1. No category

Preparing for the Physics GRE:
Day 3
Thermodynamics
Daniel T. Citron
[email protected]
3/18/15
http://greprep.dtcitron.com
Heat Exchange
•  Heat is energy exchanged between
the system and the reservoir it is
coupled to
•  Heat has units of energy: [Q]= J
•  Temperature is a completely
different parameter
•  Heat capacity is the amount of
energy required to raise the system
temperature: [C] = J/K
st
1
Law of Thermodynamics
•  Equivalent to Conservation of Energy:
•  Change in system internal energy is equal to the heat input minus
the work done by the system:
•  Heat exchange definition:
•  Work done by the system on surroundings:
•  J and x are “conjugate variables” with [Jx] = Energy
•  J is generalized force, x is generalized displacement
•  Ex: P and V; µ and N; H and M
•  So the 1st law becomes
•  Example:
•  Ideal gas in contact with heat bath and particle reservoir:
1st Law: Manipulating Differentials
• 
• 
• 
• 
The trick for many problems is manipulating differentials
(Probably do not need to memorize all the Maxwell relations)
Use dimensional analysis
Check: what are you keeping constant?
•  For example, use the first law
to recover the formal definition
of temperature
1st Law: Manipulating Differentials
•  Another example: what is the difference between heat
capacities CP and CV?
1st Law: Manipulating Differentials
•  Holding V constant, dV = 0
•  Holding P constant, there’s an extra
term from PdV ≠ 0
•  From intuition:
(B): this would mean CP=CV
(C): ?
(D): ideal gas energy depends on T only
(E): (begging the question)
st
1
Law: Ideal Gas Processes
5. A three-dimensional harmonic oscillator is in
thermal equilibrium with a temperature reservoir
at temperature T. The average total energy of the
•  Isotherms
oscillator is in P-V state space
1
• (A)Holding
T constant, the Ideal Gas Law tells us PV = Constant
kT
2
•  Adiabats in P-V state space
(B) kT
•  Integrate:
nCVdT = -PdV = nRTdV/V
3
kT
(C)
•  We2 use γ = CP/CV
• (D)=>3kT
PVγ = Constant
(E) example
6kT
•  An
problem:
6. An ideal monatomic gas expands quasi-statically
to twice its volume. If the process is isothermal,
the work done by the gas is Wi . If the process
is adiabatic, the work done by the gas is Wa .
Which of the following is true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Wi = Wa
0 = Wi <
0 < Wi <
0 = Wa <
0 < Wa <
7. Two long, identical bar magnets are placed under
a horizontal piece of paper, as shown in the figure
above. The paper is covered with iron filings.
(An$addi(onal$example)$
When the two north poles are a small distance
apart and touching the paper, the iron filings
move into a pattern that shows the magnetic field
lines. Which of the following best illustrates the
pattern that results?
(A)
(B)
Wa
Wa
Wi
Wi
(C)
44
(B) kT
(C)
3
kT
2
(D) 3kT
st
16kT Law:
(E)
Ideal Gas Processes
6. An ideal monatomic gas expands quasi-statically
to twice its volume. If the process is isothermal,
the work done by the gas is Wi . If the process
is adiabatic, the work done by the gas is Wa .
Which of the following is true?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Wi = Wa
0 = Wi <
0 < Wi <
0 = Wa <
0 < Wa <
Wa
Wa
Wi
Wi
7. Two long, identical bar magnets are placed under
a horizontal piece of paper, as shown in the figure
above. The paper is covered with iron filings.
When the two north poles are a small distance
apart and touching the paper, the iron filings
move into a pattern that shows the magnetic field
lines. Which of the following best illustrates the
pattern that results?
(A)
•  Isotherms:
PV = Constant
(B)
•  Adiabats: PVγ = Constant
(C)
(D)
(E)
h1p://www.physicsgrad.com/pgre/0177>6$
Ideal Gas Processes
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
Isochoric: V is constant dV = 0
Isobaric: P is constant dP = 0
Isothermal: T is constant dT = 0
Adiabatic: no heat exchange dQ = 0
NB: U of an ideal gas depends only on temperature
Process'
ΔQ'
ΔW'
ΔU=ΔQ-ΔW'
Isochoric
nCVΔT
0
nCVΔT
Isobaric
nCPΔT
PΔV=nRΔT
nCPΔT – nRΔT
= nCVΔT
Isothermal
Q=W
=nRTlog(V2/V1)
nRTlog(V2/V1)
0, ΔU~ΔT
Adiabatic
0
ΔU = -ΔW
= - nCVΔT
nCVΔT
Entropy in Thermodynamics
•  Formal definition of temperature given by the following (at
equilibrium, holding all other parameters constant)
•  Recall: relation between heat exchange and entropy
Entropy in Thermodynamics
•  Formal definition of temperature given by the following (at
equilibrium, holding all other parameters constant)
•  Recall: relation between heat exchange and entropy
•$What$is$the$change$in$heat?$
$
$
•$What$is$the$total$change$in$entropy?$
Engine Cycles
•  Imagine a box of gas subject to
a series of changes in pressure,
temperature, volume, etc
•  Draw the series of changes as
a trajectory in the P-V plane
•  Gas internal energy depends
on T only:
•  If it returns to original state, no
net change in energy
•  Work done is the area enclosed
by the cycle
•  Heat exchange with
environment = Work done
Engine Cycles
•  Total change in energy during
one cycle?
•  Use 1st Law: Q = W
•  Area under isotherm:
•  Area under isobar:
•  Subtract to find net work done
and net heat exchange
Engine Cycles - Efficiency
•  Engine efficiency = (work done by
the system during one cycle)/(heat
extracted from the hot reservoir)
•  e = Wcycle/|QH|
•  Carnot cycle: eCarnot = 1-TC/TH
•  Carnot cycle
•  Most efficient possible engine cycle
•  Zero entropy change
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
•  Many ways to state:
•  Work must be done to transfer heat
from a colder body to a hotter
body
•  Heat energy cannot be converted
into work with perfect efficiency
•  For any thermodynamic process,
the net change in entropy must be
greater than or equal to zero
•  Colloquially, “entropy always
increases”
3rd Law of Thermodynamics
•  Cannot cool system to 0 K in a finite number of steps
•  Nernst’s Theorem:
•  At 0 temperature, any system’s entropy is 0. We take this to be a
universal constant.
•  (Experimentally verified as well)
Free Expansion of Ideal Gas
•  N molecules of an ideal gas all occupy the left half of a
thermally insulated box, while the right half is empty
•  We remove the barrier and allow the gas to fill the whole box
•  What happens to the gas’s temperature?
•  What happens to the gas’s entropy?
Free Expansion of Ideal Gas
•  N molecules of an ideal gas all occupy the left half of a
thermally insulated box, while the right half is empty
•  We remove the barrier and allow the gas to fill the whole box
•  What happens to the gas’s temperature?
•  Stays constant
•  Microscopically, no change in kinetic energy of the gas molecules
•  Macroscopically, U = U(T) for ideal gas, and U does not change
•  What happens to the gas’s entropy?
•  Increases
•  Free expansion is a spontaneous and irreversible process
•  Entropy is extensive
Van der Waals Gas
•  Real gas molecules locally repel one another
•  Van der Waals proposed new model that accounted for
excluded volume of molecules
•  New parameters:
a
p
V b
RT
•  a: intermolecular attraction
•  b: excluded volume
•  Less accurate at lower T
•  Predicts negative dV/dP
V2
79. Consider 1 mole of a real gas that obeys the van der Waals
equation of state shown above. If the gas undergoes an
isothermal expansion at temperature T0 from volume V1 to
volume V2 , which of the following gives the work done by
the gas?
(A) 0
(B) RT0 ln
V2
V1
(C) RT0 ln
V2
V1
b
b
(D) RT0 ln
V2
V1
b
b
(E) RT0
a
1
V2
1
V2
1
V1
1
b
2
V1
b
2
a
1
V23
80. A 1 kg block attached to a spring vibrates with
1
V13
Phase Transitions
•  A qualitative change in the properties of matter
•  Liquid-solid, gas-liquid, paramagnet-ferromagnet
•  (More abstractly, change in system symmetries)
•  Example below
•  Phase diagram for liquid-gas transition in VDW gas
Phase Transitions
•  Some phase transitions are
characterized by divergences in
measurable properties
•  1st order transition:
•  Sudden discontinuous change in system
properties
•  2nd order transition:
•  Continuous change in system properties
•  Discontinuity in derivative
Thermodynamics Summary
•  1st Law of Thermodynamics
•  Manipulating Differentials
•  Ideal Gas Processes
•  Engine Cycles
•  2nd Law of Thermodynamics
•  Entropy
•  Additional Topics
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• 
• 
• 
• 
Thermodynamic potentials – Gibbs, Enthalpy, Helmholtz
Engine efficiency
3rd Law of Thermodynamics
Van der Waals Gas
Phase Transitions