used with PFMT [105], The two remaining trials used a pressure device to 107 [106] 106 and this ÔexerciseÕ the pelvic floor muscles [107], device also provided BF. As the primary intent of the intravaginal device in the latter two trials was not clear (i.e. resistance versus biofeedback) these two trials were included in both the BF and IVRD sections. Neither of the two trials that were clearly investigating the 586 Electrical stimulation is provided by clinic based mains powered machines (i.e. those that need to be plugged into a wall socket) but also more recently portable battery powered stimulators (Figure 5). Electrical stimulation also offers a seemingly infinite combination of current types, waveforms, frequencies, intensities, electrode placements etc. Without a clear biological rationale it is difficult to make reasoned choices of electrical stimulation parameters. Additional confusion is created by the relatively rapid developments in the area of electrical stimulation and a wide variety of stimulation devices and protocols have been used even for the same condition. For example, in the last 15 years or so women with stress incontinence have been treated using anything from a single episode of maximal stimulation under general anaesthetic for 20 minutes with vaginal and buttock electrodes [111], 111 to 10 sessions of Interferential therapy at 10 to 40 Hz with perineal body and symphysis pubis electrodes [74], 74 to six months of low intensity stimulation at 10 Hz using a vaginal electrode [112]. 112 This section reviews the evidence comparing electrical stimulation (ES) with no treatment, placebo ES and comparisons of different ES protocols. It also includes trials comparing ES with any other single intervention (e.g. surgery, medication etc) except (a) ES versus PFMT, which is included in the section on PFMT, and (b) ES versus weighted vaginal cones, which is included in the section on vaginal cones. Three systematic reviews [61], 61 [56], 56 [62] 62 have been published that include trials relevant to this section. However none of the reviews appeared to include a complete record of all the available trials. The following qualitative summary of the evidence regarding electrical stimulation is based on the trials included in both of the previous systematic reviews with addition of trials located through additional searching (see Appendix 1). To be included in this section a trial needed to (a) be a RCT, (b) include women with urinary incontinence, and (c) investigate the effect of electrical stimulation versus no treatment, placebo treatment, any other single treatment, or compare different electrical stimulation protocols. Abstracts reporting trials in progress were excluded. b) Quality of data One of the trials located [113] 113 was excluded from the analysis as it was a preliminary report of a trial in progress. Readers should also note that the trials by Yamanishi et al [114] 114 included men and women with urinary incontinence. It is possible that the effects of stimulation might be different between sexes (due to difference in electrode placement for example) so these studies have not contributed to the analysis where they do not differentiate the effects of treatment in women versus men. ¥ Random allocation concealment Figure 5 : Electrostimulator with vaginal probe Of the 20 trials contributing to this section random allo56 [64], 64 cation concealment was adequate in three [56], 112 and in the remainder it was either unclear if allo[112], cation was adequately concealed or the authors simply stated that allocation was at ÒrandomÓ. Finally the nomenclature used to describe electrical stimulation has been inconsistent. Stimulation has sometimes been described on the basis of the type of current being used (e.g. Faradic stimulation, Interferential therapy), but is also described on the basis of the structures being targeted (e.g. neuromuscular electrical stimulation), the current intensity (e.g. low-intensity stimulation, or maximal stimulation), and the proposed mechanism of action (e.g. neuromodulation). In the absence of agreement of how best to classify electrical stimulation the authors of this chapter have made no attempt to do so. The authors were also reluctant to use any existing system to group the electrical stimulation protocols in the trials as many were poorly described and could therefore be erroneously classified. ¥ Masking of participants and assessors Masking of assessors was clearly stated in nine of the 111 117 [118], 116 [117], 118 [111], 115 [116], 20 trials [56], 64 [115], 56 [64], [114], 119 Two trials stated that outcome assessors 114 [119]. 78 and in the remainder this were not masked [74] 74 , [78], was not reported. ¥ Sample size and power calculation In five studies the size of the study population was 116 [117], 56 [64], based on a power calculation [56], 64 [116], 117 118 Two trials randomised more than 50 women to [118]. each comparison group [120], [111]. 111 In six trials the 120 64 78 116 group sizes ranged from 25 to 49 [64], [78], [116], 98 , [119], [117], 119 and the remaining 12 trials allocated 117 [98] less than 25 women to each comparison group. 587 ¥ Losses to follow up tocols. Both the trials by Hofbauer et al [85] 85 and Knight 112 also asked women to add a voluntary PFM et al [112] contraction to the stimulated contraction, although in the latter trial this was only for the maximal intensity group. Four trials had no dropouts or losses to follow up [118], 118 85 [74] 121 The proportion of dropouts was less [85], 74 , [121]. 78 [86], than 10% in four trials [115], 86 [114], 115 [78], 114 and in 111 56 [64], the remainder it varied from 12% [56], 64 [111], 122 [119]) [122], 123 119 to 21% [123]. Current was most commonly delivered via a single 120 [112], 112 [116], 117 [121]. vaginal electrode [64], 121 64 [120], 116 [117], One trial used both vaginal and buttock electrodes 111 [111]. In two trials external electrodes were used, per74 perineal and butineal body and symphysis pubis [74], 115 tock [115], and in two studies the electrode placement 78 was not clearly described [78], [85]. 85 ¥ Post treatment follow-up Nine of the 20 trials followed women up beyond the 115 [78], 78 [85], 112 [74] post treatment evaluation [115], 74 85 [112], 122 [111], 111 [114], 119 The length of follow-up ran114 [119]. ,[122], 78 [85], 111 to six months [115], 85 ged from 6 weeks [111] 115 [78], 119 only followed up 114 [119] 112 [112]. Yamanishi et al [114], those participants who had improved with treatment, monthly for several months. The length and number of treatments was also highly variable. The longest treatment periods included daily 112 Medium 64 [112]. treatment at home for six months [64], length treatment periods were based on twice-daily 116 treatment at home for eight [120] 120 to 12 weeks [116], 117 The shortest treatment periods were all for clinic[117]. based stimulation, ranging from 10 [78], 74 to 16 78 [74], 85 [112], 112 and 18 sessions in total [85]. c) Results ¥ ES protocols Some ES protocols were poorly reported, lacking detail of stimulation parameters, devices and methods of delivery. However, on the basis of the details that have been reported it appeared that there was considerable variation in ES protocols with no consistent pattern emerging. 2. ES PROTOCOLS FOR WOMEN WITH URGENCY, URGE INCONTINENCE, DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY Although it appeared all the ES trials in this section used alternating current only three trials specifically 120 biphasic pulsed stated this, biphasic [56]; 56 bipolar [120]; current [86]. These same three trials were the only ones 86 to detail the pulse shape, rectangular [56]; 56 square [120]; 120 asymetric [86]. 86 1. ES PROTOCOLS FOR WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE Few trials clearly stated whether direct or alternating currents were being used. Two earlier trials [121], 121 [98], 98 used faradic current (low frequency interrupted direct current) but it is assumed that most if not all of the remaining trials used alternating currents. In those trials using alternating current only one trial described the pulse shape Ð a bipolar square wave [120]. 120 Four trials gave details of the frequencies used and these ranged from 10 Hz [118] 120 , a com118 to 20 Hz [120] bination of 12.5 & 50 Hz [86] 56 86 , and 10 to 40 Hz [56]. Pulse durations were reported in four trials, and these 56 120 , 200 microseconds [56], were 0.1 microseconds [120] 86 Two trials used a [118], 118 and 300 microseconds [86]. 120 [86]. 86 duty cycle ratio of 1:2 [120], The most commonly used descriptors were frequency and pulse duration. Four trials used a single frequency, ranging from 20 Hz [120] 120 to 50 Hz [64], 64 [116] 116 . Two trials included stimulation at both 10 Hz and 35 Hz [115], [112] 115 112 although the protocols were different. Other protocols included stimulation at 12.5 Hz and 50 Hz [117], 0 to 100 Hz [78], 111 117 10-50 Hz [111]), 78 and finally a 30 minute treatment including 10 minutes at 1 Hz, 10 minutes 10 - 40Hz and 10 minutes at 40 Hz [74] 74 . Pulse durations ranged from 0.08 milliseconds [115] 115 up to 100 milliseconds [120]. 120 Six trials also detailed the duty cycle used during stimulation. The ratios ranged from 1:3 [64], 115 , [112]) 64 and 1:2 [120] 112 116 to 1:1 [115] 120 , [116], and one trial alternated between a ratio of 1:1 and 1:2 [117]. 117 Intensity of stimulation progressed from five to 25 mA in the trial by Smith [86]. 86 Three trials used the maxi118 [120] 120 , and one mum tolerable intensity [56], 56 [118], study increased intensity up to the pain threshold [123]. 123 Current was most commonly delivered by a vaginal electrode [56], [120], [86] 86 or vaginal and anal elec56 120 trodes [123], 123 [122] 122 although one trial used external surface electrode placements with two electrodes over S23 sacral foramina or two electrodes just above the symphysis pubis [118]. 118 The length and number of treatments was also highly variable. The longest treatment period was four months of daily stimulation [86]. 86 Medium length treatment periods were based on twice daily stimulation for eight [120] 120 , nine [124] 124 or 12 weeks [123]. 123 The shortest treatment period consisted of a single episode of stimulation after the voiding phase of cystometry before filling was Four trials asked women to use the maximum tolerable intensity of stimulation [64] 120 , [74] 117 and 64 , [120] 74 , [117] one trial increased output until there was a noticeable muscle contraction [85]. 112 85 The trial by Knight et al [112] compared Òlow intensityÓ and Òmaximal intensityÓ pro- 588 main outcome measures were change in the Detrusor Overactivity Index (DAI) and the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire (IIQ). Neither the no treatment or combination therapy groups showed any significant change pre to post treatment. There were significant improvements in the electrical stimulation alone and PFMT alone groups for the DAI and a positive (but not significant) trend towards improvement in the IIQ. When the data from women with ÔprovenÕ detrusor overactivity at baseline (DAI > 0.5) were analysed separately the most significant improvements in the DAI were seen in the electrical stimulation group. Overall it appeared that electrical stimulation was better than no treatment. 118 One trial compared clinic based stimurepeated [118]. lation once a week versus twice a week for five and up to 10 weeks [122]. 122 There is a marked lack of consistency in the electrical stimulation protocols used in clinical practice to treat women with stress, urge and mixed incontinence. This seems likely to continue until the infinite variation of stimulation parameters available to researchers and clinicians is narrowed by further investigation into the biological rationale underpinning electrical stimulation. ¥ ES versus no treatment or control treatment There are only single trials of good quality investigating the effect of electrical stimulation versus no treatment (or control treatment) in women with urodynamic stress incontinence or women with detrusor overactivity. Consequently there is insufficient evidence to judge whether electrical stimulation is better than no treatment for women with urodynamic stress incontinence or detrusor overactivity. 1. WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE A single, small trial has compared ES with no treatment 78 Eight of the 25 in women with stress incontinence [78]. women receiving ES were ÔobjectivelyÕ cured or improved (negative pad test or more than 50% reduction in pad test) at three months, versus none of the 25 women in the no treatment group. One trial has compared ES with control intervention (women were offered use of the Continence Guard (Coloplast AS, used infrequently by 14 out of 30 controls) in women with stress incontinence [64]. 64 B¿ et al found that ES was better than control intervention for change in leakage episodes over three days, using Social Activity Index and Leakage Index. However, only one of these measures (change in leakage episodes over three days) remained significant (p=0.047) with intention to treat analysis. PFM activity was significantly improved in the ES group after treatment, but the change in activity was not significant when compared with controls. Two of 30 controls were cured (< 2 g leakage) on pad test with standardized bladder volume on pad test) compared to 7/25 in the ES group. One of 30 women in the control group reported the condition was ÒunproblematicÓ after treatment versus 3/25 in the ES group, but 28/30 and 19/25 wanted further treatment respectively. 2. WOMEN WITH URGENCY/FREQUENCY, NENCE, RETENTION/VOIDING DIFFICULTY ¥ ES versus placebo ES In three of the 11 trials the placebo stimulation devices provided a limited output that the trialists considered 115 [85], 117 In the 85 [117]. would have no treatment effect [115], other eight trials the placebo device appeared as though it was working but in fact there was no electrical output [123], [111], 114 [119]. 74 , [116], 123 [118], 118 [120], 120 [74] 116 119 111 [114], Seven of the 11 trials specifically reported that some attempt was made to remove the participantsÕ expectations of the physical sensations that might accompany stimulation in an effort to mask participants to their 120 118 [120], allocation to active or placebo stimulation [118], 114 [119]. [74], 74 [116], 119 In one trial the stimula116 [117], 117 [114], 111 tion was delivered under general anaesthesia [111]. 1. WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE URGE INCONTI- Four trials compared ES with placebo ES in women with urodynamic stress incontinence [85], 85 [74], 74 [116], 116 117 [117]. One trial compared ES with placebo ES in men and women with urodynamic stress incontinence [114]. 114 115 compared ES/PFMT One further trial compared [115] versus placebo ES/PFMT in women with urodynamic stress incontinence and for the purposes of analysis this trial was considered to be a comparison of ES with placebo ES. Hofbauer et al [85] 85 provided minimal detail of participants, methods and stimulation parameters. Laycock & Jerwood [74] 74 used clinic based, short-term (10 treatments) maximal stimulation with an Interferential current applied with external surface electrodes. Four trials were based on daily home stimulation for four 116 [117]. [114], 115 or 12 weeks, [116], 117 114 six [115] Rosier et al (1997) investigated the effect of sacral neuromodulation for urgency/frequency an/or urge inconti125 nence and/or retention/voiding difficulties [125]. Unfortunately the abstract only reports the quality of life data from 35 people (all women) who took part in a larger multicentre study, and the data were not presented by comparison group. In a four arm RCT in women with detrusor overactivi56 investigated the effect of no ty Berghmans et al [56] treatment, lower urinary tract exercises alone (reclassified as PFMT for the purposes of this review), electrical stimulation alone, and electrical stimulation in combination with lower urinary tract exercises. The two 589 The two most comparable trials in terms of stimulation parameters reported contrasting findings. Sand et al 117 found that the ES group has significantly greater [117] changes in the number of leakage episodes in 24 hours, number of pads used, amount of leakage on pad test, and PFM activity (perineometry) than the placebo stimulation group. In addition the ES group had significantly improved subjective measures (e.g. visual analogue measure of severity) than the placebo group. Neither group demonstrated significant change in the quality of life measure (SF 36). In contrast Luber & Wolde116 did not find any statistically significant Tsadik [116], differences between ES and placebo ES groups for rates of self reported cure or improvement, objective cure (negative stress test during urodynamics), number of incontinence episodes in 24 hours, or valsalva leak point pressure. 118 used a single stimulation episode Bower et al [118] given after the voiding phase of cystometry and before bladder filling was repeated. The results were reported separately for women with detrusor overactivity and those with sensory urgency. For women with detrusor overactivity both stimulation groups (10 Hz, sacral electrodes and 150 Hz, symphysis pubis electrodes) showed significant improvements in urodynamic measures when compared with the placebo stimulation group (i.e. reduction in maximum detrusor pressure, increase in first desire to void, proportion of women with a stable bladder). However there were no significant differences between stimulation and placebo groups for change in maximum cystometric capacity or detrusor pressure at first desire to void. Fewer measures were reported for women with sensory urgency. The only significant findings were a significant increase in first desire to void in the 150 Hz group, and a significant increase in the maximum cystometric capacity in the placebo ES group. The other trials generally favoured ES over placebo ES. 114 reported significant improvement Yamanishi et al [114] in a range of outcomes in the ES group but not the placebo ES group (i.e. number of leakage episodes, number of pad changes, disturbance in activities of daily living, self report of improvement, pad test). Laycock & Jerwood [74] 74 generally found significantly greater improvements in the ES group (pad test, PFM activity, self reported severity) although the decrease in incontinence episodes was not significantly different between the groups post treatment. Blowman et al [115] 115 found a significant decrease in the number of leakage episodes in the ES group only. Hofbauer et al [85] 85 reported that 3/11 women in the ES group were cured/improved (not defined) versus 0/11 in the placebo ES group. Yamanishi et al [119] 119 investigated maximum intensity stimulation delivered daily for four weeks in men and women with detrusor overactivity. There was significantly more improvement in a number of outcomes in the ES group compared with the placebo ES group post treatment (i.e. nocturia, number of leakage episodes, number of pad changes, quality of life score, urodynamic evidence of improvement in detrusor overactivity, self report of cure or improvement). For a single outcome, self report of cure/improvement, subgroup analysis on the basis of sex was reported. Women in the active ES group were much more likely to report cure/improvement than women in the placebo ES group. One further trial [120] 120 that compared ES with placebo ES in a group of women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity or both, conducted a subgroup analysis on the basis of diagnosis and did not find any changes in urodynamic measures for women with USI in either ES or placebo ES groups. 120 that compared ES with placebo One further trial [120] ES in a group of women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity or both, conducted a subgroup analysis on the basis of diagnosis and found that women with pretreatment detrusor overactivity who received active stimulation were significantly less likely to have urodynamic evidence of detrusor overactivity post treatment. 2. WOMEN WITH URGENCY, SENSORY URGENCY, DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY, URGE INCONTINENCE Three trials were identified. Due to the considerable difference in stimulation parameters and sample populations it does not seem appropriate to try and combine the findings of these trials in any way. 3. WOMEN WITH STRESS, URGE OR MIXED INCONTINENCE ES and placebo stimulation were compared in two trials 111 or urodynathat included women with symptoms [111] 120 diagnoses of stress, urge or mixed incontimic [120] nence. Neither trial found any significant differences between the stimulation and placebo stimulation groups post treatment for a range of outcomes including frequency, number of leakage episodes, self report of cure or improvement and quality of life. Brubaker et al [120] 120 did include a subgroup analysis by diagnosis and these findings have been reported previously. 123 randomized 28 postmenopausal detruAbel et al [123] sor overactivity incontinent women to either active stimulation (maximal anal and vaginal stimulation for 20 minutes once a week for 12 weeks) or placebo stimulation (no current). The results showed a significant improvement in subjective parameters (VAS) but not in objective measurements (24 hour pad test and incontinence episodes per day). 590 It is important to note that Berghmans et al [56] 56 theorise that the combination of stimulation/PFMT used in their trial may be counterproductive because the former is targeted at the supraspinal reflexes while the latter may work on central inhibition. Due to the variation in stimulation protocols it is difficult to interpret the findings of trials comparing electrical stimulation with placebo stimulation. For women with urodynamic stress incontinence the findings of two good quality trials using similar stimulation protocols are contradictory. For women with detrusor overactivity there is a trend in favour of active stimulation over placebo stimulation. For comparisons of electrical stimulation with PFMT versus PFMT alone the reporting was very poor in three of the four trials in women with stress incontinence, and only a single trial was found for women with detrusor overactivity. At present it seems that there is no extra benefit in adding electrical stimulation to PFMT but this hypothesis needs to be investigated in further high quality trials. ¥ ES with PFMT versus PFMT alone 1. WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE Four trials compared ES in combination with PFMT versus PFMT alone in women with stress incontinence 112 , [121], 98 As both arms in these trials 121 85 [85], [112] [98]. received the same PFMT the trials are essentially investigating the effect of ES. Two small trials, using faradic 98 stimulation, were reported only as abstracts [121], 121 [98] and another small trial gave minimal detail of participants, methods and stimulation parameters [85]. 85 In a three arm RCT Knight et al [112] 112 compared PFMT versus PFMT with home based low intensity ES versus PFMT with clinic based maximal intensity stimulation. Ten of 21 women in the PFMT group, 9/25 women in the low intensity stimulation group, and 16/24 in the maximum intensity stimulation group reported cure or great improvement. All three groups had significant improvements in pad test after treatment, with no significant differences in the percentage reduction between the groups. Similarly all three groups had improvements in vaginal squeeze pressure, but there were no significant differences in improvement. ¥ Comparisons of different methods of ES 1. WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE A single trial [112] 112 compared low intensity with maximal electrical stimulation in women with urodynamic stress incontinence. Both groups also received PFMT. There was a trend, across a range of outcomes including self report of cure or improvement, pad test, and perineometry, for women who received clinic based maximal stimulation to benefit more than women in the low intensity stimulation group although most differences were not significant. Long term follow up (12 months) suggested that women in both groups continued to improve subjectively, and this was most noticeable in the group of women who had received the combination of PFMT and low intensity stimulation. The trialists speculated that the combination of PFMT and low intensity stimulation was counterproductive, as the low intensity stimulation had resulted in conversion of fast to slow twitch fibers to the detriment of fast-twitch fibre activity required in response to rapid changes in intra-abdominal pressure. 112 did not find any clear beneOverall Knight et al [112] fits of ES in addition to PFMT. This finding is similar to that of the three small poorly reported trials [85], 85 98 which found no significant differences bet[121], 121 [98], ween the groups receiving combined ES/PFMT and PFMT alone. 2. WOMEN WITH DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY 2. WOMEN WITH DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY Bower et al [118] 118 compared the effect of 10 Hz sacral stimulation via two surface electrodes versus 150 Hz stimulation via two surface electrodes placed just above the symphysis pubis. The findings for women with detrusor overactivity and sensory urgency were presented separately. Both stimulation groups (10 Hz, sacral electrodes and 150 Hz, symphysis pubis electrodes) showed significant improvements in the urodynamic measures of first desire to void and maximum detrusor pressure although neither group showed any significant change in maximum cystometric capacity. The same proportion (44%) of women in each stimulation group demonstrated a ÔstableÕ bladder post stimulation and only the 150 Hz group show a significant improvement in the threshold volume. In a four arm RCT in women with detrusor overactivi56 investigated the effect of no ty Berghmans et al [56] treatment, lower urinary tract exercises alone (reclassified as PFMT for the purposes of this review), electrical stimulation alone, and electrical stimulation in combination with lower urinary tract exercises. The two main outcome measures were change in the Detrusor Overactivity Index (DAI) and the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire (IIQ). The combination therapy group did not demonstrate any significant changes pre to post treatment. There were significant improvements in the PFMT group for the DAI and a positive (but not significant) trend towards improvement in the IIQ. These findings do not suggest added benefit from stimulation. 591 122 compared once a week and twice Lobel et al [122] weekly stimulation in women with detrusor overactivity and did not find any significant differences in any outcome measured (including leakage episodes and quality of life) between the groups. Although more than half the women in the study were improved symptomatically post treatment only 25% were sufficiently satisfied with outcome that they did not wish for further treatment. principles of rehabilitating urinary incontinence through electrical stimulation, and this inconsistency means direct comparison between studies is extremely difficult. Overall there is insufficient evidence to determine if ES is better than no treatment in women with urodynamic stress incontinence or detrusor overactivity. In trials comparing ES with placebo ES in women with urodynamic stress incontinence the findings of the two good quality trials using similar stimulation protocols were contradictory. In women with detrusor overactivity there is a trend in favour of ES but the trials are small and not easily comparable. There is also insufficient evidence to determine if ES is better than medication for women with urodynamic stress incontinence or detrusor overactivity. There may be no benefit in adding ES to PFMT although three of the four trials in this section were small, poorly reported, and used electrical stimulation protocols that have been superseded by developments in the understanding of electrical stimulation effects. When reviewing electrical stimulation trials in general, and trials comparing electrical stimulation protocols in particular, it appears that some electrical stimulation protocols may be more effective than others AND/OR some populations of women receive more benefit from electrical stimulation than others. Both these variables require further investigation. ¥ ES versus medication It is not clear if any particular ES protocol is more effective than any other. The variability in the findings of the trials included in this section may in part be due to differences in the effectiveness of the wide range of protocols that have been tested. There are many differences in clinical application that have not yet been investigated. For example, some clinicians suggest that ÔactiveÕ ES (i.e. the patient voluntarily contracts the PFM during stimulation) is better than ÔpassiveÕ ES but the effect of these two approaches has not yet been evaluated. 1. WOMEN WITH STRESS INCONTINENCE A single trial [78] 78 compared electrical stimulation (Interferential) with vaginal oestrogens (Premarin). Eight of 25 women in the stimulation group reported they were cured or improved versus 3/24 in the oestrogen therapy group. There was a significant reduction in leakage on pad test in the stimulation group but not the oestrogen group. In contrast the maximum urethral closure pressure was significantly increased in the oestrogen group but not the stimulation group. Long-term follow-up (nine months) found that subjectively one of the eight women in the stimulation group who had reported cure/improvement post treatment had recurrent symptoms, as did all three women in the oestrogen group once oestrogen therapy ceased. Equally it may be that some populations or subgroups of women benefit from ES more than others. For example, anecdotal evidence suggests that ES is used with particular effect for women who are unable to perform a voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction on initial assessment. However, this observation has not been investigated to date. 2. WOMEN WITH DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY The single trial [86] 86 that compared electrical stimulation and medication (propantheline bromide) in women with detrusor overactivity with or without urodynamic stress incontinence did not find any statistically significant differences in outcome (self reported improvement and urodynamic parameters) between the two groups. e) Recommendations Further high quality RCTs, in larger samples and with long term follow up, are urgently required to investigate all aspects of the use of ES in the treatment of urinary incontinence in women. With only single small trials comparing electrical stimulation with medication there is insufficient evidence to determine if electrical stimulation is better than vaginal oestrogens in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, or electrical stimulation is better than anticholinergic therapy in women with detrusor overactivity. 5. WEIGHTED VAGINAL CONES a) Background Weighted vaginal cones were developed as a method of 126 strengthening and testing the function of the PFM [126] (Figure 5). Theoretically, the sensation of Ôlosing the coneÕ from the vagina might provide strong sensory feedback and prompts a PFM contraction in order to retain the cone. Since their introduction a variety of cones have been developed (i.e. different sizes, shapes d) Summary There is a lack of consistency in ES protocols that implies a lack of understanding of the physiological 592 and weights), they have been in widespread use, and directly marketed to women through mail order companies. A review that questions the theoretical framework and effects of vaginal cones on PFM strength has been published [127]. 127 ly similar. Three trials asked women to retain the heaviest cone possible for 15 minutes twice a day [129], 129 [66], The other two trials recommended 15 96 66 [96]. 130 and 20 minutes [64] minutes [130] 64 per day. The trials used sets of cones that included nine [129], 129 [66], 66 five 130 [96] [130], 96 and three weighted cones [64]. 64 The mini64 mum cone weight was 20 grams in four trials [64], 129 [130], 130 [66] 66 and the maximum cone weight was [129], 70 [64], 64 [130] 129 [66]. 130 or 100 grams [129], 66 This section reviews the evidence comparing vaginal cones with no treatment, placebo treatment, or any other single treatment (e.g. electrical stimulation). For trials comparing cones and PFMT readers are referred to the section on PFMT. A rigorous Cochrane systematic review of weighted vaginal cones (VC) has been 128 The following summary of results and published [128]. the recommendations are based upon the systematic review. Readers are encouraged to seek out the full report for details of method, results and discussion. 1. VC VERSUS NO TREATMENT OR TREATMENT Two trials compared VC with control interventions in 64 and women with urodynamic stress incontinence [64], postnatal women with symptoms of urinary incontinen66 In the trial by B¿ et al [64] ce [66]. 64 women in the control group were offered the use of the Continence Guard (Coloplast AS), and in the trial by Wilson & Herbison [66] 66 women in the control group continued their ÒnormalÓ postnatal care. The meta-analysis by Herbison et al [128] 128 reported that VC were significantly better than control treatment for self reported cure and cure/improvement, although other measures such as leakage episodes and pad test did not show significant differences between the groups. B¿ et al [64] 64 found that VC were better than control for the Leakage Index, but the groups were not significantly different with regard to the proportion wanting further treatment. b) Quality of data A brief summary of the quality of the trials included in the systematic review by Herbison et al [128] 128 is presented below. ¥ Random allocation concealment Of the five trials contributing to this section allocation concealment was adequate in two [64], 64 [66], 66 and in the 96 remainder [129], [130], [96] it was either unclear if 130 129 allocation was adequately concealed or the authors simply stated that allocation was at ÒrandomÓ. ¥ Masking of participants and assessors Masking of participants was not possible in any of the included trials. Masking of outcome assessors was 66 In the clearly stated in two of the five trials [64], 64 [66]. remainder this was not reported. There is level 1 evidence that weighted vaginal cones are better than control treatments for self reported cure/improvement women with urodynamic stress incontinence or postnatal women with symptoms of urine leakage. ¥ Sample size and power calculation 2. VC WITH PFMT VERSUS PFMT ALONE In two trials the size of the study population was based 64 [66]. on a power calculation [64], 66 One trial randomised more than 50 women to each comparison group [66], 66 in 64 three trials the group sizes ranged from 25 to 49 [64], [129], 130 and the remaining trial allocated less than 129 [130], 25 women to each comparison group [96]. 96 ¥ Losses to follow up Two trials compared combined VC/PFMT with PFMT alone [130], 66 and these trials were considered to 130 [66] have investigated the effect of VC. The systematic review of Herbison et al [128] 128 found that there was no overlap in the outcomes measured in these trials and that no significant differences between groups was found in either study. The proportion of dropouts was 10% or less in one trial 64 to 129 and in the remainder it varied from 12% [64] [129], 130 [66]. 66 37% [130], There is level 1 evidence that there is no benefit in the addition of weighted vaginal cones to a PFMT program. ¥ Long term follow-up 3. VC VERSUS PFMT Two of the five trials followed women up beyond the 66 two to 129 six months, [66] post treatment evaluation [129] four years. (Readers are referred to the section on PFMT. Section III. 2C) c) Results 4. VC VERSUS ES Three trials have compared VC with ES in women with urodynamic stress incontinence [64], 96 and women 64 [96] with symptoms of predominantly stress incontinence ¥ VC protocols Unlike PFMT and ES, the VC protocols were relative- 593 [129]. 129 In addition to VC or ES women in both arms of the RCT by Olah et al were given a PFMT program. The meta-analysis by Herbison et al [128] 128 did not find any significant differences between the VC and ES groups with respect to self-report of cure/improvement, leakage episodes, or improvement in pad test. B¿ et al [64] 64 also reported no differences between the groups for additional outcomes such as the Social Activity Index, Leakage Index, or the proportion wanting further treatment. Six trials [64], 122 [117], 119 investiga86 [119], 64 [83], 83 [122], 117 [86], ting electrical stimulation or placebo stimulation reported 44 adverse events in ES groups (e.g. leg tremor, vaginal discomfort or bleeding) and nine adverse events in placebo ES groups (e.g. disagreeable feeling). Four trials that included comparisons of VC reported 39 adverse events associated with treatment including aesthetic dislike of the device, discomfort associated with prolapse or insertion, and problems maintaining moti77 [129]. 129 65 [77], vation [64], 64 [65], There is level 1 evidence that weighted vaginal cones are no better than electrical stimulation in the treatment of women with urodynamic stress incontinence or symptoms of stress incontinence. Overall, recording and/or reporting of adverse events was poor. From the evidence available it appears that adverse events associated with PFMT were rare, but more common with VC, ES or placebo ES. d) Summary 6. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING OUTCOME While there is considerable similarity in the trials investigating the effect of VC, there were few trials in total. Most of the trials were small and some were of poor to moderate quality. While treatment with VC may be better than control treatment, it seems that it may be no better or worse than electrical stimulation. The addition of VC to a PFMT program may add no further benefit over PFMT alone. All included studies were examined for analysis of factors that may have affected the outcome(s) of intervention. Eighteen studies discussed one or more characteristics of the sample population that might have affected outcome [132], 83 65 [133], 133 [105], 132 [120], 120 [71], 71 [65], 105 [83], [78] 50 [73], 116 , [50], 79 , [112] 74 [116] 73 [117], 117 112 , [74], 85 [79] 78 , [85], [76], 76 [119]. 119 e) Recommendations The three most commonly mentioned factors (five trials each) were initial severity of incontinence, age of participants and motivation/compliance with intervention. Three trials found that severity did not predict response 71 [83], 83 [78], 78 the findings of one trial to treatment [71], suggested that women with more severe leakage were 85 and one further trial found less likely to improve [85], that responders to intensive PFMT were women with 132 . Three trials suggested more severe incontinence [132] that there was no association between age and outcome 78 [85], 85 [68], 68 another found that cure/improvement [78], 73 while another trial was less likely in older women [73], found that responders to intensive PFMT were likely to 132 . be older [132] Further high quality, large RCTs, are required to substantiate the effect of training with VC in the management of female urinary incontinence. f) Adverse effects All trials referred to in this section were scanned for records of adverse events associated with treatment. Thirty-seven trials made no statement about adverse 104 [105], 105 120 effects [123], [63], [118], [104], 123 118 [71], 71 [120], 63 [67],[91], 95 [74] 78 [84], 112 [95], 74 , [50], 50 106 [112], 67 91 [78], 84 [85], 85 [106], [72], 108 111 [108], 107 [111], 69 [125], 97 [130], 125 [107], 72 [73], 73 [97], 130 [69], 66 [96], 109 [121], 121 [98], 82 [75]. 75 [109], 98 [81], 81 [76], 7 [66], 96 [82], 76 [7], One trial had recorded adverse events but these were not reported in the abstract of the trial [80]. 80 With regard to motivation/compliance all five trials found a similar association. That is, responders either seemed to be more motivated [132] 132 or showed greater 76 Two trials, levels of compliance [68], 117 [76]. 68 [73], 73 [117], included in the comparison of intensive versus standard PFMT, compared groups that did or did not receive audiotapes to assist with home training. One of these trials found that the audiotape group was more compliant with PFMT [67] 72 67 whereas the other did not [72]. Authors of another trial, comparing ES with PFMT, commented that women appeared to be more compliant with clinic based ES than home PFMT and speculate that this is because women are impressed by the stimulator used in treatment [74]. 74 Five trials stated that no participant reported adverse 116 events associated with treatment [102], [115], [116], 115 102 114 [114]. Three trials reported adverse events but only in the non 79 medication physical therapy groups, i.e. surgery [79], 131 [70], and anti-incontinence device [131]. 70 Ten trials did report adverse events associated with 83 [77], 77 [68], 68 64 [65], physical therapy treatments [64], 65 [83], 117 122 [122], [129], [86], [119]. 119 Six women reported 86 129 [117], adverse effects associated with PFMT (e.g. uncomfortable feeling during exercise) in the trial by Lagro-Jans68 sen et al [68]. 594 Duration of symptoms and urodynamic parameters were discussed by four trials each. Two trials found that women with a longer history of symptoms responded better to intensive PFMT [132] 132 or maximal electrical 112 whereas Hofbauer et al [85] stimulation [112], 85 and Lagro-Jansen et al [68] 68 reported that duration of symptoms had no effect on outcome. Such a wide range of urodynamic parameters has been reported it is difficult to see any pattern emerging to date. Ferguson et al [105] 105 did not find that initial maximum urethral closure pressure was associated with outcome, however B¿ & Larsen (1992) [132] 132 reported that responders to intensive PFMT were more likely to have a negative closure pressure initially. Neither of these trials found an association between functional urethral length and 133 reported that the outoutcome. Elser et al (1999) [133] come of their trial comparing behavioural training, PFMT or combined therapy in women with detrusor overactivity with or without urodynamic stress incontinence was independent of urodynamic diagnosis. In the course of searching for trials for inclusion in this review an abstract of an RCT, comparing the outcome of conservative management based on urodynamic or 134 Ramsay found symptom diagnosis, was located [134]. that there was no difference between the groups for cure/improvement post treatment. and/or compliance with the intervention. It should be noted that the association between compliance with physical therapy interventions and improvement might not be due to the effect of the intervention alone but some other unknown factor. For example, trial participants who are compliant with active or placebo drug do better than those who are not compliant with either active or placebo medication (The Coronary Drug Project Research Group, 1980). Essentially, further investigation of all the above factors is required in subsequent high quality RCTs before any real conclusions may be drawn. DeLancey [135] 135 makes a compelling argument for intervention for urodynamic stress incontinence to be based on accurate diagnosis of the underlying pathology, whether it be neurological, ligamentous/fascial, or muscular. For example, he suggests that PFMT may be inappropriate where innervation of the muscles is not intact or where the muscles have been detached from their fascial connections. A similar argument (for a different set of underlying pathologies) could be made for urge incontinence. Accurate diagnostics may be more important than other factors for predicting success of physical therapies. However current diagnostic procedures, such as urodynamics, do not seem to be able to reliably predict outcome. Three trials each referred to the effect of previous surgery or initial PFM strength. No effect was found for 85 urethral susprevious surgery (type unspecified) [85], pensions [71], 71 or previous pelvic floor repair or hyste50 reduction rectomy [78]. 78 In the trial by Miller et al [50] in leakage one week after beginning PFMT (the ÔKnackÕ) was not related to the initial findings from digital assessment of PFM. In contrast Knight et al 112 found that women who responded best to maxi[112] mal electrical stimulation had weaker PFM, and B¿ & Larsen [132] 132 reported that women who responded to intensive PFMT had stronger PFM initially. Many of the factors traditionally supposed to affect the outcomes of physical therapy interventions (e.g. age, severity of incontinence) may be less crucial than previously thought. The single factor that is consistently associated with positive outcome is greater motivation and/or compliance with the intervention. At present there is no convincing evidence of the need for urodynamic evaluation to confirm diagnosis prior to conservative management. 7. PREVENTION A range of other factors was reported by one or two stu78 found that mild genito-urinary dies. Henalla et al [78] prolapse seemed to have no effect on outcome, as did 85 Lagro-Janssen et al [68] 68 stated that Hofbauer et al [85]. psychological features appeared to have no effect on 132 reported that responders outcome. B¿ & Larsen [132] to intensive PFMT had higher BMI, but that the following factors had no effect Ð parity, maximum birthweight of babies, maternal weight gain in pregnancy, menopausal status, previous PFMT, and family history of stress incontinence. a) Background PFMT has long been recommended to prevent or delay the onset of both urinary and faecal incontinence, in 44 particular during pregnancy and after childbirth [44], [43]. 43 However there are few published reports of trials investigating the effectiveness of PFMT and/or other physical modalities for the primary prevention (preventing incontinence occurring by removing its causes) or secondary prevention (detecting asymptomatic dysfunction early and treating it to stop progression) of incontinence. In summary, many of the factors traditionally supposed to affect outcomes of physical therapy interventions (e.g. age, severity of incontinence) might be less crucial than previously thought. From the trial reports available the single factor that consistently appeared to be associated with positive outcome was greater motivation This subsection will examine the evidence for PFMT and/or other physical modalities used for the primary or secondary prevention of incontinence. A rigorous Cochrane systematic review of 10 trials investigating 595 also undertaken at six months but no data was reported [42]. 42 Four trials had baseline, intermediate and end141 [143] 143 and three of these 139 [141], point measures [139], studies recruited women during pregnancy [139], 139 [141], 141 [142]. 142 Meyer et al recruited women during pregnancy, randomised them to intervention or control groups at two months after delivery, and evaluated outcome at 10 months postpartum [139]. In the trial by 139 141 antenatal women were recruited at 18Reilly et al [141] 20 weeks gestation, and then followed up at 34 weeks gestation and three months postpartum. Sampselle et al recruited women at 20 weeks gestation and repeated their measures at 35 weeks gestation, six weeks, six and twelve months postpartum [142]. Finally, Sleep & 142 143 recruited women within 24 hours of deliGrant [143] very and followed them up at both ten weeks and three months postpartum. With respect to these four trials the findings reported in the results are those from the last assessment point. physical therapies for the prevention of incontinence is 128 The following summary of currently in press [128]. results and the recommendations is based on the findings of the currently unpublished review. Readers are encouraged to seek out the full publication in the Cochrane Library for details of the method, results and discussion. b) Quality of data A brief summary of the quality of ten [136], 136 [137], 137 140 [42], 138 [139], [138], [143], 144 of 139 [140], 141 [142], 142 143 [144] 42 [141], the 11 trials included in the systematic review by Her128 is presented below. One bison and Hay-Smith [128] trial, included by Herbison & Hay-Smith, has been excluded from the summary presented here, as it was a 145 study undertaken in men [145]. ¥ Random allocation concealment Of the ten trials random allocation concealment was 142 [144] 144 and in one it was inadeadequate in two [142], quate (i.e. alternation) [140]. 140 The remaining seven trials stated only that group allocation was at random. c) Results Only four of the 10 trials reported urinary or faecal incontinence as an outcome measure [141], [143], 143 141 [142], 142 [139] 139 and the remainder assessed principally changes in PFM ÔstrengthÕ [140], [144], 138 144 [137], 140 137 [138], 136 [42]. [136], 42 ¥ Masking of participants and assessors Two trials stated that assessors of outcome were mas142 [144], ked to group allocation [142], 144 and in one trial assessors were not masked [143]. None of the remai143 ning seven trials stated whether the assessor was masked or not. ¥ Preventing incontinence All four trials investigated the effect of PFM rehabilitation on the prevalence of postpartum incontinence. Sampselle et al [142] 142 enrolled primigravid women at 20 weeks gestation, and randomised them to receive tailored PFMT program (a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction was checked and 30 contractions per day at or near maximal intensity recommended) or routine antenatal and postnatal care. Controlling for baseline incontinence the prevalence of urinary incontinence was significantly less in the PFMT group than the control group at 35 weeks gestation (p=0.043), six weeks postpartum (p=0.032) and six months postpartum (p=0.044). By 12 months there was no significant difference in the prevalence of urinary incontinence between the groups. In the trial by Sleep & Grant [143] 143 postnatal women were recruited within 24 hours of vaginal delivery and randomised to receive either a reinforced PFMT program (daily visits by midwifery co-ordinator while in hospital to reinforce PFMT instruction) or routine care. Routine care included small group teaching on PFMT run by obstetric physiotherapists on the postnatal wards, any information received on PFMT during antenatal education, and leaflets on PFMT. More women in the reinforced PFMT group gave a history of antenatal incontinence symptoms (32% versus 29% in the routine care group) and reported doing antenatal PFMT (57% versus 46% in the rou- ¥ Sample size and power calculation 143 Trials One trial reported a power calculation [143]. varied in size, and in four there were less than 25 participants per comparison group [136], 144 136 [138], 138 [42], 42 [144]. Three trials randomised more than 50 participants per 143 and one of these was a large 141 [143] group [139], 139 [141], 143 trial with 900 women in each comparison group [143]. ¥ Losses to follow up Two trials had no losses to follow up or withdrawals 136 [137]. [136], 137 In one trial the drop out rate was less than 10% [138] 138 and in six trials the drop out rates ranged 140 [143] 143 to 36% [142]. from 11% [140], 142 Data on drop outs 141 as it were not available from the remaining trial [141] was reported as a study in progress. ¥ Post treatment follow-up Three trials assessed women at trial entry and then once 137 144 12 weeks [137] after intervention, at six weeks [144], 138 Dougherty et al [136] and six months [138]. 136 and Niel140 assessed women after six and eight week sen et al [140] intervention periods respectively, but also followed up a proportion of their sample later at two to 18 months 140 The abstract by Norton & 136 and eight months [140]. [136] 42 implied that women were assessed after a Baker [42] four week intervention period, and that follow up was 596 However at 10 months postpartum 20/26 women in the re-education group no longer had stress incontinence symptoms versus 1/9 in the control group. tine care group). At three months 180/816 women (22%) in the reinforced PFMT group and 175/793 women (22%) in the routine care group had urine leakage symptoms. Twenty one and 22 women from each group respectively had occasional faecal loss. Meyer et al [139] 139 recruited primparae during pregnancy, and then at two months postpartum randomised them to receive either routine care or 12 sessions of biofeedback and electrostimulation with physiotherapists trained in pelvic floor re-education. No details of the routine care, biofeedback or electrical stimulation are reported in the abstract. At two months postpartum nine women in the control group and 26 women in the re-education group had symptoms of stress incontinence. At 10 months postpartum the figures were eight and six respectively. At 10 months the number of women with faecal incontinence was three and two in each group respectively. In an abstract of a trial in progress Reilly et al [141] 141 reported on data from 53/150 primigravid women three months postpartum. Only primigravid women without any previous urinary incontinence or neurological disorder were included in the trial, and randomized to receive a PFMT program supervised by a physiotherapist or no treatment. In the preliminary analysis subjective reports of stress incontinence were more common in the no treatment group (14/33) than the PFMT group (2/20) at three months postpartum. ¥ Measures of PFM activity 1. PFMT VERSUS CONTROL TREATMENTS In a small trial of 35 nulliparous women, without any indication of pelvic floor muscle dysfunction and no 144 investigated history of incontinence, Thorp et al [144] the effect of a six week thrice daily PFMT program (versus no intervention) on surface EMG measures from vaginal and anal plug electrodes. There were no differences between the groups for either maximal or sustained vaginal or rectal EMG measurements after training. 140 recruited primiparous women at 33 Nielsen et al [140] weeks gestation and randomised them to receive usual antenatal/postnatal care (including encouragement to perform daily voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction) or a PFMT comprising 50 brief maximal contractions twice a day for the last eight weeks of pregnancy. The trial report did not state if any of the women had previous incontinence symptoms. Both groups had significant improvements in vaginal squeeze pressure over the last weeks of pregnancy, and a significant decrease at eight weeks postpartum compared with the baseline measure. At eight weeks postpartum the PFMT group had significantly greater vaginal squeeze pressure than the control group. This finding remained in a subgroup of women (rural women) who were followed up at eight months postpartum. In summary, only one of the trials [141] 141 is a purely primary or secondary prevention trial. As the full report of this study was not available at the time of writing no further interpretation of the findings is possible. The other three trials in this section included women with existing incontinence symptoms. In some respects these trials might be better classified as early intervention studies rather than prevention studies. Norton & Baker [42] 42 randomised postnatal women six weeks after vaginal delivery to one of three arms, control (posture and lifting taught), PFMT (control intervention plus single teaching session and home program of 100 contractions per day) or vaginal cones. No participant had pre pregnancy leakage, half had leakage in pregnancy, and a third postpartum leakage. It was difficult to extract any useful data from the abstract of this trial in progress. From the third of participants who had completed the study it appeared that there were no significant changes in introital and vaginal squeeze pressures in the control group but a significant improvement in introital pressure in the PFMT group after four weeks of training. As yet, it is not clear what effect PFMT or (undefined) pelvic floor re-education has on the prevention of urinary or faecal incontinence in antenatal or postnatal women. Sampselle et al [142] 142 appeared to show benefit of PFMT over routine care in the early postpartum period but the difference in prevalence of incontinence between groups was no longer significant at 12 months. This was the only one of the three trials to state specifically that a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction was checked prior to training. In contrast, 143 did not show any the large trial by Sleep & Grant [143] difference between reinforced PFMT and routine care (that did include usual advice on PFMT) on the prevalence of urinary or faecal incontinence at three months postpartum. It is possible that there was not sufficient difference between the interventions to demonstrate differences in effect on incontinence. Overall Meyer et 139 did not show that there was any difference in al [139] prevalence of urinary or faecal incontinence between routine care and pelvic floor re-education groups. In a small three arm trial Dougherty et al [136] 136 randomised [45] 45 postpartum women six to seven weeks after vaginal delivery to control (sitting with intravaginal resistance device insitu with no voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction, although these were allowed at other times), PFMT (alternating days of strength and endurance training six days a week for six weeks), or PFMT with intravaginal resistance device in situ. All groups demonstrated improvement in maximum and sustained vaginal squeeze pressure after six weeks. 597 Although there were greater improvements in both PFMT groups there were no significant differences between the three groups. might be significantly greater in the cones group after four weeks of training, although the difference between the groups might disappear by six months. To date, the trials in this area are small. In addition one trial was in progress at the time of reporting and data were therefore incomplete. It is difficult to combine the findings from the individual studies. The following statements should be viewed only as hypotheses to be tested, that (a) there may not be significant gains in PFM ÔstrengthÕ in nulliparous women without incontinence symptoms or other pelvic floor dysfunction, (b) that PFMT is better than control treatment (no treatment or routine care) to increase PFM ÔstrengthÕ in women after vaginal delivery. In summary, it is not clear if there is any difference in the effectiveness of PFMT or training with cones to increase PFM ÔstrengthÕ in postnatal women. Although it appears both methods of training may result in improvements in ÔstrengthÕ two of the trials use cone weight as the measure of strength and this may advantage the groups training with cones. As these women have ÔpracticedÕ the action of retaining a cone, this measure may be of familiarity and practice with the device, rather than ÔstrengthÕ. d) Summary 2. PFMT VERSUS WEIGHTED VAGINAL CONES There is lack of evidence about the effectiveness of PFMT or other PFM rehabilitation programs (e.g. electrical stimulation) for the prevention of urinary or faecal incontinence. The absence of long term follow-up in any of the included RCTs is disappointing. There are some trials investigating the effect of PFMT and/or vaginal cones on PFM ÔstrengthÕ. These trials are evaluating, at best, a surrogate end point. PFMT may be better than control treatments (no treatment or routine care) at improving PFM ÔstrengthÕ in postnatal women but this should be considered a hypothesis to be tested further. It is not clear if there are greater improvements in ÔstrengthÕ after PFMT or training with vaginal cones in postnatal women. Three trials compared PFMT with weighted vaginal cones in postnatal women [137], 137 [138], 138 [42]. 42 Jonasson et al [137] 137 recruited women at eight weeks postpartum and randomised them to a 12 week program of either PFMT (voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction in a variety of positions progressing to a maximum of 90 contractions twice a day) or vaginal cones (retain heaviest cone possible in standing/walking for 15 minutes twice a day). There was no statement in the trial report about previous incontinence symptoms. The heaviest cone that could be retained was chosen as the measure of PFM ÔstrengthÕ. Women in both groups, who could initially retain 20 to 30g cones initially, had significant improvements in ÔstrengthÕ with greater improvements in the cones group. Among women who could initially retain cones weighing 40g or more, only the cones group showed significant improvements in ÔstrengthÕ. 138 randomised health In a later trial, Jonasson et al [138] postnatal women following vaginal delivery to a six month program of either PFMT (program as previously) or cones (retain heaviest ÔballÕ possible for 30 minutes per day). Once again, the heaviest cone that women were able to retain during two minutes of standing/walking measured PFM ÔstrengthÕ. ÔStrengthÕ improved significantly in both groups with greater 42 improvement in the cones group. Norton & Baker [42] randomised postnatal women six weeks after vaginal delivery to one of three arms, control (posture and lifting taught), PFMT (control intervention plus single teaching session and home program of 100 contractions per day) or vaginal cones (no details given). It was not clear from the abstract if the cones group also received the control and PFMT interventions. Norton & Baker [42] 42 did state that no participant had pre pregnancy leakage, half had leakage in pregnancy, and a third postpartum leakage. It was difficult to extract any useful data from the abstract of this trial in progress. From the third of participants who had completed the study it appeared that introital and vaginal squeeze pressures e) Recommendations Further high quality RCTs, with long term follow-up, investigating the effectiveness of physical therapies for the prevention of urinary incontinence in women at risk, or in the general female population, are urgently required. It is worth noting that the Cochrane Review by Herbison & Hay-Smith [128] 128 has identified two trials in progress investigating the effect of PFMT in the prevention of incontinence and readers are referred to the review for further details. IV. BLADDER RETRAINING 1. INTRODUCTION The section examines the evidence on the use of bladder retraining in cognitively intact, noninstitutionalized women with urge, stress, and mixed incontinence, and provides recommendations for its effective use in clinical practice. A summary of the search strategy and inclusion/exclusion criteria for selecting studies for review is provided in the Appendix. See the section on conservative therapy in the elderly for a detailed discussion of the other types of scheduled voiding regi- 598 mens that are used in management of urinary incontinence in women who are cognitively impaired and/or institutionalized. Bladder retraining programs typically involve several key elements: patient education on the mechanisms underlying continence and incontinence; a scheduled voiding regimen with gradually progressive voiding intervals; urgency control strategies using distraction and relaxation techniques; self-monitoring of voiding behavior; and positive reinforcement provided by a clinician [156]. 156 Bladder retraining requires a cognitively intact and motivated patient who is capable of independent toileting and can adhere to the scheduled voiding regimen. Several systematic reviews on bladder retraining with 147 146 [147], qualitative synthesis have been published [146], 148 Recently, the Cochrane Collaboration published [148]. an updated review of Bladder Training for Urinary Incontinence in Adults which graded the quality of the included studies with respect to treatment of urge 149 To date, there has been no incontinence only [149]. other published meta-analysis (quantitative synthesis). A previous systematic review by Roe, Williams, and 149 involving seven trials on bladder retraiPalmer [149] ning in the management of urge incontinence alone concluded that the evidence suggests bladder retraining may be helpful when compared to no treatment. However, Roe et al cautioned interpretation of this conclusion because it was based on limited data. The review also concluded that there was not enough evidence to show whether drug therapy was better than bladder retraining or useful as a supplement to it. 2. BLADDER RETRAINING a) Background Bladder retraining (also referred to as a bladder discipline, bladder drill, bladder training, and bladder reeducation) is a term used to describe the educational and behavioral process used to re-establish urinary control in adults. It was first described by Jeffcoate and Francis in 1966 as Òbladder disciplineÓ which involved a program of patient education and a scheduled voiding regimen used to manage functional disorders of the 150 Later, Frewen in a lower urinary tract in women [150]. series of articles published from 1972 to 1982 brought widespread attention to the role of bladder retraining in the treatment of urge incontinence with or without associated detrusor overactivity and sensory-urgency pro154 152 153], blems without incontinence [151], 151 [152, 153 [154]. Evidence indicating that bladder retraining was also effective in women with urodynamic stress incontinence [147] 147 led to clinical practice guidelines in the United States recommending its use for women with urge, stress, and mixed incontinence as a first-line of therapy [155]. 155 These recommendations did not require that urodynamic evaluation be performed prior to the initiation of therapy. b) Quality of included studies This updated review from that reported at the First International Consultation on Incontinence, focuses only on randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials. (See the previous review for a comprehensive listing of clinical series evaluating bladder retraining.) Since the last review, there have been three reports on bladder retraining; two were not included as they were retrospective analyses [157], 157 [158]. 158 Six clinical trials have been published on the efficacy of bladder retraining alone in women. Of these, five are randomized clinical trials (RCTs) [159], 160 [147], 147 159 [160], [161], 75 involving a total of 626 women; and one 161 [75] was a nonrandomized controlled trial with a long-term follow-up [68], 87 68 [87]. Of the RCTs, two compared bladder training to an untreated control group [159], 147 one RCT compa159 [147], red bladder retraining to two other behavioral interventions (pelvic floor muscle training augmented with biofeedback or a combination of both therapies) [75]; 75 and two RCTs compared bladder retraining to anticholiner161 Two of these RCTs [147], 147 gic drug therapy [160], 160 [161]. [75] published additional papers reporting on different 75 133 The nonrandotreatment outcomes [162], 163 [133]. 162 [163], mized trial compared bladder retraining for those with urge incontinence alone or bladder retraining with pelvic floor muscle training for those with mixed inconti68 However, nence to a no-treatment control group [68]. due to the small number of subjects receiving bladder training alone (N=9) and the method of reporting, these results will not be presented [68]. 68 Specific goals of bladder retraining include correcting faulty habit patterns of frequent urination, improving ability to control bladder urgency, prolonging voiding intervals, increasing bladder capacity, reducing incontinent episodes, and building patient confidence in controlling bladder function. The underlying mechanism of how bladder retraining achieves its effects is poorly understood. Several hypotheses have been proposed including improved cortical inhibition over detrusor contractions; improved cortical facilitation over urethral closure during bladder filling, improved central modulation of afferent sensory impulses; altered behavior resulting from better individual awareness of the lower urinary tract function and circumstances that cause incontinence, and increasing the ÒreserveÓ capability of the lower urinary tract system [147], [156], 147 156 75 [75]. The age of the study populations ranged from 17 [160] 160 599 to 90 years [147]. 147 All studies investigated the effect of bladder retraining in women with detrusor overactivity, low compliance bladder, or sensory bladder. Two RCTs also included women with urodynamic stress incontinence with or without detrusor overactivity [147], 147 [75] 75 and the nonrandomized trial included women with urge or mixed incontinence [68]. 68 Sample sizes ranged from 75 Only one study reported a 50 [160] 160 to 204 women [75]. power calculation [75]. 75 All trials had intervention groups containing 25 or more subjects. Results of treatment typically occur within two weeks after commencing treatment [160], 75 The reported 160 [75]. cure rates for reducing urinary incontinence ranges from 12% to 90% [147]Fantl et al., 1991; [159] 147 159 depending on how efficacy is measured. Subjective improvement rates measured by the patientÕs self-report are 73% to 90% [159], 159 [161]. 161 When using urinary diaries to evaluate cure rates, the rates range from 12% to 16% [147], 147 [75]. 75 Studies reporting on the long-term effect of bladder retraining are limited [87]. 87 Follow-up periods were variable with all studies conducting at least on post-treatment assessment within 4-12 weeks of treatment initiation. Several trials included an additional evaluation at 3 to 12 months posttreatment. One study conducted a 5-year follow-up [87]. 87 Outcome measures used included self report of 159 [160], 68 160 [68], benefit (e.g., cure or improvement) [159], 161 [75], [87], 75 a urinary diary [147], 87 [161], 161 68 [161], 147 [68], 75 quality of life instruments 147 [75] [75]), 75 pad tests [147], 75 and urodynamic measures [159], 159 147 [147], [163], 163 [75], 162 [161], 133 Compliance with the bladder retrai[162], 161 [133]. 75 ning protocol was reported in only one study [75]. 1. BLADDER RETRAINING VERSUS NO TREATMENT Bladder retraining as the sole therapy has been used in the treatment of detrusor overactivity, urodynamic stress incontinence, mixed incontinence, and urge incontinence with a stable bladder. There is Level 1 evidence that bladder retraining is an effective treatment for women with urge, stress, and mixed urinary incontinence. Two RCTs reported significant improvements in the bladder retraining group as compared to an untreated 159 [147]. 147 Jarvis and Millar [159] 159 control group [159], investigated the effect of an in-patient bladder retraining program in women with a diagnosis of detrusor overactivity, whereas Fantl et al.,[147] 147 studied the effect of an outpatient program in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity, and mixed incontinence. Reported cure/improvement rates varied between the two trials which may have reflected the different follow-up periods, the type of outcome measures used, or the bladder retraining protocol. Jar159 reported that 90% of the treatment vis and Millar [159] group were continent and 83.3% were symptom free at 6 months; whereas, in the control group 23.3% were continent and symptom free. All women who were symptom free after treatment reverted to a normal cystometrogram. c) Results ¥ Bladder Retraining Programs Several variations may occur in how bladder retraining programs are implemented. Variation in the scheduled voiding protocols range from a mandatory regimen with restriction of voiding in between assigned toileting times to a self-scheduling regimen with no restriction of voiding if urgency becomes unbearable. The initial assigned voiding interval may vary from 30 minutes to 2 hours with 1 hour being the most common interval; with the increase in voiding interval from 15 to 60 minutes. Generally, voidings are not required during sleeping hours. Other variations in retraining programs involve the setting in which bladder retraining is conducted; use of adjunctive treatments such as pelvic floor muscle training or drug therapy; type of urgency control techniques used; and whether fluid modifications are incorporated into the program. Early protocols in the United Kingdom required hospitalization for 5159 [160]. 160 13 days to ensure strict protocol adherence [159], Later protocols implemented bladder retraining as an outpatient treatment program lasting from 6 to 12 weeks [147], 75 Techniques of urgency control inclu147 [75]. de a variety of distraction and relaxation techniques such as deep breathing exercises, mathematical problem solving and other attention tasks, positive self-statements, perineal pressure, and use of pelvic floor muscle contraction to control a specific urge. Fluid modifications such as an increase or decrease of fluid intake or a change in timing of fluid intake were not generally recommended. Most bladder retraining protocols required self-charting of voiding patterns. Fantl et al [147] 147 reported that 12% of the treatment group were continent and 76% had reduced their incontinent episodes at least 50% or more at 6-weeks as measured by a 7-day urinary diary. These results were maintained at 6 months. They also reported a 55% improvement in quality of life measured by the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire at 6-weeks which was maintained over a 6-month period; however, there was not a direct correlation between improvements on a urinary diary and the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire [163]. 163 Significant reductions were also observed with diurnal and nocturnal frequency and pad weights. While some women did revert back to normal bladder function following training, no relationship was found between changes in urodynamic variables and the num162 Women with detrusor ber of incontinent episodes [162]. 600 bladder, and 60% of those with sensory bladders. Bladder retraining clinically cured 62% of those with detrusor overactivity, 75% of those with low compliance bladders, and 81% of those with sensory bladders. However, the relapse rate at 6-months was higher for the oxybutynin group, whereas, those in the bladder retraining group maintained their results better. Changes in bladder stability corresponded to symptom improvement in both groups. overactivity with and without urodynamic stress incontinence had similar reductions in incontinent episodes and improvements in quality of life. 2. BLADDER RETRAINING VERSUS PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING One trial that compared bladder retraining with pelvic floor muscle training augmented with biofeedback found that both interventions were equally effective in reducing incontinent episodes and improving quality of life in women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity, or both diagnoses. In a multi75 cure rates determined by a 7-day uricentre RCT, [75] nary diary, were reported to be 18% and 16% in the bladder retraining group at 3 and 6 months post-randomization, respectively, versus 13% and 20% in the pelvic floor muscle training group. Improvement rates (i.e., percent of patients achieving greater than 50% reduction of incontinent episodes) in the bladder retraining group was 52% and 46% at 3 and 6 months, respectively, versus 57% and 56% in the pelvic floor muscle training group. Women with detrusor overactivity with and without urodynamic stress incontinence has similar reductions in incontinent episodes. Changes in incontinence severity were unrelated to urodynamic changes [133]. 133 There is Level 1 evidence to suggest that bladder retraining has similar benefits in women with detrusor overactivity as drug therapy available prior to 1996, and may have greater long term benefit. d) Summary There appears to be Level 1 evidence to suggest that for women with urge, stress, and mixed urinary incontinence that bladder retraining is more effective than no treatment. Evidence is inconsistent about expected cure rates which may be dependent on when and how the outcome was measured or reflect differences in the bladder retraining protocol. Findings on objective (cystometric) changes do not always correspond to successful subjective change. One RCT has indicated that bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training have similar efficacy in women with urge, stress and mixed incontinence and this finding requires further investigation. One RCT has indicated that bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training have similar efficacy; this finding requires further investigation. Bladder retraining appears to have similar benefits as drug therapy available prior to 1996 and may have greater long term benefit. 3. BLADDER RETRAINING VERSUS MEDICATION e) Recommendations Two RCTs concluded that bladder retraining was superior to anticholinergic drug therapy in women with 160 found that inpatient detrusor overactivity. Jarvis [160] bladder retraining was superior to an outpatient program of combined drug therapy of 200 mg (three times a day) flavoxate hydrocholoride and 25 mg (three times a day) imipramine. Cure/improvement rates in the bladder retraining group were 84% subjectively continent and 76% symptom free versus 56% continent and 48% symptom free in the drug therapy group. Patients who were symptom free at 4 weeks were able to maintain their effects at 12 weeks. Cystometric changes in both groups were related to the clinical changes. Bladder retraining should be offered as therapy to women with urge, stress, and mixed urinary incontinence. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: A There is a lack of consistency in bladder retraining protocols. On the basis of extrapolation from the bladder retraining literature, an outpatient retraining protocol should include an initial voiding interval typically beginning at 1 hour during waking hours, which is increased by 15-30 minutes per week depending on tolerance of the schedule (i.e., fewer incontinent episodes than the previous week, minimal interruptions to the schedule, and the womanÕs feeling of control over urgency), until a 2-3 hour voiding interval is achieved. A shorter initial voiding interval, i.e., 30 minutes or less, may be necessary for women whose baseline urinary diaries reveal an average voiding interval of less than 1 hour. Education should be 161 reported that a 6Columbo and his associates [161] week course of oxybutynin had a similar clinical cure rate (e.g., self-reported total disappearance of urge incontinence, no protective pads, or further treatment) as bladder retraining (74% versus 73% respectively). Oxybutynin clinically cured 93% of patients with detrusor overactivity, 67% of those with low-compliance 601 [165], 166 and one RCT compared an inpatient to an 165 [166] outpatient program consisting of bladder retraining and 94 One non-randomized pelvic floor muscle training [94]. controlled trial compared anticholinergic drug therapy with bladder retraining to bladder retraining with place167 and the other compared bladder retraining for bo [167], women with urge incontinence and bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training for women with mixed 68 incontinence to a control group [68]. provided about normal bladder control and methods to control urgency such as distraction and relaxation techniques and pelvic floor muscle contraction. Selfmonitoring of voiding behavior using urinary diary or treatment log should be included in order to determine adherence to the schedule, evaluate progress, and determine whether the voiding interval should be changed (Figure 6). Clinicians should monitor progress, determine adjustments to the voiding interval, and provide positive reinforcement to women undergoing bladder retraining at least weekly during the training period. If there is no reduction in incontinent episodes after three weeks of bladder retraining, the patient should be re-evaluated and other treatment options considered. Inpatient bladder retraining programs may follow a more rigid scheduling regimen with progression of the voiding interval on a daily basis. a) Background 94 to The age of the study population ranged from 26 [94] 166 Some trials included a few men, and it was 98 [166]. not possible to determine the effect on women only [166]; 166 56 women and 4 men. All studies with the excep75 investigated the combined effect of tion of one trial [75] bladder retraining with another intervention which may have included a placebo treatment in women with detrusor overactivity, urge incontinence with stable detrusor function, or urge incontinence without known detrusor dysfunction, or sensory bladder. In the one exception, women with urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity and/or both diagnoses were 75 Sample sizes ranincluded in the study population [75]. ged from 20 [79] 79 to 204 women [75]. 75 All but one RCT had intervention groups containing 25 or more subjects [164]. 164 Two studies reported power calculations [79], 79 [75], but only one study achieved statistical power [75]. 75 75 Outcome was measured most frequently by subjective 165 [166], report of cure or improvement [164], 166 [68], 68 164 [165], [94], and urinary diary [79], [164], [165], [87], 87 165 164 94 [75] 79 75 79 [94], [75], 94 75 followed by urodynamic measures [79], [164], pad test 164 [133], 75 133 quality of life evaluation [75], 94 and cost [94]. 94 Three studies reported on com[94], pliance in the assessment of treatment outcome [68], 68 [166], 75 166 [75]. Bladder retraining has been used in combination with pelvic floor muscle training, bladder biofeedback, estrogen replacement therapy, and anticholinergic drug therapy in the management of urge, stress, and mixed incontinence. Refer to Section 2 (c) for discussion of bladder retraining protocols. Follow-up periods were variable with most studies conducting at least one post-treatment assessment within five days to three months following treatment initiation. One trial included an additional evaluation at six months post-randomization[75]. 75 Longer-term fol87 low-up was completed in one study [87]. b) Quality of the data c) Results GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C Further RCTs are needed that compare bladder retraining alone to lifestyle interventions, pelvic floor muscle training, and drug therapies in the management of stress, urge, and mixed incontinence. Studies are also needed to determine the long-term efficacy of bladder retraining. 3. BLADDER RETRAINING IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER ADJUNCTS (PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING AND MEDICATIONS) ¥ Bladder Retraining with Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Versus Bladder Retraining Alone, Psychotherapy, or Drug Therapy Only one trial was found that compared bladder retraining to a combination behavioral intervention program (bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training). Although combination therapy resulted in greater reductions in incontinent episodes and improvements in quality of life at three months post-randomization, the results suggest that bladder retraining is as effective as combination therapy when evaluation occurs six months post-randomization. In WymanÕs previously cited study 75 cure rates as determined by a 7-day urinary diary [75] Seven studies were reviewed that compared bladder retraining with other interventions including placebo 164 [165], interventions. Of these, five are RCTs [164], 165 166 94 75 involving 394 women; and two are [166], [94], [75] 68 167 [68]. nonrandomized controlled trials [167], One RCT compared bladder retraining with pelvic floor muscle training to bladder retraining alone or pelvic 75 floor muscle training alone [75]; one RCT compared bladder retraining with pelvic floor muscle training to 164 psychotherapy and anticholinergic drug therapy [164] two RCTs compared bladder retraining with anticholinergic drug therapy to bladder retraining with placebo 602 Figure 6 a, b : Bladder retraining self-monitoring at 3 months post-randomization were 31% in the combination therapy group, whereas it was 18% in the bladder retraining group. Improvement rates (i.e., 50% or greater reduction in incontinent episodes) were 70% in the combination therapy group, whereas they were 51% in the bladder retraining group. However, by 6 months post-randomization, both cure and improvement rates in combination therapy had dropped (27% and 59%, respectively), whereas cure and improvement rates were better maintained in the bladder retraining group (16% and 41%, respectively). Women with urodynamic stress incontinence or detrusor overactivity with and without stress incontinence had similar reductions in incontinent episodes at the 3 and 6 months post-randomization evaluations. drug therapy groups at 12 weeks post-treatment initiation. Improvement in the bladder retraining group was associated with cystometric improvements in detrusor pressure. An RCT that compared an impatient to an outpatient program of bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training reported that an outpatient program was as effective and could be conducted at less cost [94]. 94 Subjective cure/improvement rates were 63% in both groups, dry pad testing had similar rates in inpatients (70%) as outpatients (77%), and cure rates at 3 months (defined as no incontinent episodes on a urinary diary) were similar in inpatients (63%) versus outpatients (53%). ¥ Bladder Retraining with Drug Therapy The effectiveness of bladder retraining in combination with pelvic floor muscle training as compared to bladder retraining alone is as yet unclear and further investigation is warranted (Level 1). Three trials comparing anticholinergic drug therapy with bladder retraining to bladder retraining with placebo [167], 167 [165], 165 [166] 166 were not consistent with respect to the additive benefit when combining bladder retraining with anticholinergic drug therapy in the treatment of detrusor overactivity. Szonyi et al., [166] 166 using a double-blind placebo controlled, parallel group design found no difference between 2.5 mg of oxybutynin twice daily with bladder retraining versus the placebo group (bladder retraining and placebo) in reducing incontinent episodes or nocturia. However, the investi- In another RCT, bladder retraining with pelvic floor muscle training was compared to brief psychotherapy or drug therapy (propantheline) in women with detrusor overactivity and sensory-urgency syndrome [164]. 164 Incontinent episodes and nocturia as measured by a 7day urinary diary were significantly reduced in the psychotherapy group but not in the bladder retraining or 603 The effectiveness of adding bladder retraining to drug therapy and vice versa is unclear, and requires further investigation (Level 1/2 ). affect treatment outcome. Two RCTs found that urodynamic diagnosis (urodynamic stress incontinence, detrusor overactivity, or both) had no effect on treatment outcome whether measured by urinary diaries or standardized quality of life instrument, and change back to normal function did not correlate to an improvement in incontinence severity [147], 162 75 147 [162],[75], [133]. 133 However, two other RCTs found that those patients who became subjectively continent reverted back to normal detrusor function [159], 159 [160]. 160 One trial found that patients with sensory bladders did better than those with detrusor overactivity or low compliance bladders [161]. 161 One trial conducting a five-year followup found subjects with urge or mixed incontinence 87 were least likely to maintain their results [87]. d) Summary 5. ADVERSE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH BLAD- gators concluded that the drug group was superior to the placebo (bladder retraining) group because it had greater subjective benefit (86% versus 55%). Another study using a similar research design reported no difference between the placebo (bladder retraining and placebo) and 25 mg of terodiline with bladder retraining in reducing incontinent episodes [165]. 165 In contrast, one nonrandomized, double-blinded placebo controlled design found that terodiline with bladder retraining was superior to bladder retraining and placebo [167] 167 on both objective and subjective measures. DER RETRAINING The effectiveness of bladder retraining in combination with pelvic floor muscle training in comparison to bladder retraining alone is unclear, and further investigation is warranted (Level 1). The one RCT available suggests that the long-term benefit of bladder retraining alone may be similar to that of bladder retraining combined with pelvic floor muscle training. Additional benefit of combining bladder retraining with drug therapy available prior to 1996 was not consistently noted. Four of the 12 studies reviewed made a statement about adverse effects associated with bladder retraining 159 [160], [159], 147 [161]. 161 In these studies, there were 160 [147], no reported adverse effects. Although the reporting of adverse effects was poor across studies, it appears that bladder retraining is safe and acceptable to patients. V. ANTI-INCONTINENCE DEVICES IN THE FEMALE PATIENT e) Recommendations Further RCTs are needed that compare the additive benefit of bladder retraining to lifestyle interventions, pelvic floor muscle training, and drug therapies in the treatment of urinary incontinence. In addition, research is needed to determine subgroups of patients who will derive the greatest benefit from bladder retraining alone or in combination with pelvic floor muscle training or drug therapy. 4. FACTORS AFFECTING 1. INTRODUCTION Urinary loss in the female patient may be the result of overactivity or underactivity of the detrusor or outlet, alone or in combination. Devices may act to correct, compensate for, or circumvent the pathology of the detrusor or outlet, in order to improve urinary storage and/or emptying. Varying levels of manual dexterity are required of the patient, depending on the type of device. For some devices, health care provider intervention may be necessary for device sizing, training, prescribing, and/or device insertion and replacement at regular intervals. OUTCOMES OF BLAD- DER RETRAINING Analysis of factors affecting treatment outcome is problematic in most published studies due to low power with relatively small subgroups. Nine of the 12 trials reported on factors affecting the outcomes of bladder retraining. Of these, three trials reported on factors affecting outcomes associated with bladder retraining 75 One study reporas the sole therapy [147], 147 [161], 161 [75]. ted that age was not a factor in treatment outcome 147 Compliance was mentioned as a factor affecting [147]. treatment outcome in a small study [68] but not in a larger study comparing the efficacy of bladder retraining to pelvic floor muscle training alone and combination behavioral therapy [75]. 75 The devices reviewed in this section are not permanently implanted into the female patient, but are extraurethral, intra-vaginal or intra-urethral. The devices may be disposable or re-usable following each voiding episode, or may be replaced daily, after several days, or may be left indwelling for up to 28 days. The Food and Drug Association (United States FDA) defines a device as Ônon-implantÕ only if it is left indwelling for less than 28 days. Devices designed for chronic intra-urethral usage must be replaced within this time interval. There is conflicting evidence of whether symptomatology, urodynamic diagnosis, or urodynamic parameters Pessaries, the most commonly utilized devices for prolapse and incontinence, have never been subjected to an 604 excluded from efficacy and quality of life assessments at the termination of the study. Consequently, many of the devices which have performed adequately in clinical studies have not achieved acceptance by physicians and patients in clinical practice, or attained commercial success. Many of the devices which are included in the review, have been approved by regulatory agencies but are no longer marketed. This sub-chapter will examine the evidence for the management of urinary incontinence using non-implanted devices in the non-neurogenic female patient. A summary of the search strategy is given in Appendix 1. RCT or compared to other devices. Most reports of device usage, prior to 1995 are descriptive or laboratory based, but more recent studies have provided more subjective and objective data, and have incorporated quality of life assessment. There are four RCTs (two articles and two abstracts) among the reports published in this section. Device protocols rarely have employed a non-treatment group, cannot easily employ a ÔplaceboÕ model, and are usually designed as open longitudinal studies, utilizing the patientsÕ baseline data as the control. Comparison studies between devices are needed, which ideally should be randomized and ÔcrossoverÕ designed, and one such study is included. There is only one abstract and one paper which compares two different devices, no studies which compare device use to other forms of conservative or surgical therapy, and no publications which report cost-effectiveness data. There are an increasing number of more carefully designed studies since the initial review, including 4 RCTs (2 abstracts and 2 papers), but to date, there is only one abstract and one paper comparing two different non-implant devices. There are no studies comparing device use to pad use or other forms of conservative therapy, or to surgical intervention. Although there is increasing data supporting the efficacy and tolerability of intra-vaginal support, extra-urethral occlusive, and intra-urethral devices, there has not been wide clinical acceptance by physicians or patients for device use in the ambulatory female population for the treatment of urodynamic stress incontinence. Urinary incontinence is a Ôquality of lifeÕ issue, and physician and patient ÒacceptabilityÓ, in addition to the literature reports of efficacy and safety, have been a major determinant of clinical and commercial success. Of note, many devices have demonstrated higher efficacy and quality of life scores during laboratory observation and clinical trial settings, than in clinical practice. A simple explanation may be that health care provider support, during clinical trials, may improve patient willingness to complete the protocol and improve satisfaction. Patient willingness to perform instrumentation may vary by device type, the anatomic location of placement, and the perceived level of invasiveness. Prashar [131] 131 utilized a ten item questionnaire, given to 104 consecutive women, and reported attitudes to becoming familiar with genital anatomy and placing devices into the vagina or upon the urethra. Only 30% of the women were quite comfortable about the concept of touching their genitalia and this attitude was age dependent. Only 21% were willing to insert a continence device into their vagina, varying weakly with age but significantly affected by previous tampon or diaphragm usage. Only 15% felt very comfortable about placing a continence device on to their urethra, and this was not affected by age and was only slightly more common in previous tampon users. Older women were less likely to understand the anatomy of their genitalia or to be comfortable about the idea of exploring it, but age was no barrier to willingness to employ a urethral or vaginal continence device. 2. DEVICES THAT TREAT INCONTINENCE SECONDARY TO FAILURE TO EMPTY (DETRUSOR UNDERACTIVITY / OUTLET OVERACTIVITY) IN THE NON-NEUROGENIC ADULT FEMALE a) Background Failure to empty the bladder decreases functional bladder capacity. The non-neurogenic adult female may demonstrate the symptoms and signs of overflow incontinence. The acute and chronic management of these patients and the indications for catheterisation are reviewed in the section on treatment of the neurogenic patient. b) Quality of included studies Treatment for urinary retention may involve an indwelling catheter, intermittent catheterisation, or the monitoring of clinical parameters during continued overflow voiding. There have been no published studies on the use of catheter drainage in the ambulatory population. In a descriptive study of 15 patients, without controls, 168 described a sphincter-pump prosthesis, Nativ [168] composed of a self retaining silicone catheter with a self contained urinary pump (flow 10-12 cc/sec), which is activated by a small hand-held control device for bladder emptying (Figure 7 (In-Flow / SRS Medical). A physician must change the device. Additionally, the denominator for Ôpatient satisfactionÕ may not reflect device acceptance in clinical use, since Ôintent to treatÕ patients, who are initially screened, but do not want to utilize the device, may not be included in the patient satisfaction data, and patients who Ôdrop outÕ of the study due to adverse events or dissatisfaction, may be included in safety data, but are often 605 Figure 7 : Inflow device (clockwise from upper left: hand held control device, device in place, device insertion, device open, device prior to insertion 3. DEVICES THAT TREAT FAILURE TO STORE (OUTLET UNDERACTIVITY) IN THE NON-NEU- c) Results The In-Flow device improved continence and bladder emptying in this single report, with minimal morbidity, but the study was short term, and there were no specific comments on effects of the device on urethral integrity. ROGENIC AMBULATORY ADULT FEMALE POPULATION INTRODUCTION d) Summary Failure to store secondary to decreased outlet activity may be manifested in the symptoms and signs of urodynamic stress incontinence (USI). Treatment of this condition with devices has been reported utilizing: Treatment of urinary retention may be accomplished by observation, indwelling or intermittent catheterisation. Newer technologies for bladder emptying will require further study. (Level of evidence: 4). 1) External urinary collection, 2) Intravaginal support of the bladder neck, and 3) Blockage of urinary leakage by occluding egress, i) at the external meatus, or ii) with an intraurethral device. e) Recommendations Newer technologies, which do not require external collection of urine, utilizing indwelling mechanical urethral valves and pumps, may provide an alternative for carefully selected patients. This area should be identified as an important topic for future research. 1) External collection devices a) Background GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: D. The use of pads, diapers and incontinence pants are discussed in page 666. Female external collecting devices are placed over the urethral meatus or within the introital area, are secured by straps, adhesive or suction, and empty into an external drainage bag. These devices can 606 be utilized for failure to store secondary to an underactive outlet or an overactive bladder. These devices have been developed, tested, and a few reports on their use have been published, but they have not been widely distributed or sold. ¥ Diaphragms / Pessaries: Realini [173]analyzed the benefit for one week, in 10 173 selected patients of a coil-type diaphragm ring, which was softer than a pessary, utilizing diaries and a two hour pad test. Suarez [174] 174 included urodynamic testing in his evaluation of a contraceptive diaphragm in 175 [176] 176 reported on the urody12 patients. Bhatia [175], namic effects of a Smith Hodge pessary, and suggested this as a modality to predict the outcome for bladder neck support surgery. b) Quality of included studies Studies describing devices for the collection of urine in female patients are descriptive, and were performed on patients in a rehabilitation center or nursing home, and not in the ambulatory population. Edwards [169], 169 Bonnar [170], and Cardozo [171] 170 171 reported on devices of historical interest, which are not commercially available. ¥ Specific bladder neck support devices: Included in this category are: 1. Removable reusable intra-vaginal ring, composed of silastic, and constructed with two prongs which are placed behind the symphysis to support the bladder neck (Introl, no current distributor) Biswas [177], 177 178 [179], 179 Moore [180],[181] Davila [178], 180 181 and Kondo 182 (Figure 8). [182] c) Summary External collecting devices for the ambulatory female patient are cumbersome and have demonstrated low efficacy. There are no devices in clinical use. Previous devices have failed to solve the problems of: 1) sizing, due to variations in anatomy, 2) providing an effective and comfortable meatal or vaginal locator, 3) developing an anchoring method with suction and/or adhesion, that coapts without tissue injury, 4) allowing duration of usage, and 5) adjusting to the degree of mobility of the patients (Level of evidence: 5). The pilot study by Biswas [177], 177 the developer of the device, was a laboratory study, which employed a straining cystogram. Following this study, the number of device sizes was increased from 8 to 25. A variety of different protocols were employed to study efficacy, safety and satisfaction by Davila [178],[179], 182 In 180 181 and Kondo [182]. 178 179 Moore [180],[181] general, a voiding diary which specified voiding and leakage episodes and a one hour pad weight test (PdWt-1hr) were utilized as the primary pre and post device use objective parameters, and a quality of life (QOL) instrument was utilized by all investigators. Of specific interest, is that in the trial by Moore [181] 181 one third of the women were identified as having undergone previous vaginal surgery or colposuspension, and the three gynaecologists who fitted the patients had no prior knowledge of how to fit the device. Study periods varied from three to four 177 179], 179 12 weeks ([181] 181 and 6 months weeks [177, 182 [182]. d) Recommendation The development of a product for the external collection of urine in the ambulatory and non-ambulatory female patient is a very important area for future research. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION :D There are currently no adequate collection devices for the ambulatory female population. 2) Intravaginal devices which support the bladder neck a) Background 2. Three different single use disposable devices: ¥ a clam-type device composed of polyurethrane foam, which is folded up upon its long axis and placed into the sagittal plane in the vagina, and when moistened, its dimensions expand by 30% and create a supportive cushion under the urethrovesical junction (Conveen Continence Guard, Coloplast, Denmark) (Figure 9a, 9b) ([183],[184],[185] 184 185 183 ¥ a newer version of the expanding polyurethrane design, with similarities to a tampon, recently reported in an abstract (Coloplast, Denmark) (Figure 10) [124], 124 and Support of the bladder neck to correct urodynamic stress incontinence has been achieved, with varying success utilizing traditional i) tampons, ii) pessaries and contraceptive diaphragms, and iii) intravaginal devices specifically designed to support the bladder neck. b) Quality of included studies ¥ Tampons/pessaries: Nygaard[172] 172 performed a prospective, randomized, single blind, and laboratory based study testing 18 patients (age 33-73) with three 40 minute standardized aerobics sessions, utilizing either a Hodge pessary, a super tampon, or no device and measuring urinary loss by pad weight (PdWt). ¥ an expanding polyvinyl alcohol sponge (Ladycon, 124 Home Care Engros, Norway) [124] 607 FIgure 8 : Introl bladder neck support prosthesis Figure 9 a : Conveen ÒclamÓ type devices with inserter Figure 9 b: Conveen device (compressed by fingers) into functional position assumed in vagina. Figure 10 : Conveen ÒtamponÓ types within inserters. 608 Thyssen [184], 183 Hahn [185] 124 184 [183], 185 and Bidmead [124] utilized PdWt and diary data as objective parameters and employed QOL instruments. Of specific interest, the abstract by Bidmead [124] 124 which reported a new version of the device described as a continence ÒtamponÓ, utilized a crossover design, employing two five week trials comparing the original and newer device. The report on the polyvinyl sponge, by Glavind[186] 186 was an acute laboratory study of only six women utilizing a PdWt measurement during 30 minutes of aerobic exercise. C) tiple vaginal surgeries or were oestrogen deficient. Long-term follow-up showed that 18 of 26 (from the original 65) continued to wear the device at six months (interim dropouts being due to intercurrent illness in half, the remainder had declining efficacy). Of these, 78% continued to wear the device for a minimum follow-up of two years. In a separate study of patients with mixed incontinence by Moore [181], 181 of the 21 recruits, five never wore the device home, leaving 16 participants. A further two did not reach week four, because of poor efficacy or inability to fit the device. In the 14 who reached week four, the median number of leaks/day declined from 4.3 to 1.0 (p = 0.002). Median PdWt loss fell from 53 to 7g (p = 0.012). Cystometry showed an increase in maximum bladder capacity (p < 0.05) and a modest reduction in severity of detrusor overactivity, with no evidence of outflow obstruction. Three women discontinued because of poor efficacy or a poorly fitting device, leaving 11 of 16 participants (69%) at week eight, when median PdWt decreased to 2mL. Results ¥ Tampons and Diaphragms: Continence rates were 6/14 cured and 2/14 improved 172 with tampons [172], 4/10 improved with a diaphragm 173 [173], and 9/12 with an oversized contraceptive diaphragm [174]. 174 ¥ Specific bladder neck support prostheses: Due to significant differences in device design, the outcomes for the studies of the silastic device should not be compared with the polyurethrane and polyvinyl devices, which share similar modes of function. Of note, all studies demonstrate an improvement in continence by the methods employed. Studies performed in the acute setting, regardless of the device type, demonstrate better performance than diary based studies performed over time. Efficacy is also higher in patients with minimal to moderate urinary leakage. Kondo [182] 182 found no urinary flow obstruction with the device in place. Urine loss decreased from 20.6 to 4.8 gm. per hour (p < 0.001) on the 60-minute PdWt. Twenty two patients (29%), reported complete continence, and 39 (51%) had decreased severity of incontinence by more than 50%. Minor adverse effects occurred in 26% of the patients. According to the global usefulness rating which was employed, 62 patients (81%) had some or maximum benefit. ¥ Reusable intra-vaginal silastic device. Thyssen [183],([42]) reported on 19/22 women with 183 42 stress incontinence, subjectively and objectively cured or improved in a short-term study, and who then continued the treatment with the device for one year. All 19 completed the study, 13 (68%) were subjectively dry, (26%) were improved and one (5%) reported unchanged incontinence. All but one had decreased leakage at the 24-PdWt, and 67% a greater than 50% decrease. Subjectively cure was 41%, and 36% were dry on 24 hour pad test. Overall reduced leakage was statistically significant (p < 0.0005) No significant changes were found in the other urodynamic measurements, specifically, urinary flow rate. ¥ Disposable polyurethane and polyvinyl devices: Biswas [177] 177 determined that 86% of the patients were continent with the device in place on cystogram. Davila [179] 179 in the intial study demonstrated that (83%) of patients were dry on PdWt. On further and more detailed study, Davila found a statistically significant reduction in incontinence on PdWt (USI, mean 46.6 to 16.6g; mixed incontinence, mean 31.9 to 6.8 g) and in the bladder diary, mean 28.6 to 7.8 losses per week; mixed incontinence, mean 30.2 to 15 losses per week). QOL improved in both groups. Side effects included five urinary tract infections and 23 cases of vaginal mucosal soreness or mild irritation[178]. 178 Hahn [185] 185 reported on 121 women, in a four week study. Patients dropped out because of vaginal irritation (25%), other product related reasons (6%), lack of time (6%), or failure to complete a user questionnaire. Of the remaining 90 (mean age 47.5), 85 performed a 24 PdWt, which showed that baseline leakage of 42 ml/ 24h decreased to 14 ml/ 24h (p <0.001). Of these, 39 (46%) were continent. The device was considered unpleasant by 8%, and caused some local discomfort in 62% on direct questioning: 75% of these wished to continue using the device. The authors noted that older women (age 56-65) tolerated the device and appeared Moore[181] 181 detailed problems with both sizing and efficacy. Of the 80 recruits, four could not be fitted, and 11 did not satisfy all entry criteria. Of the 65 participants, 39 (60%) withdrew; 20 for distorted vaginal anatomy which made fitting difficult, five for lack of efficacy, four for constipation, and ten for unrelated patient events. In the remaining 26 patients, PdWt decreased from a baseline median of 19 g to 2 g (p<0.001), 62% were continent, and 15% were >50% improved, and wished no further therapy. Moore concluded that the device was difficult to fit in women who have had mul- 609 e) Recommendation more motivated to continue. Coexistent atrophic vaginitis and the use of topical oestrogen was not discussed. Vaginal support devices should be included in the treatment options when managing women with stress urinary incontinence, dependent upon the availability of product, patient acceptance, and cost and especially in younger patients who may be contemplating further pregnancies. However, long-term results are not available and studies comparing these therapies to other forms of conservative therapy or surgery have not been performed. In the third study, by Thyssen [184] 184 subjective cure in 11/55 women (20%) and improvement in 27/55 (49%) was reported. The 24-hour PdWt mean leakage and episodes in the voiding diary significantly decreased. After three months, 55 (58%) of patients desired to continue device usage. The IOQ showed highly significant improvement, as well as two additional incontinence related quality of life questionnaires. Responses to the SF-36 general health questionnaire showed no significant changes. GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION B Bidmead[124] 124 reported on 61 women recruited in a RCT , which compared the ÒclamÓ to the ÒtamponÓ device. Only 38 (62%) completed the study due to discomfort or lack of efficacy. Thirty-six women desired to continue device use following the study, with 73% preferring the ÒtamponÓ type design for its ease of use. Support of the bladder neck, resulting in improved continence, is possible with intravaginal devices without causing significant lower urinary tract obstruction or morbidity, but require patient acceptance and a degree of manual dexterity for use. d) Summary 3) Blockage of urinary leakage by occluding egress occlusive devices Support of the bladder neck resulting in improved continence is possible with intravaginal devices without causing significant lower urinary tract obstruction or morbidity. i) Blockage at the external meatus a) Background Devices have been developed which block urinary leakage at the external urethral meatus. Several devices have utilised either adhesive or mild suction to occlude urinary loss at the urethral meatus. In addition to a simple barrier effect, compression of the wall of the distal urethra has been hypothesized to contribute to continence. Efficacy with the Introl silastic pronged ÒpessaryÓ device ranged from 65-90% reduction in PdWt with 2983% dry and 15-50% improved [179], 182 178 [182], 179 [178], [181], At six months 32%, and at two years 22% 181 [180]. 180 182 The major proof patients continued device use [182]. blem appears to be with sizing, especially in patients with prior vaginal surgery or with vaginal atrophy 182 The device is re-usable so a fix cost following [182]. purchase is to be expected. The device is not currently marketed. Efficacy with the Conveen polyurethrane expanding ÒclamÓ device ranged from 20-68% of patients subjec184 There 185 [124] 124 and 49% improved [184]. tively dry [185], was a 66% reduction in PdWt, with 46% of patients continent. At one month 75% of patients [185] 185 and at three months 58% [124] 124 continued device use, with 73% preferring the ÒtamponÓ type device. The device is worn for 24 hours and is disposable. Difficulty with insertion is improved with the ÒtamponÓ over the ÒclamÓ version. The device is currently marketed (Coloplast Ð www.coloplast.com). The polyvinyl tampon device was tested only in the laboratory during 186 It is currently marketed (Home aerobic exercise [186]. Care Engros). Patients must accept the mode of treatment and have proper anatomy and manual dexterity. Relatively high drop-out rates in monitored studies, during which patient support is provided, indicates the need for proper patient selection and patient and provider education. (Level of Evidence = 2) Miniguard (no current distributor) (Figure 11 ) is a triangularly shaped foam device which utilizes an adhesive hydrogel to adhere to the peri-meatal area. The device is single use, removed prior to voiding, and disposable. FemAssist (no current distributor) (Figure 12 - FemAssist) is a hat-shaped silicone device, that adheres by applying an adhesive gel to the edge of the device, squeezing the central dome and creating a vacuum. The device is then placed over the urethral meatus, and upon release the meatal mucosa is drawn up into the device and the urethral lumen is occluded. Designed and tested in three sizes (3 x 2.5 cm, 2.5 x 2 cm 2 x 2 cm) it may be worn for up to four hours or until voiding, after which the device is washed in hot soapy water and then reapplied. The device is reusable for one week. CapSure (C. R. Bard, Inc but not currently marketed) is applied and retained by suction. A petroleum based lubricant is applied prior to device use. The device is removed for voiding and re-utilized for up to 2 weeks. b) Quality of included studies Urinary diaries and PdWt were employed in all studies 610 for objective efficacy measurements [187] 187 (Minguard), 181 (FemAs189 (FemAssist), [181] [188] 188 (Miniguard), [189] 190 191 (FemAssist), [192] 192 (CapSure). sist), [190],[191] Incontinence input questionnaires (IIQ), visual analogue score (VAS), QOL, and / or urogenital distress 188 [193], inventory (UDI) were also employed [188], 193 189 [194], 190 [191], 192 [189], 191 [192]. 194 [190], Study lengths differed from laboratory [190], four 190 194 to three months [188], 188 [191], 193 [189], 191 weeks [193], 189 [194] [192]. 192 There were no RCTÕs. Study designs were open and longitudinal. c) Results ¥ Miniguard 187 analyzed the efficacy of a single applicaEckford[187] tion of this device during a one hour pad test which reported that 25% of patients were continent, 50% were improved, but 25% had worse incontinence. Brubaker [188] 188 studied 648 recruited, 411 enrolled, 390 utilizing, and 346 completing patients. Of the 65 women who did not complete the trial, 21 withdrew before device use, 17 were lost to follow-up, 12 withdrew for device related reasons, nine developed an unrelated condition, and there were six protocol violations. Brubaker reported statistically significant objective (12 hour PdWt 15.8g +/- 26.5 to 6.9g +/- 11.5 p<.001) and subjective (leakage questionnaire 10.1 +/- 5.1 to 3.5 +/- 4.3 p<.001 with similar IOQ scores) improvement and no significant change in urinary tract infections, postvoid residual urine volume and cystometric indices. Symptoms of vulvar irritation or lower urinary tract discomfort occurred in a small percentage of subjects but were generally transient, and only three women discontinued using the device. The protocol employed a unique selfinstruction method by the patients. Also noted was a persistence of efficacy (p<.001) 4 weeks following device discontinuation. Figure 11: Miniguard ¥ FemAssist Versi [189] 189 reported that the mean pad weight decreased by 47% (P=0.056). Of the nine women who had a positive pad test (>2 g) without the device, five were dry (<2 g) with the device (P<0.05). VAS scores showed a significant improvement for the symptom of stress incontinence (P<0.05). QOL scores improved significantly by 38% (P<0.05) for the IIQ and and 29% (P<0.01) for UDI. Versi [189] 189 studied 155 women with stress or mixed leakage, of whom 133 attempted to use it and 96 enrolled in a four week study. The mean pad test loss fell from 27 g to 9.4 g (p< 0.001) and 49% were dry. Cure was more likely in those with mild incontinence. Moore [181] 181 reported on 57/100 recruited women who completed a one-month trial. Reduction of incontinence was statistically significant for pad testing, which Figure 12: Fem Assist 611 revealed that 47% of the patients became continent and 33% had more than 50% benefit, while 9% had worse leakage. Those with severe baseline leakage were equally likely to respond as those with mild or moderate pad test loss. Women with stress, urge or mixed incontinence appeared to respond equally well. Dropouts included 13% who were unwilling to utilize the device [188]. 188 selection based on motivation, appropriate anatomy, and manual dexterity, in combination with efficacy and morbidity will determine overall satisfaction. There is no data which compares one extra-urethral device to another, or to incontinence pads. A single RCT comparing extra-urethral and intra-urethral devices is reviewed in the section on intra-urethral devices (see below). Cost comparisons for disposable versus short-term reusable devices are not available. Efficacy for different grades of incontinence has not been established. The objective degree of continence improvement in the clinical laboratory (pad and stress tests) is greater than in community use (diaries). (Level of evidence = 3/4) Tincello [190] 190 found the median (range) loss with and without the device was 4.9 (0-65) ml and 21 (1-94), respectively (P< 0.01); and 20 patients were less wet when using the device. The median (range) VAS scores were; discomfort 35 (4-93), embarrassment 11 (0- 75), and acceptability 65 (3-100). Discomfort was greater among the women with a greater loss. The acceptability correlated negatively with discomfort (r = -0.53) and negatively with embarrassment (r = 0.39); 15 patients (56%) reported that they would use the device in the long-term. Tincello [191] 191 reported that 10/41 women (24.4%) declined to participate and six (14.6%) withdrew before two weeks. Ten (24.4%) failed to attend for two-week follow-up and 11 (26.8%) did not continue for three months. Two (4.9%) did not attend threemonth follow-up. Only two women (4.9%) completed the study. There was no difference in pad test results or in results from voiding diaries. The urinary incontinence device had low acceptability and was ineffective, and we cannot recommend it for nonsurgical management of urodynamic stress incontinence. ¥ Capsure e) Recommendation Further research of the role of devices which block urinary leakage at the external urinary meatus are recommended. One half of patients utilizing these devices in monitored studies were dry and 2/3 of the patients were improved with minimal morbidity. These devices have a role in the algorithm of conservative treatment based on patient acceptance, availability and cost, especially in those patients with mild or moderate stress incontinence who prefer to avoid pads or surgery. (Grade of Recommendation C). External patch in cup devices placed over the urethral meatus, and held in place by an adhesive or mild suction have demonstrated efficacy with minimal morbidity. ii) Intraurethral devices Bellin [192] 192 reported on 88/100 completers after 12 weeks, with 82% elimination of leakage on Pad- Wt, 91% continent on provocative stress test (single cough assessment of leakage), and 48 percent dry and 40% improved on urinary diaries. Pad-Wt leakage decreased from 6.67 gm (.55-25.95 range) to .19 gm (0-2.5 range) by week 12. Five patients withdrew secondary to vaginal irritation and three due to poor device fit. a) Background Similarities among the devices which are inserted into the urethra to prevent urinary leakage include a method to prevent intravesical migration with a meatal plate, enhance retention within the urethra, (by utilizing spheres, dilations, inflatable balloons, or flanges), and accomplish bladder emptying, by removal of the device. None of the devices are recommended for re-use after removal. The FemSoft (Rochester Medical Corporation) (Figure 13) is currently distributed, but the Viva and Reliance (Figure 14, 15) devices, which are also reviewed in this sub-section, are not currently marketed. d) Summary External urethral occlusive devices were found to be of varying efficacy, with minimal morbidity. Efficacy of the combined studies reveals a continence rate of approximately 50% dry and 2/3 of patients improved. Of note, the studies by Tincello [190],[191] 191 suggested 190 poorer efficacy and patient satisfaction with the FemAssist device, in distinction to other studies utilizing this device. b) Quality of included studies Neilsen [140],[195] 140 195 and Pechers [196] 196 studied patients who utilized a disposable plastic device composed of an oval meatal plate, a soft stalk with a removable semirigid guide, and spheres along the stalk (Viva). Peschers screened 53 patients with USI and 21 patients accepted treatment with the two sphere device. During a four month study, the investigators analyzed subjective improvement and performed pad-weight and cough tests [196]. 196 Adherence to the peri-meatal area is essential, as all devices are occlusive, achieving the effect by either blocking at the meatus or compressing the distal urethral lumen, as opposed to absorptive. However, the method and degree of adherence is the determining factor for the type and severity of local irritation. Patient 612 Figure 13 : Femsoft Ð Urethral Insert voiding (Reliance). Primary outcome included a laboratory PdWt-1hr. The patients reported on diary and quality of life questionaires. Miller [198] 198 and Sand [199] 199 reported on 63 of the 135 patients from the above cohort who continued to utilize the balloon tipped intraurethral insert for one year. Boos [200] 200 reported in an abstract, a randomized prospective parallel group trial comparing the Reliance [197], [198], [199] 198 197 199 intra-urethral insert versus the Femassist [193], [189], [194], [190], [191] 194 190 191 external 193 189 meatal occlusive device. Assessments at baseline, one month, and three months included subjective efficacy, seven day diary, and PdWt-1hr. Figure 14 : Urethral plug At the time of this report, results from a prospective two-year follow-up study of the FemSoft urethral insert are not yet available. In a small, randomized pilot study assessing the efficacy of the FemSoft in preventing incontinence during strenuous exercise, Dunn [201] 201 measured pad weights during four standardized aerobics sessions during which six subjects were randomly assigned to exercise twice with the insert and twice without it. The medians of the averaged pad weights for the two different types of sessions were compared. c) Results Most patients who utilize intra-urethral devices report dryness or improvement in the laboratory and on diaries. The major morbidities are discomfort, urinary tract infections and hematuria. Most patients who completed the studies were subjectively and objectively continent or improved, Viva demonstrating 94.4% improvement in leakage for Neilsen [195], 195 the ord 66.7% for Peschers [196]. 196 The Reliance device provided 72% com- Figure 15 : Reliance insert Staskin [197] 197 reported on a four month study of 135 of 215 patients who utilized a disposable balloon tipped urethral insert made from thermoplastic elastomer, inflated with an applicator on insertion and deflated by pulling a string at the meatal plate for removal during 613 plete dryness with 17% improvement on diary, and 80% complete dryness and 15% improvement on pad weight testing for Staskin [197], 197 79% complete dryness and 16% significant improvement on objective pad weight studies consistent with the improvement in subjective diaries (p<.0001) for Miller [198]. 198 The patients reported improved comfort and ease of use over time, with sensation of device presence decreasing from 35% 58 at week one to 7% at 12 months for ([58]). The volume of urine lost during exercise decreased from a median of 20 gram (range 4.9-80.2 grams) without the insert to 2.6 grams (1.3-6.8) when the insert was worn (p=.03). On a 5-point scale in which 1 represented very comfortable and 5 very uncomfortable, subjects rated the mean comfort for the sessions performed with the insert in place as 2.1. undergoing screening urinalysis. Device migration into the bladder, which requires endoscopic intervention for removal, is the most serious reported problem. Long term results are limited, although data on patients with 4 months to one year of intra-urethral device use do not appear to demonstrate an increase in urinary loss by objective testing, after device discontinuation [197], 197 [198], 198 [199]. 199 Patient and physician acceptance of this form of therapy has been limited, and the only device reviewed in this section, which is currently commercially available is the FemSoft (Rochester Medical Corporation, 1800-FEMSOFT.com). (Level of Evidence: 3) e) Recommendation Further development and study of the use of intraurethral devices for the treatment of urodynamic stress incontinence is recommended. The role of intraurethral devices in patients who do not achieve the desired efficacy with other forms of conservative therapy, and wish to avoid surgery, requires further study. The placement of this therapy in the algorithm of conservative intervention has not been evaluated in relation to other forms of conservative therapy and other devices (except in one RCT abstract), with respect to short and long term efficacy and safety, cost, and quality of life, and comparative RCTÕs are needed. Treatment for positive urine cultures was undertaken in 20% of symptomatic and 11% of asymptomatic patients, 39% of patients had positive cultures which were not treated and 30% had negative cultures at all monthly intervals for the four month study. The main reason for drop-out were discomfort [197]. One or 197 more episodes of gross hematuria (24%), cystoscopic findings of mucosal irritation at 4 or at 12 months (9%) and asymptomatic bacteruria (30%) on monthly cultures were also documented [198]. 198 GRADE OF RECOMMENDATION: C In the only comparative study, by Boos [200] 200 the superior efficacy of the intraurethral device (Reliance) versus an extraurethral device (FemAssist) was mitigated by the higher incidence of side effects. Of the 102 women who were enrolled, 80 patients completed the study with a reduction in incontinence, Reliance 28.6 cc (199) to 0.8 cc (0-4.6) 40.8% subjectively dry, and the remainder improved, versus Femassist 36 cc (1.1-128) to 4.3 cc (0-30) 28.3% subjectively dry, 60.4 % improved, 9.4% unchanged and 1 patient worse. Urinary tract infections were seen in approximately 7% in both groups at three months. The authors concluded that both devices were efficacious, the Femassist being more comfortable but requiring greater skill to achieve continence, and the Reliance to be significantly better in controlling incontinence but with a higher degree of ÒnuisanceÓ side effects. Intraurethral devices have demonstrated the highest efficacy, but have been associated with higher incidence of urethral irritation, haematuria, and urinary tract infection in comparison to other devices. VI. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS & SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS Conservative treatment (lifestyle interventions, physical therapies, bladder retraining and devices) should be included in the counselling of incontinent women regarding treatment options. 1. REGARDING LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS, stu- d) Summary dies to date have reported associations and only a relatively small number of randomized trials have been carried out to assess the effect of a specific lifestyle on incontinence. However, there is evidence that: Intraurethral inserts have demonstrated superior efficacy to other forms of devices used in the control of urinary incontinence [88]. 88 The common morbidities associated with the use of these devices are urinary tract infection, hematuria and discomfort. Bacteruria, without symptomatic infection, was similar to extraurethral device use [88] 88 which approaches screening urinalysis data [188], 188 or may be similar to the rates seen with self catheterization [197]. 197 Hematuria, microscopic or gross, presents a diagnostic dilemma for a patient - Obesity is an independent risk factor for the prevalence of urinary incontinence and weight loss would appear to be an acceptable treatment option for morbidly obese women. At this time, there is scant information on whether weight loss resolves incontinence in women who are moderately obese. 614 - In view of the failure of most studies to separately report self reported cure and improvement, it is difficult to estimate the size of the treatment effect. However, it seems that improvement is a more common outcome than cure. In a meta-analysis of trials comparing PFMT with no treatment, women in the PFMT groups were 7.25 times more likely to report cure than women in no treatment groups (RR7.25, 95% CI 1.99, 26.49) and this increased to 23.04 times for combined cure/improvement (RR23.04, 95% CI7.56, 70.22). - Chronic straining may also be risk factor for the development of urinary incontinence, however, there have been no intervention trials that have examined the effect of resolving constipation on incontinence. - The data on caffeine intake and incontinence are conflicting with a large cross sectional survey indicate no association, while smaller clinical trials have suggested that decreasing caffeine intake improves continence. - The data relating to the association of smoking and incontinence is conflicting. Smokers may have a different mechanism causing their incontinence than non smokers. No data has been reported examining whether smoking cessation resolves incontinence. - Due to the lack of consistency in the trials evidence of effectiveness of PFMT versus ES for (urodynamic) stress incontinence is not clear, although three of the five trials show greater benefit of PFMT. On the basis of the limited evidence currently available there is no apparent difference in the effectiveness of PFMT with or without biofeedback, or intravaginal resistance devices, although clinicians may find occasions when these would be useful adjuncts to treatment for the purposes of teaching, motivation and compliance. - Strenuous exercise is likely to unmask the symptom of stress incontinence during the provocation. There is no evidence that strenuous exercise causes the condition of incontinence. In a small number of women without other known risk factors, extreme provocation, such as parachute jumping, may cause incontinence. There is scant uncontrolled data that suggests that women engaged in occupations with heavy lifting may be predisposed to genital prolapse and/or incontinence. The data is, however, insufficient to draw any firm conclusions. - There is insufficient evidence to determine whether electrical stimulation (ES) is better than no treatment for women with stress, mixed or urge incontinence. - To date, the results of ES versus placebo ES in women with urodynamic stress incontinence are contradictory. There is a notable lack of consistency in ES types and parameters used to treat incontinence in women with detrusor overactivity/overactivity. There is a trend in favour of ES, but the trials are small and not easily comparable. - Apart from postural changes, there is no scientific evidence about whether other lifestyle changes affects either the treatment of or the prevention of urinary incontinence. 2. REGARDING PHYSICAL THERAPIES - There is Level 1 evidence to suggest that in women with the range of urinary incontinence symptoms (stress, mixed, urge), pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) is better than no treatment and should be offered as therapy to women with those complaints. For those women with mixed and urge incontinence, it may be appropriate to offer PFMT in combination with bladder retraining. - For comparisons of ES with PFMT versus PFMT alone, the reporting was very poor in three of the four trials in women with stress incontinence, and only a single trial was found for women with detrusor overactivity. At present, it seems that there is no extra benefit in adding electrical stimulation to PFMT. - There is marked lack of consistency in PFMT programmes. On the basis of extrapolation from the exercise science literature, PFMT protocols should include 3 sets of 8 to 12 slow velocity maximal contractions sustained for 6 to 8 seconds each, performed 3 to 4 times a week and continued for at least 15 to 20 weeks. Prior to PFMT, a person with skills in the assessment and training of pelvic floor muscles should assess each woman to ensure that a correct voluntary pelvic floor muscle contraction is being performed and to determine what facilitation, techniques or adaptions, if any, are required to the recommended training programme to ensure an appropriate training intensity. - The committee recommends that future trials of electrical stimulation place particular emphasis on identifying particular subgroups of the incontinent population that are likely to benefit most. - Treatment with vaginal cones may be better than control treatment, however, it seems that it may be no better or worse than ES or PFMT. The addition of vaginal cones to a PFMT programme may add no further benefit over PFMT alone. - Many of the factors traditionally supposed to effect the outcomes of physical therapy interventions (e.g. severity of incontinence) maybe less crucial than previously thought. The single factor that is consis- 615 tently associated with positive outcome is greater motivation and/or compliance with the intervention. At present, there is no convincing evidence of the need for urodynamic evaluation to confirm diagnosis prior to the initiation of physical therapies. - Bladder retraining appears to have similar benefits as drug therapy available prior to 1996 and may have greater long term benefit. The additional benefit of combining drug therapy with bladder retraining and vice versa was not consistently noted and further investigation is warranted. - There is lack of evidence about the effectiveness of PFMT or other PF rehabilitation programmes (e.g. PFMT with electrical stimulation) for the prevention of urinary incontinence. - There is no convincing evidence of the need of urodynamic evaluation to confirm diagnosis prior to the initiation of bladder retraining. 3. REGARDING BLADDER RETRAINING 4. REGARDING ANTI-INCONTINENCE DEVICES - There is Level 1 evidence to suggest that for women with urge, stress and mixed urinary incontinence, bladder retraining is more effective than no treatment. Evidence is inconsistent about expected cure rates, which maybe dependent on when and how the outcome was measured or reflect differences in the bladder retraining protocol. - Although several classes of devices have demonstrated efficacy and tolerability in clinical studies, physician and patient acceptance have not been sufficient for commercial success. A lack of patient acceptance has been associated with a lack of knowledge and comfort with genital anatomy, limited manual dexterity in inserting and removing these devices, physical discomfort, or cost. There are no studies which characterize caregiver attitudes, although a commitment to patient training may be a barrier. - There is a lack of consistency in bladder retraining programmes. On the basis of extrapolation from the bladder retraining literature, a retraining protocol should include an initial voiding interval typically beginning at 1 hour during waking hours only, which is increased by 15-30 minutes per week depending upon tolerance of the schedule until a 2-3 hour voiding interval is achieved. A shorter initial voiding interval, i.e. 30 minutes or less, may be necessary for women whose baseline voiding diaries reveal an average voiding interval of less than 1 hour. Education should be provided about normal bladder control and methods to control urgency such as distraction and relaxation techniques and pelvic floor muscle contraction. Self-monitoring of voiding behaviour using a voiding diary or treatment log should be included in order to determine adherence to the schedule, evaluate progress, and determine whether the voiding interval should be changed. Clinicians should monitor progress, determine adjustments to the voiding interval, and provide positive reinforcement to women undergoing bladder retraining at least weekly during the training period. If there is no reduction in incontinent episodes after three weeks of bladder retraining, the patient should be re-evaluated and other treatment options considered. - There are currently no adequate external collection devices for the ambulatory female population. - There are no RCTÕs on the utilization of pessaries for urinary incontinence. Pessaries are the most commonly prescribed devices for vaginal prolapse, but there are no studies to define those patients who will respond, or those patients in whom support of the prolapse will exacerbate urinary leakage. - Bladder neck support prostheses, designed as a modification of a pessary, as an intravaginal insert, or as a modification of a tampon have shown efficacy in selected patients without significant prolapse or a history of vaginal surgery, but require patient acceptance and a degree of manual dexterity for use. - External patch or cup devices, placed over the urethral meatus, and held in place by an adhesive or mild suction have demonstrated efficacy with minimal morbidity. - Intraurethral devices have demonstrated the highest efficacy, but have been associated with higher incidence of urethral irritation, hematuria, and urinary tract infection. Device migration into the bladder, requiring cystoscopic removal, has also been reported. - One RCT has indicated that bladder retraining and pelvic floor muscle training have similar efficacy in women with urge, stress and mixed incontinence and this finding requires further investigation. - Incontinence devices may be considered as an adjunct to other forms of conservative therapy and may be considered as an alternative to surgery, in selected patients. - The effectiveness of bladder retraining in combination with pelvic floor muscle training in comparison to bladder retraining alone is unclear and further investigation is also warranted. 616 treatment failures should be considered when evaluating efficacy, safety and satisfaction of outcomes. Similarly, studies to determine the subgroups of patients, who will derive the greatest benefit, should be performed. VII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 1. LIFESTYLE INTERVENTIONS - Studies on the effectiveness of devices following long term usage are needed. Long term data should consider: a) the degree and persistence of efficacy, b) the possibility of additional morbidity over time, c) the persistence of benefit following device discontinuation, which may result from a training effect, and d) the potential for loss of baseline function over time, resulting from tissue damage or an anti-rehabilitative effect. - Further research is needed to evaluate the effect of several currently recommended lifestyle interventions on incontinence and whether their cessation can alleviate or prevent this condition. These include: weight loss, heavy exertion/exercise, smoking, caffeine intake, fluid intake, constipation on incontinence. 2. PHYSICAL THERAPIES High quality RCTs with long term follow up are required to investigate: - Device effectiveness and morbidity should be examined alone, in crossover studies with other devices, and in combination with other therapies. - the effectiveness of PFMT in comparison to other interventions and to compare the effectiveness of different PFMT programmes in the management of urinary incontinence. - Devices should be compared with other devices and other interventions for efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness. - the effectiveness of PFMT with other adjuncts in comparison to PFMT alone and effectiveness of different biofeedback protocols. APPENDIX 1 - all aspects of the use of electrical stimulation in the treatment of urinary incontinence. 1. SEARCH STRATEGIES a) Lifestyle Interventions - the effectiveness of physical therapies to prevent incontinence in women at risk or in the general female population. Reports on lifestyle interventions were obtained by searching MEDLINE (languages English, Scandinavian, German) from 1976 to December 2000 using the following keywords which were linked to urinary incontinence: lifestyle interventions, weight, obesity, weight loss, exercise, work, physical activity, smoking, tobacco, coffee, caffeine, posture, constipation, bowel function, fluids, fluid restriction, timed voiding, clothing, pulmonary status, cough, and diet. - the subgroups of patients who would derive the greatest benefit from physical therapies. 3. BLADDER RETRAINING - High quality RCTs with long term follow up are required to compare bladder retraining alone and in combination with lifestyle interventions, physical therapies and drug therapies in the management of stress, urge and mixed incontinence. Anecdotal recommendations made in the literature unaccompanied by data of any sort are not reported. b) Physical Therapies - Research is needed to determine the subgroups of patients who will derive the greatest benefit from bladder retraining along or in combination with physical therapies or drug therapy and also to determine the long term efficacy of bladder retraining. ¥ Systematic reviews Reports of systematic reviews evaluating the effectiveness of physical therapies for prevention and treatment of female stress, urge and mixed incontinence were obtained by searching MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and The Cochrane Library. Key search terms were systematic review, meta-analysis, and incontinence. The date of the most recent search was November 2000. In addition the authors of this section on physical therapies had contributed to Cochrane systematic reviews of physical therapies for incontinence that were in press at the time of writing this chapter. The evidence from both these reviews (pelvic floor muscle training 4. DEVICES - High quality RCTÕs with long term follow up are needed. However, it is acknowledged that device protocols may not easily employ a non-treatment group, cannot easily employ a ÔplaceboÕ model, and are usually designed as open longitudinal studies, utilizing the patientsÕ baseline data as the control. Specifically within the field of device investigation, intention to treat and the inclusion of dropouts as 617 se the patient as their own control and derive outcome data based on change from baseline. There is only one abstract which compares one device to another. Two abstracts have been included, based on the use of comparative data and are noted as such in the references and text. for female urinary incontinence, physical therapies for prevention of incontinence) was therefore available for inclusion. ¥ Electrical stimulation The Trials Search Co-ordinator of the Cochrane Incontinence Group obtained reports of RCTs evaluating the effect of electrical stimulation for stress, urge and mixed incontinence from a search of the Specialised Trials Register of the Cochrane Incontinence Group. The Register contains trials identified from MEDLINE, CINAHL, The Cochrane Controlled Trials Register and handsearching of journals and conference proceedings. The date of the last search was November 2000. 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to acknowledge the secretarial assistance of Maria Treloar and Christine Cooper in the coordination and preparation of this Chapter. REFERENCES c) Bladder Retraining Reports of bladder retraining were obtained by searching MEDLINE and CINAHL from February 1966 to December 2000 using the following keywords which were linked to urinary incontinence and female: bladder, bladder training, behavior therapy, toileting, rehabilitation, therapy. In addition, the reference lists from Bladder Training for Urinary Incontinence in Adults ([149]Roe et al., 2000) published by the Cochrane 149 Database of Systematic Reviews and those from review articles [146],[147], 146 147 [148] 148 and retrieved manuscripts were cross-referenced. 1 Subak, L.L., Johnson, C., Whitcomb, E., Boban, D., Saxton, J. And Brown, J.S. Does weight loss improve incontinence in moderately obese women? Submitted for publication 2001. 2 Bump, R.C., Sugerman, J.H., Fantl, A. And McClish, D.M. Obesity and lower urinary tract function in women: effect of surgically induced weight loss. American journal of obstetrics & gynecology. 167 (2): 392-398, 1992. 3 Deitel, M., Stone, E., Kassam, H.A., Wilk, E.J. And Sutherland, D.J.A. Gynecologic-Obstetric changes after loss of massive excess weight following bariatric surgery. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 7 (2): 147-153, 1988. 4 Kolbl, H. And Riss, P. Obesity and genuine stress incontinence: significance of indices of relative weight. Urologia internationalis. 43: 7-10, 1988. 5 Brown, J.S., Grady, D., Ouslander, J.G., Herzog, A.R., Varner, R.D. And Posner, S.F. Prevalence of urinary incontinence and associated risk factors in postmenopausal women. Obstetric gynecology. 94: 66-70, 1999. 1. Prospective research design: randomized controlled or nonrandomized controlled trials. 6 2. Types of participants: noninstitutionalized women with stress, urge, and mixed incontinence without mental or physical impairments Rasmussen, K.L., Krue, S., Johansson, L.E., Knudsen, J.H.H. And Agger, A.O. Obesity as a predictor of postpartum urinary symptoms. Acta Obstetrica Gynecologica Scandinavica. 76: 359-362, 1997. 7 Wilson, P.D., Herbison, G.P., Glazener, C.M.A., Lang, G., Gee, H. And MacArthur, C. Postnatal incontinence: a multicentre, randomised controlled trial of conservative treatment (Abstract 5). Neururology & Urodynamics. 16 (5): 349-350, 1997. 8 Mommsen, S. And Foldspang, A. Body mass index and adult female urinary incontinence. World journal of urology. 12: 319-322, 1994. 9 Dwyer, P.L., Lee, E.T.C. And Hay, D.M. Obesity and urinary incontinence in women. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 95: 91-96, 1988. 10 Yarnell, J.W.G., Voyle, G.J., Sweetnam, P.M. And Milbank, J. Factors associated with urinary incontinence in women. Journal of epidemiology and community health. 36: 58-63, 1982. 11 Brown, J.S., Seeley, D.G., Fong, J., Black, D.M., Ensrud, K.E. And Grady, D. Urinary incontinence in older women: who is at risk? Obstetric gynecology. 87 (5): 715-721, 1996. 12 Thom, D.H., Van Den Eeden, S.K. And Brown, J.S. Evaluation of parturition and other reproductive variables as risk factors for urinary incontinence in later life. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 90: 983-999, 1997. 13 Foldspang, A. And Mommsen, S. Overweight and urinary incontinence in women. Ugeskrift for Laeger. 157: 5848-5851, 1995. 14 Samsioe, G., Heraib, F., Lidfeldt, J., Nerbrand, C., Lindhom, L., Inclusion/exclusion criteria To be considered for inclusion, studies had to meet the following criteria: 3. Type of intervention: Bladder retraining used in the management of urinary incontinence 4. Publication type: full published reports in English d) Anti-Incontinence devices Reports on anti-incontinence devices were obtained by searching MEDLINE 1980 to December 2000, and two abstracts from Cochrane as they were RCTÕs. 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