1. business and industrial
2. energy
3. nuclear power

Challenges and Issues Associated
with the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
for Sustainable Growth
of Nuclear Power
Frank CARRE
Scientific Director
Nuclear Energy Division of CEA (France)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop
May 26-27, 2015 - Cambridge MA USA
17 OCTOBRE 2012
Paris |17 octobre 2012
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Challenges & Issues for a Sustainable
Growth of Nuclear Power
Outline of session
1 – Outlook on nuclear growth today
2 – Conditions for a successful deployment of Gen-III LWRs
over the next decades
3 – Goals for Gen-IV nuclear systems and sustainability of
nuclear power
4 – Challenges and issues associated with the nuclear fuel cycle
5 – Comdemned to succeed
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Operating & Planned Nuclear Power Plants in the World
An Increasing World Nuclear Electricity Demand ...
117
3
126
3 2
6 2
24 25
21 6
2
23
21
5
1
48
7
9
16 …1
58 …1
GCC
70
125
7
15
43
UAE...0 …3
2
3
1
4 …2
19
…99 5
Belarus ..2
34
32
…2
9
439
70
170
~377 GWe Installed Nuclear Power today
~250 GWe PWRs, ~83 GWe BWRs, ~21 GWe PHWRs, ~11 GWe GCRs,
11 GWe LWGRs, 1 GWe FBRs 700 – 1000 GWe by 2050?
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Global Nuclear Construction Plans
Number
of reactors planned
10+
1-9
Might Build
Won’t Build
• 45 new builds in China (25), Russia (9), India (6) & Korea (5)
• 6 reactors in 3 newcomer countries: Belarus (2), Iran (1) &
UAE (3)
• 443 nuclear reactors operating in 30 countries (372 GWe)
• 66 reactors currently under construction in 15 countries
• 164 reactors planned in 27 countries over next 8-10 years
• 317 reactors proposed in 37 countries over next 15 years
• Spent fuel reprocessing:
- Industrial: France, UK
- Developing: Russia, India, Japan, China, Korea
• Fast Neutron Reactor Programs:
- Russia, India, Japan, France, USA, China, Korea
~ Source: IAEA information & news reports
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Nuclear Growth in the Coming Decades
• Most of the nuclear growth in the coming decades will happen in mature
nuclear countries that conduct R&D programs:
-
On spent fuel reprocessing and recycling
On Fast Neutron Reactors for managing Actinides (TRU) and achieving durable
nuclear power when Uranium becomes scarce and expensive
• Not all member countries of the Non Proliferation Treaty
• The safe and peaceful development of nuclear power will benefit from the
continued support from International Agencies (NEA & IAEA) and Atomic
Energy Communities (Euratom, ABACC…)
-
Information exchange on good practices and R&D issues
Safeguarding nuclear materials and facilities (IAEA, Euratom, ABACC…)
WNA, WANO, INRA, WENRA…
• Need for accompanying measures for nuclear newcomer countries to
implement the Framework & Infrastructures necessary for the safe and
efficient development of nuclear energy
-
IAEA Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR)
Other initiatives including some about securing nuclear materials
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Nuclear Energy International Outlook
• Drivers for nuclear growth
– Energy security
– Containing climate change
• Global prospects for nuclear growth (13% ~20% nuclear power in 2050)
2°C scenario: 390 GWe 930 GWe: + 12 GWe/y new nuclear capacity
(Joint IAE-NEA 2014 Technology Roadmap for Nuclear Energy (2050))
392 GWe ~620 GWe (+350 GWe – 150 GWe) in 2040 ( ~700 GWe in 2050)
(IAE 2014 World Energy Oulook – Central scenario)
• Contrasted national nuclear plans
– Japan: restart NRA approved NPPs 20-22% nuclear in 2030
– China, India, Korea, Russia: Dynamic nuclear growth
– Western world: nuclear Recovery? Revival ?
(but Germany, Switzerland, Italy)
• Gen III/Gen III+ reactors on the market: ABWR, ESBWR, AP1000, EPR, AES2006,
VVER1200, APR1400, APWR, ATMEA1, ACR1000, CANDU6, CAP1000...
• SMRs as potential game changers?
(NuScale, mPower, Westinghouse, SMART, Floating NPP, Holtec…)
• Towards enlarged nuclear missions for nuclear reactors?
(Variable electricity, Coupling with energy storage, District heating, Process heat, Hydrogen…)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Water-cooled Reactor Programs
Plant safety, Licensing & Regulatory Issues
Conditions for successful deployment
of GEN III/Gen III+ LWRs & HWRs
• Reliability & Safety
– Fukushima accident-proof design + Enhancement of Emergency preparedness
– Progress towards internationally harmonized design codes & safety standards, QA
• Security (Proliferation resistance, Physical protection…)
– Safeguarding by IAEA, Euratom…
– Export control of sensitive technologies
• Economics
– Competitiveness with other energy sources in spite of rising costs for Gen III reactors
– Adapted / customized funding schemes to favor investments in nuclear in a liberalized
energy market
– Reliability of nuclear industry (completion in time and cost…)
• Sustainability
– Minimization of waste burden Implementation of HLW repository in some countries
– Minimization of environmental impact
An integrated vision of Sustainability
that is a condition for public acceptance & government support
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Nuclear Security
• Nuclear power will be unable to gain the support it needs
for large-scale growth unless nuclear facilities and nuclear
stockpiles are seen to be safe and secure
• Effective security is a key enabling factor for nuclear energy,
just as safety is
• Nuclear nonproliferation cannot be reliably achieved if states or terrorists
groups might gain the means to a nuclear weapon or nuclear weapon material
PR&PP
Methodology
Control of nuclear materials
Physical properties
of nuclear materials
(n, γ, Pth, CM)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
• The Non-Proliferation Treaty
-
•
A balanced "three-pillar" system
-
•
Prevent the spread of nuclear weapons
and weapons technology
Promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of
nuclear energy
Further the goal of achieving nuclear
disarmament
Entered into force in 1970
Non-proliferation
Disarmament
The right to peacefully use nuclear
technology
A central bargain
"the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree
never to acquire nuclear weapons and the
NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange
agree to share the benefits of peaceful
nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear
disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination
of their nuclear arsenals"
900 facilities in 64 NPT countries
Recognized nuclear weapon state ratifiers
Recognized nuclear weapon state acceders
Other acceders or succeeders
Non-signatory (India, Israel, Pakistan, South-Sudan)
Other ratifiers
Withdrawn (North Korea)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Global Initiatives to Support Nuclear Deployment
Presidential initiatives of
the US & the Russian
Federation in 2006
Putine Initiative: Creation of a global infrastructure for
nuclear energy
Address non-proliferation issues at the level of States
Guaranteed services for the nuclear fuel cycle in dedicated international
Centres (enrichment, supply of Uranium fuel, retrieval of used fuel…)
Bush In initiative: Creation of a Global Nuclear Energy
Partnership (GNEP) IFNEC (> 2009)
Control of proliferation risks through leasing fresh nuclear fuel and retrieval of
used fuel by countries that have experience in the nuclear fuel cycle
Reprocessing of LWR fuel and recycling of actinides in fast neutron burners
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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GNEP – Reliable Fuel Service Model
International Centres of “Fuel Cycle Services”
International Standards for non-proliferation & safeguards
Processes possibly country-specific (waste, technologies…)
Expand nuclear energy while preventing spread of
sensitive fuel cycle technologies
Fuel Cycle Nations – Operate both nuclear power
plants and fuel cycle facilities
Reactor Nations – Operate only reactors, lease and
return fuel
• Exclusively Uranium as
fresh fuel
?
Q: Management of nuclear
spent fuel :
• Retrieval ?
• Local storage for an
indefinite period of time?
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Management of Spent Exported Nuclear Fuel
Retrieval or local storage?
Retrieval in an International Centre for Fuel
Cycle Services
Storage on National/Regional site
for an indefinite period of time
National regulations generally prohibit
retrieving nuclear waste (incl. spent nuclear
fuel) from other countries on the national
ground leasing nuclear fuel (EU…)
•
Need to create a national or a regional
interim storage of spent nuclear fuel
•
Need to plan for an end point for the spent
nuclear fuel
•
Some national or regional regulations
prohibit leasing nuclear fuel from other
countries (EU directive…)
•
•
Countries hosting an International Centre for
Fuel Cycle Services tend to restrict leasing
offers of nuclear fuel for reasons of public
acceptance
•
Issues associated with the transport of
nuclear materials
•
Risk of creating a « mine » of TRU materials
that could progressively escape the contol of
user nations
Effectiveness of instrumentation to monitor
the site ? Calls for long term monitoring measures
Need for an inter-governmental framework for securing the circulation & use
of nuclear materials worldwide through appropriate safeguarding measures
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Cooperative Approaches
to the Back-end of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Other Issues and Impediments
• Variety of national legislative frameworks
-
International agreements / national laws for managing nuclear materials
Transfer of responsibilities
Transboundary shipments
• Public perception / acceptance
• Sentiment of lack of urgency to implement end points for spent nuclear fuel
(SNF) or high level waste (HLW)
• Newcomer countries tend to favor leasing nuclear fuels or regional interim
storage facilities
Q: Possibility of transferring to another State, the responsibility of spent nuclear fuel
management?
Q: Would the exporting country retain an obligation to assure that the SNF is
managed responsibly regardless of the terms of any specific arrangement?
Q: Does the exporting country need to be prepared to accept the return of SNF in case of
changes in national laws of the receiving country?
• New forms of contracts: Build Own Operate Projects
(Akkuyu project in Turkey…)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Deployment of Gen-III LWRs – Summary
Initiatives to support Gen-III LWR builds worldwide
700 – 1000 GWe in 2050 ?
Give evidence of fully learning lessons from Fukushima tsunami
Progress towards harmonized safety regulations
(IAEA, MDEP & Cordel, WENRA, …)
Implement safeguarded international fuel cycle services for nuclear fuel
supply and management of spent fuels
Implement national strategies for high level radioactive waste geological
repository (country-dependent timeline)
Integrate nuclear, renewable and other low carbon energies in symbiotic
fleets for electricity generation
( Requirements for storage & smart grid technologies)
Develop non-electricity LWR applications
(District heating, H2, hydrocarbon fuels, chemical products…)
Assess in more details the commercial viability of SMRs
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Generation IV International Forum: Six Systems for R&D
GIF Selection of six Nuclear Systems
Closed fuel cycle
Sodium Fast Reactor
Closed fuel cycle
Lead Fast Reactor
Closed fuel cycle
Gas Fast Reactor
Open fuel cycle
Very High Temperature Reactor
Open/Closed fuel cycle
Super Critical Water Reactor
Closed fuel cycle
Molten Salt Reactor
The recognition of the major potential of fast neutron systems with closed fuel cycle for
breeding (fissile re-generation) and waste minimization (minor actinide burning)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Utilization of Uranium Ore for 1 GWe x Year
Open fuel cycle in LWRs
200 tons
Unat
E
20 tons
U 5%
180 tons
Udep
R
1 t W + PF
0.2 t Pu
18.8 ton Urep
Fast neutron reactors need only 1 ton
ton U
U 238
238 (Udep & Urep)
that is converted into plutonium and recycled as fissile fuel
(Regeneration Breeding of fissile fuel)
Udep generated by a LWR over a 50 year lifetime is worth
> 5000 years of the same power output with fast reactors
World Nuclear University Summer Institute, Oxford University - July 10, 2013
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Durability of Uranium Resource
200 t U/GWe.y
Conventional Uranium resource
~1 t U/GWe.y
~2000 GWe
Source: “A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems”, December 2002
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Boston, 14-18 February 2008 – AAAS Annual Meeting
18
Options for management of domestic SNF
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
| PAGE 18
63 GWe PWR Fleet & Nuclear Fuel Cycle in France
Mines
Natural
Uranium
Concentration
Conversion
Enrichment
© CEA
Reprocessed Uranium
Storage
Vitrified
HLW
Compacted
MLW
Interim
Ultimate
storage
waste
FP & MA
Depleted
Uranium
Plutonium
Fabrication
of UOx fuel
Fabrication
Of MOX fuel
FMA-VC
Used fuel
Used fuel
reprocessing
plant
Interim
storage
Used MOX
58 PWRs
~63 GWe
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Global Actinide Management in LWRs & Fast Reactors
Minimizing Waste with Advanced Actinide Recycling
Plutonium is the major contributor to the
long term radiotoxicity of spent fuel
Plutonium has a high energetic potential
Plutonium recycling
Relative radio toxicity
Radiotoxicity after 1000 years
MA +
FP
Pu+
MA +
FP
Plutonium
recycling
Plutonium
Spent Fuel
No reprocesisng
Minor actinides (MA)
UraniumOre (mine)
300 y
P&T of MA
10 000 y
250 000 y
Fission Products (FP)
FP
Time (years)
After plutonium, MA have the major
impact to the long term radiotoxicity
MA transmutation
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Management of Spent
National & Exported Nuclear Fuel
Burn of Bury?
Recycle & Burn
in safeguarded facilities
of mature NTP member countries
or International Fuel Cycle Centres
Drastic reduction of HLW in volume,
radiotoxicity & decay heat
• Additional cost associated with
reprocessing and recycle?
<10% of generating cost in France
•
•
Risks associated with SNF partitioning and
recycle & long term control?
Co-management of UPu or TRU
Instrumentation to detect diversion of nuclear mat.
•
Burry in National or Regional
local geological repositories
•
More demanding storage conditions for
SNF than for vitrified HLW in terms of
volume (x5), decay heat (x10) and
radiotoxicity (x100)
•
Creating potential mines of concentrated
TRU materials with decreasing self
protection provided by radiation
Returning vitrified high level waste to
nuclear user countries?
The experience of France in SNF reprocessing and recycling
contributes to international reflections on the subject
and help go beyond just the commercial dimension
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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World Experience in Sodium Fast Neutron Reactors
United States
- EBR-1 1951
- EBR-II (20 MWe) 1963 1994
- FFTF (400 MWth) 1980 2000
- Clinch River Project cancelled 1983
+ R&D on fuel cycle
+ Strategy under development
Europe (France, Germany & UK)
- Rapsodie (20 MWth) 1967 1983
- DDFR (60 MWth), KNK II (17 MWe) 1978 1991
- Phenix (250 MWth) 1973 2009
- PFR (250 MWe) 1975 1994, SNR300
- Superphenix (1200 MWe) 1986 1998
+ Industrial nuclear fuel cycle in France & the UK
+ R&D on closed nuclear fuel cycle
Russian Federation
- BOR-60 (60 MWth)
- BN350 (90 MWth) 1973 1999
- BN600 (600 MWth) 1980 - BN800 (800 MWth) 2015 + Developing closed nuclear fuel cycle
Japan
- Joyo (140 MWth)
- Monju (280 MWth) 1994 + Developing closed
fuel cycle
Rep. of Korea
- R&D on reactor
& closed fuel cycle
India
- FBTR (40 MWth) 1985 - PFBR (500 MWe) 2015 + Developing closed fuel cycle
Rep. of China
- CRDF (25 MWe) 2010 + Developing closed fuel cycle
GNEP: a strategy to enable expansion of nuclear power in the
U.S. and around the world, promote nuclear nonproliferation
goals, and help resolve nuclear waste disposal issues
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Comparison of Options for the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Once-Through in LWRs & FNRs vs Full Recycle in FNRs
Utilization
of
Uranium
Once-Through
Cycle in LWRs
Once-Through
Cycle in FNRs
(TWR)
Full Recycle
in FNRs
0.5%
Sensitive
Technologies
~40t Unat
/GWe/y
> 80%
~1t Unat/dep
/GWe/y
Possible
counter
measures
Comments
• Little sustainable in the
long term
• Enrichment
LEU
• Large amount
of SNF
• SNF storage
= Potential
mine of TRU
• Safeguards
• Enrichment
LEU
• Future of SNF?
Mine of TRU?
• Safeguards
~200t Unat
/GWe/y
~2%
Sensitive
Issues
• Instrumentation
• Instrumentation
• SNF
Processing &
Separation
technologies
• Safeguards
• TRU Fuel fab.
• On reactor-site
SNF processing?
• Instrumentation
• Grouped mgt
of Actinides
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
Sustainable
in the long
term
| PAGE 23
Phased Development of Reactor & Fuel Cycle
International
/ National
Gen IV
U + Pu
+ MA ?
> 2040
Past experience / Time line
Legacy of current LWR fleet
Gen II-III
∼ 2025 ??
U
FP only
U + Pu
1990
U
FP + MA
Safety standards / Codification
Non-proliferation standards
+ Physical protection, Safeguards…
Utilization of fissile resource
Ultimate waste form
Preferred technology
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Deployment of Fast Neutron Reactors - Summary
FNRs with a closed fuel cycle
A vision of sustainable nuclear power and an institutional priority for Uraniumpoor nuclear countries: effective utilization of 238U as Pu and minimization of
HLW radwaste + Considered for Actinide management in the medium term
A vision of TRU burner for HLW minimization in Uranium-rich countries.
Deployment limited to mature NPT member countries in their own nuclear
generating fleet and also in the international fuel cycle service centers they
may host
Take benefit from international collaboration to advance alternative types of
FNRs to sodium fast reactors: Gas-FNR, Lead-FNR…
Country-dependent strategies to transition from LWRs to FNRs with closed fuel
cycles
Best available technologies & Closed fuel cycle demos to build consensus on
advisable options for future nuclear fuel cycles (U-utilisation, Waste, Nonproliferation…)
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Game Changers
for Sustainable Nuclear Growth?
TWR: A reactor for initiating the deployment of FNRs
in a NTP member country without fuel cycle industry?
Traveling Wave Reactor
Transportable sealed & retrievable SMR with a
long lifetime: An option for moderately reliable
/stable newcomer nuclear countries?
Integral Fast Reactor
Colocated Reactor
& Recycle Facility
Nuclear systems
with reactor &
recycle facilities
recycled: IFR?
MSFR?...
From fresh fuel
to ultimate
waste on the
same site?
Molten Salt Fast Reactor
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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Challenges & Issues for a Sustainable
Growth of Nuclear Power
Summary and Perspectives
Nuclear energy is a vital component of the world energy mix
Most of the growth anticipated in mature nuclear countries but not all NTP members
Pursue the application of international safeguards & security measures
Make the commercialization of Gen-III LWRs a success
Towards harmonized safety regulations and secured services for nuclear fuel supply &
management of used fuels: Retrieval or Local storage?
Develop sustainable Gen-IV Fast Neutron Reactors & Fuel Cycle
Fast neutron reactors with a closed fuel cycle (UPu + MA?)
Durability of nuclear production & Mitigation of long term radwaste burden
Deployment limited to NPT members that possess the complete nuclear fuel cycle for use
in their own reactor fleet or in hosted International Fuel Cycle Centers
Advance R&D and demonstrations on safe and secure SNF recycle technologies
Take best benefit from today’s best available technologies
Proceed with international demonstrations (GACID in Gen-IV Intal Forum)
Spur innovation and look for game changers
Stakes in international collaboration (IAEA, Inter-Gov. Agreements, Gen-IV Intal Forum…)
To share cost of R&D and large demonstrations (recycling, cogeneration…)
To progress towards harmonized international standards (safety, security…)
To establish an intergovernmental framework for securing the circulation and use of
nuclear materials worldwide through appropriate safeguarding measures
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
Frank Carré – Scientific Director
Nuclear Energy Division
French Alternative Energies
and Atomic Energy Commission
Frank Carré graduated from the French Engineering School Ecole Centrale Paris in 1974
and obtained a Master’s Degree in MIT’s Nuclear Science and Engineering Department in
1975. He joined CEA in 1976 and contributed through varied managerial positions to
studies on advanced nuclear systems. From 2001 to 2009 he acted as Program Director
for Future Nuclear Energy Systems and contributed to shape national R&D programs and
international collaborations on fast neutron reactors with advanced fuel cycles and high
temperature reactors for the cogeneration of process heat and hydrogen. Since August
2009 he is Scientific Director of CEA's Nuclear Energy Division and holds a Lecturing and
Research Chair on “Sustainable Energies” at the Ecole Polytechnique. Since 2012, he is
also appointed as a Scientific Counsellor to the High Commissioner for Atomic Energy.
Zero-Carbon Energy Economy Workshop – MIT-CANES – May 26-27, 2015 Cambridge (MA) USA
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