Computer crime
Computer crime, or cybercrime, is any crime that involves a computer and a network.[1] The computer may
have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may
be the target.[2] Netcrime is criminal exploitation of the
Internet.[3] Dr. Debarati Halder and Dr. K. Jaishankar
(2011) deﬁne Cybercrimes as: “Oﬀences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with
a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of
the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice
boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)".[4]
Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and ﬁnancial health.[5] Issues surrounding these types of crimes
have become high-proﬁle, particularly those surrounding
hacking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and
child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when
conﬁdential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise.
result in obtaining a beneﬁt by:
• Altering in an unauthorized way. This requires little
technical expertise and is common form of theft by
employees altering the data before entry or entering
false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions
or using unauthorized processes;
• Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output,
usually to conceal unauthorized transactions. This is
diﬃcult to detect;
• Altering or deleting stored data;
•
Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer
systems, including bank fraud, identity theft, extortion,
and theft of classiﬁed information.
A variety of internet scams many based on what is called
Phishing as well as Social Engineering target direct to
An Australian nationwide survey conducted in 2006
consumers, however, businesses are also susceptible to
found that two in three convicted cyber-criminals were
these scams.
between the ages of 15 and 26.
Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors
engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, ﬁnancial
theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least
one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyber warfare.
The international legal system is attempting to hold actors
accountable for their actions through the International
Criminal Court.[6]
1.2 Cyber terrorism
Main article: Cyber terrorism
Government oﬃcials and Information Technology security specialists have documented a signiﬁcant increase
in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001.
But there is a growing concern among federal oﬃcials
that such intrusions are part of an organized eﬀort by
cyberterrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other
groups to map potential security holes in critical systems.
A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a
government or organization to advance his or her political
or social objectives by launching a computer-based attack
against computers, networks, or the information stored on
them.
A report (sponsored by McAfee) estimates the annual
damage to the global economy at $445 billion;[7] however, a Microsoft report shows that such survey-based estimates are “hopelessly ﬂawed” and exaggerate the true
losses by orders of magnitude.[8] Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud
in the US.[9]
1
Classiﬁcation
Cyber terrorism in general, can be deﬁned as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks
during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. As
well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks,
tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power,
collecting information relevant for ruining peoples’ lives,
robberies, blackmailing etc.[10]
Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities.
1.1
Fraud and ﬁnancial crimes
Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact
intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss. In this context, the fraud will
1
2
1.3
1
CLASSIFICATION
Cyber extortion
tors. These crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have - which exCyberextortion is in which a website, e-mail server, or plains how unprepared society and the world in general
computer system is subjected to repeated denial of ser- is towards combating these crimes. There are numerous
vice or other attacks by malicious hackers, who demand crimes of this nature committed daily on the internet:
money in return for promising to stop the attacks. AcCrimes that primarily target computer networks or decording to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cyberex- vices include:
tortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites
and networks, crippling their ability to operate and de• Computer viruses
manding payments to restore their service. More than 20
cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go
• Denial-of-service attacks
unreported in order to keep the victim’s name out of the
public domain. Perpetrators typically use a distributed
• Malware (malicious code)
denial-of-service attack.[11]
An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pic1.6
tures of 2014.
1.4
Cyber warfare
Computer as a tool
When the individual is the main target of cybercrime,
the computer can be considered as the tool rather than
the target. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise. Human weaknesses are generally exploited.
The damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible,
making legal action against the variants more diﬃcult.
These are the crimes which have existed for centuries in
the oﬄine world. Scams, theft, and the likes have existed even before the development in high-tech equipment. The same criminal has simply been given a tool
which increases his potential pool of victims and makes
him all the harder to trace and apprehend.[13]
Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance
other ends include:
Sailors analyze, detect and defensively respond to unauthorized
activity within U.S. Navy information systems and computer networks
• Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly
uses malware, hacking and/or phishing, making it
an example of both “computer as target” and “computer as tool” crime)
Main article: Cyber warfare
• Information warfare
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) notes that
the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern
through several recent events of geo-strategic signiﬁcance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonia's
infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. “In
August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic
and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia.
Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future
warfare among nation-states, the concept of cyberspace
operations impacts and will be adapted by warﬁghting
military commanders in the future.[12]
1.5
• Phishing scams
• Spam
• Propagation of illegal obscene or oﬀensive content,
including harassment and threats
The unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial
purposes (spam) is unlawful in some jurisdictions.
Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails
may contain links to other websites that are aﬀected by
malware.[14] Or, they may contain links to fake online
banking or other websites used to steal private account
information.
Computer as a target
1.6.1 Obscene or oﬀensive content
These crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these The content of websites and other electronic communicacrimes requires the technical knowledge of the perpetra- tions may be distasteful, obscene or oﬀensive for a variety
3
of reasons. In some instances these communications may Threats
be legal.
Main article: Intimidation
Over 25 jurisdictions within the USA place limits on certain speech and ban racist, blasphemous, politically sub- Although freedom of speech is protected by law in most
versive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or inﬂammatory democratic societies (in the US this is done by the First
material that tends to incite hate crimes.
Amendment), it does not include all types of speech. In
fact spoken or written “true threat” speech/text is criminalized because of “intent to harm or intimidate”, that
also applies for online or any type of network related
threats in written text or speech.[19] The US Supreme
Court deﬁnition of “true threat” is “statements where the
One area of Internet pornography that has been the target
speaker means to communicate a serious expression of an
of the strongest eﬀorts at curtailment is child pornograintent to commit an act of unlawful violence to a particphy.
ular individual or group”.[19]
The extent to which these communications are unlawful
varies greatly between countries, and even within nations.
It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.
1.6.2 Drug traﬃcking
Harassment Whereas content may be oﬀensive in
a non-speciﬁc way, harassment directs obscenities and
derogatory comments at speciﬁc individuals focusing for
example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyberbullying, cyberstalking, hate crime, online
predator, and stalking). Any comment that may be found
derogatory or oﬀensive is considered harassment.
“Drug traﬃckers are increasingly taking advantage of the
Internet” according to cyber authorities and personnel. to
sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and
other Internet Technology. Some drug traﬃckers arrange
deals at internet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines
in restricted-access chat rooms. The deep web site Silk
Road was a major online marketplace for drugs before it
There are instances where committing a crime, which in- was shut down by law enforcement (then reopened under
volves the use of a computer, can lead to an enhanced new management, and then shut down by law enforcesentence. For example, in the case of United States ment again).
v. Neil Scott Kramer, Kramer was served an enhanced The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to
sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines the lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exManual §2G1.3(b)(3)[15] for his use of a cell phone to changes allow more intimidated individuals to more com“persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel fortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy eﬀects that
of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct.” are often associated with drug trades are severely miniKramer argued that this claim was insuﬃcient because mized and the ﬁltering process that comes with physical
his charge included persuading through a computer de- interaction fades away.
vice and his cellular phone technically is not a computer.
Although Kramer tried to argue this point, U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term computer 2 Documented cases
“means an electronic, magnetic, optical, electrochemical,
or other high speed data processing device performing
logical, arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes One of the highest proﬁled banking computer crime ocany data storage facility or communications facility di- curred during a course of three years beginning in 1970.
rectly related to or operating in conjunction with such The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of New York’s
Union Dime Savings Bank embezzled over $1.5 million
device.”[16]
from hundreds of accounts.[20]
Connecticut was the ﬁrst state to pass a statute making
it a criminal oﬀense to harass someone by computer. A hacking group called MOD (Masters of Deception),
Michigan, Arizona, and Virginia have also passed laws allegedly stole passwords and technical data from Paciﬁc
Bell, Nynex, and other telephone companies as well
banning harassment by electronic means.[17][18]
as several big credit agencies and two major universiHarassment as deﬁned in the U.S. computer statutes is ties. The damage caused was extensive, one company,
typically distinct from cyberbullying, in that the former Southwestern Bell suﬀered losses of $370,000 alone.[20]
usually relates to a person’s “use a computer or computer
network to communicate obscene, vulgar, profane, lewd, In 1983, a nineteen-year-old UCLA student used his PC
Department international comlascivious, or indecent language, or make any suggestion to break into a Defense
[20]
munications
system.
or proposal of an obscene nature, or threaten any illegal or
immoral act,” while the latter need not involve anything Between 1995 and 1998 the Newscorp satellite pay to
view encrypted SKY-TV service was hacked several
of a sexual nature.
4
times during an ongoing technological arms race between
a pan-European hacking group and Newscorp. The original motivation of the hackers was to watch Star Trek reruns in Germany; which was something which Newscorp
did not have the copyright to allow.[21]
On 26 March 1999, the Melissa worm infected a document on a victim’s computer, then automatically sent that
document and a copy of the virus spread via e-mail to
other people.
In February 2000, an individual going by the alias of
MaﬁaBoy began a series denial-of-service attacks against
high proﬁle websites, including Yahoo!, Amazon.com,
Dell, Inc., E*TRADE, eBay, and CNN. About ﬁfty computers at Stanford University, and also computers at the
University of California at Santa Barbara, were amongst
the zombie computers sending pings in DDoS attacks.
On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged
MaﬁaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers,
plus a total of ten counts of mischief to data for his attacks.
The Russian Business Network (RBN) was registered as
an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was
legitimate. But apparently the founders soon discovered
that it was more proﬁtable to host illegitimate activities
and started hiring its services to criminals. The RBN
has been described by VeriSign as “the baddest of the
bad”.[22] It oﬀers web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities,
with an individual activities earning up to $150 million in
one year. It specialized in and in some cases monopolized
personal identity theft for resale. It is the originator of
MPack and an alleged operator of the now defunct Storm
botnet.
On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators arrested 3 in infection of over 13 million computers around the world.
The “botnet” of infected computers included PCs inside
more than half of the Fortune 1000 companies and more
than 40 major banks, according to investigators.
In August 2010 the international investigation Operation
Delego, operating under the aegis of the Department
of Homeland Security, shut down the international
pedophile ring Dreamboard. The website had approximately 600 members, and may have distributed up to
123 terabytes of child pornography (roughly equivalent
to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is the single largest U.S.
prosecution of an international child pornography ring;
52 arrests were made worldwide.[23]
3 COMBATING COMPUTER CRIME
In June 2012 LinkedIn and eHarmony were attacked,
compromising 65 million password hashes. 30,000 passwords were cracked and 1.5 million EHarmony passwords were posted online.[24]
December 2012 Wells Fargo website experienced a denial of service attack. Potentially compromising 70 million customers and 8.5 million active viewers. Other
banks thought to be compromised: Bank of America, J.
P. Morgan U.S. Bank, and PNC Financial Services.[25]
In January 2012 Zappos.com experienced a security
breach after as many as 24 million customers’ credit card
numbers, personal information, billing and shipping addresses had been compromised.[26]
April 23, 2013 saw the Associated Press’ Twitter account’s hacking to release a hoax tweet about ﬁctional
attacks in the White House that left President Obama
injured.[27] This erroneous tweet resulted in a brief plunge
of 130 points from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, removal of $136 billion from S&P 500 index,[28] and the
temporary suspension of their Twitter account. The Dow
Jones later restored its session gains.
3 Combating computer crime
3.1 Diﬀusion of Cybercrime
The broad diﬀusion of cybercriminal activities is an issue in computer crimes detection and prosecution. According to Jean-Loup Richet (Research Fellow at ESSEC
ISIS), technical expertise and accessibility no longer act
as barriers to entry into cybercrime.[29] Indeed, hacking is
much less complex than it was a few years ago, as hacking communities have greatly diﬀused their knowledge
through the Internet. Blogs and communities have hugely
contributed to information sharing: beginners could beneﬁt from older hackers’ knowledge and advice. Furthermore, Hacking is cheaper than ever: before the cloud
computing era, in order to spam one needed a dedicated
server, skills in server management, network conﬁguration and maintenance, knowledge of Internet service
provider standards, etc. By comparison, a mail softwareas-a-service is a scalable, inexpensive, bulk, and transactional e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes and
could be easily set up for spam.[30] Jean-Loup Richet explains that cloud computing could be helpful for a cybercriminal as a way to leverage his attack - brute-forcing a
password, improve the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a
spamming campaign.[31]
On March 1, 2011 at Lassiter High School, two students
were accused of impersonation of a staﬀ member via cybercrime, but both claimed they were uninvolved. The
oﬀense was made a felony in the Cobb County School
District two months after the impersonation had hap- 3.2 Investigation
pened. Shortly afterwards, the head of the LHS School
Board said “The teacher just wouldn't do this at all”. The A computer can be a source of evidence (see digital forencase ended on May 9, and no evidence was found.
sics). Even where a computer is not directly used for
criminal purposes, it may contain records of value to
5
criminal investigators in the form of a logﬁle. In most
countries Internet Service Providers are required, by law,
to keep their logﬁles for a predetermined amount of time.
For example; a European wide directive[32] (applicable to
all EU member states) states that all E-mail traﬃc should
be retained for a minimum of 12 months.
• Internet stalking
• Internet suicide
• Internet War
• INTERPOL
• Legal aspects of computing
3.3
Penalties
• List of computer criminals
Penalties for computer related crimes in New York State
can range from a ﬁne and a short period of jail time for
a Class A misdemeanor such as unauthorized use of a
computer up to computer tampering in the ﬁrst degree
which is a Class C felony and can carry 3 to 15 years in
prison.[33][34]
• Metasploit Project
However, some hackers have been hired as information
security experts by private companies due to their inside knowledge of computer crime, a phenomenon which
theoretically could create perverse incentives. A possible counter to this is for courts to ban convicted hackers from using the internet or computers, even after they
have been released from prison – though as computers and the internet become more and more central to
everyday life, this type of punishment may be viewed
as more and more harsh and draconian. However, nuanced approaches have been developed that manage cyber oﬀender behavior without resorting to total computer and/or Internet bans.[35] These approaches involve
restricting individuals to speciﬁc devices which are subject to computer monitoring and/or computer searches by
probation and/or parole oﬃcers.[36]
• Personal Jurisdiction over International Defendants
in US Courts
4
See also
• Online predator
• Organized crime
• Penetration test
• Police National E-Crime Unit
• Protected computer
• Techno-thriller
• United States Secret Service
• White collar crime
5 References
[1] Moore, R. (2005) “Cyber crime: Investigating HighTechnology Computer Crime,” Cleveland, Mississippi:
Anderson Publishing.
[2] Warren G. Kruse, Jay G. Heiser (2002). Computer forensics: incident response essentials. Addison-Wesley. p.
392. ISBN 0-201-70719-5.
• Computer trespass
[3] David Mann And Mike Sutton (2011-11-06).
“Netcrime”. Bjc.oxfordjournals.org. Retrieved 2011-1110.
• Cyber-
[4]
• Cyber bullying
• Cyber defamation law
• Cyberheist
• Cyber terrorism
• Economic and Industrial Espionage
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
• Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2011) Cyber crime
and the Victimization of Women: Laws, Rights,
and Regulations. Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global.
ISBN 978-1-60960-830-9
[5] Internet Security Systems. March-2005.
[6] “Cyber Warfare And The Crime Of Aggression: The
Need For Individual Accountability On Tomorrow’S Battleﬁeld”. Law.duke.edu. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[7] “Cyber crime costs global economy $445 billion a year:
report”. Reuters. 2014-06-09. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
• Hacking
[8] “Sex, Lies and Cybercrime Surveys” (PDF). Microsoft.
2011-06-15. Retrieved 2015-03-11.
• Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
[9] http://northdenvernews.com/cybercrime-costs-victims/
• Internet homicide
[10] “Future Crimes”. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
6
6 FURTHER READING
[11] http://www.ere-security.ca/PDF/Cyberextortion%
20by%20DoS,%20Risk%20Magazine%20June%
202006.pdf
[32] Data Retention (EC Directive) Regulations SI 2007/2199
[12] http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/War%
20is%20War%20Issue%20Paper%20Final2.pdf
[34] Computer fraud charges in New York. May 2011. Bukh
Law Firm, PC - 14 Wall St, New York NY 10005 - (212)
729-1632. New York computer fraud lawyer
[33] Kenniﬀ, Raiser. “New York Internet Crimes Laws”.
[13] “Cyber Crime deﬁnition”.
[14] “Save browsing”. google.
[15] “2011 U.S.
2G1.3(b)(3)".
Sentencing
Guidelines
Manual
§
[16] “United States of America v. Neil Scott Kramer”. Retrieved 2013-10-23.
[35] Managing the Risks Posed by Oﬀender Computer
Use, Perspectives, December 2011,http://appaweb.csg.
org/Perspectives/Perspectives_V35_N4_P40.pdf
[36] Bowker, Art (2012). The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century.
Springﬁeld: Thomas. ISBN 9780398087289.
[17]
[18] “Section 18.2-152.7:1”. Code of Virginia. Legislative Information System of Virginia. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
[19] Susan W. Brenner, Cybercrime: Criminal Threats from
Cyberspace, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp. 91
[20] Weitzer, Ronald (2003). Current Controversies in Criminology. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Press. p. 150.
[21] David Mann
">>Netcrime”.
2011-11-10.
And Mike Sutton (2011-11-06).
Bjc.oxfordjournals.org.
Retrieved
[22] “A walk on the dark side”. The Economist. 2007-09-30.
[23] “DHS: Secretary Napolitano and Attorney General Holder
Announce Largest U.S. Prosecution of International
Criminal Network Organized to Sexually Exploit Children”. Dhs.gov. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[24] Salvador Rodriguez (June 6, 2012). “Like LinkedIn,
eHarmony is hacked; 1.5 million passwords stolen”. Los
Angeles Times.
[25] Rick Rothacker (Oct 12, 2012). “Cyber attacks against
Wells Fargo “signiﬁcant,” handled well: CFO”. Reuters.
[26] DAVID K. LI (January 17, 2012). “Zappos cyber attack”.
New York Post.
[27] “AP Twitter Hack Falsely Claims Explosions at White
House”. Samantha Murphy. April 23, 2013. Retrieved
April 23, 2013.
[28] “Fake Tweet Erasing $136 Billion Shows Markets Need
Humans”. Bloomberg. April 23, 2013. Retrieved April
23, 2013.
[29] Richet, Jean-Loup (2013). “From Young Hackers to
Crackers”. International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction 9 (1).
6 Further reading
• Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski,
N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment,
New York University Press, New York.
• Bowker, Art (2012) “The Cybercrime Handbook
for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the
21st Century” Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd.
Springﬁeld.
• Brenner, S. (2007) Law in an Era of Smart Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council
of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response
to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet?
Computer Law & Security Report Vol.16 no.5.
• Easttom C. (2010) Computer Crime Investigation
and the Law
• Faﬁnski, S. (2009) Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law Cullompton: Willan
• Glenny, Misha, DarkMarket : cyberthieves, cybercops, and you, New York, NY : Alfred A. Knopf,
2011. ISBN 978-0-307-59293-4
• Grabosky, P. (2006) Electronic Crime, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall
• Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2011) Cyber crime
and the Victimization of Women: Laws, Rights, and
Regulations. Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global. ISBN
978-1-60960-830-9
[30] Richet, Jean-Loup (2011). “Adoption of deviant behavior and cybercrime ‘Know how’ diﬀusion”. York Deviancy
Conference.
• Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). Cyber Criminology:
Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal behavior.
Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
[31] Richet, Jean-Loup (2012). “How to Become a Black Hat
Hacker? An Exploratory Study of Barriers to Entry Into
Cybercrime.”. 17th AIM Symposium.
• McQuade, S. (2006) Understanding and Managing
Cybercrime, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
7.1
Government resources
7
• McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) The Encyclopedia of Cy- 7.1
bercrime, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
•
• Parker D (1983) Fighting Computer Crime, U.S.:
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
•
• Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology and the
Criminal Justice System, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
•
• Paul Taylor. Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime
•
(November 3, 1999 ed.). Routledge; 1 edition. p.
200. ISBN 0-415-18072-4.
•
• Robertson, J. (2010, March 2). Authorities bust 3 in
infection of 13m computers. Retrieved March 26,
2010, from Boston News: Boston.com
• Walden, I. (2007) Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Rolón, Darío N. Control, vigilancia y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio, Latin American’s New Security Thinking, Clacso, 2014, pp. 167/182
• Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to Crackers, International Journal of Technology and Human
Interaction (IJTHI), 9(3), 53-62.
• Wall, D.S. (2007) Cybercrimes: The transformation
of crime in the information age, Cambridge: Polity.
• Williams, M. (2006) Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online, Routledge, London.
• Yar, M. (2006) Cybercrime and Society, London:
Sage.
7
External links
• Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling (CCVC)
• The American Society of Digital Forensics & eDiscovery - Cybercrime Information
• A Guide to Computer
gal.practitioner.com
Crime
from
le-
• International Journal of Cyber Criminology
• Virtual Forum Against Cybercrime
• High Technology Crime Investigation Association
• Computer Crime Research Center
• CyberCrime Asia Research Center - Information
about computer crime, Internet fraud and CyberTerrorism in Asia
• Information and Research Center for Cybercrime
Germany
Government resources
Cybercrime.gov from the United States Department
of Justice
National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program from the United States Department of Justice
FBI Cyber Investigations home page
US Secret Service Computer Fraud
Australian High Tech Crime Centre
8
8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
8
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
8.1
Text
• Computer crime Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20crime?oldid=657034011 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Frecklefoot, Edward, D, Ixfd64, Sannse, Dori, Ihcoyc, Ronz, Jebba, Darkwind, Andrewa, Julesd, Andres, Kaihsu, GCarty, Ww, Greenrd, Zoicon5,
Katana0182, Robbot, ZimZalaBim, Lowellian, Desmay, UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, Everyking, Edcolins, Utcursch, Antandrus, Jorm, Beland, Joyous!, Ta bu shi da yu, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold, MarkS, Elwikipedista, Narcisse, Cmdrjameson, Elipongo, Vishnu vijay, Timmywimmy, ADM, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Arthena, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, L33th4x0rguy, TaintedMustard, Harej, RainbowOfLight, H2g2bob, BlastOButter42, Y0u, Woohookitty, Wikiklrsc, Prashanthns, BD2412, Galwhaa, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Bill37212, Bruce1ee, Bhadani, Amelio Vázquez, Rabreu, Nivix, Gurch, Tieno007, Czar, Alphachimp, David91, Bgwhite,
Wavelength, Phantomsteve, SpuriousQ, IanManka, Akamad, Stephenb, Markjx, NawlinWiki, Welsh, Renata3, FoolsWar, Lippard, Zzuuzz, Gtdp, Rurik, CWenger, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, SmackBot, Reedy, Stiﬂe, Canthusus, Nil Einne, Gilliam, Skizzik,
Jrkagan, Kurykh, JDCMAN, Dimonicquo, Silly rabbit, Octahedron80, Mihairad, Tim Pierce, ConMan, Expugilist, Savidan, RolandR,
FlyHigh, Prehistoricmaster2, Kuru, Ocee, Shadowlynk, Joﬀeloﬀ, Kirkoconnell, Barrycarlyon, Beetstra, Invisifan, Hu12, MikeWazowski,
Iridescent, Kencf0618, CapitalR, Sim8183, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, JohnCD, Penbat, MrFish, Equendil, Anthonyhcole, DumbBOT, ErrantX, Heathniederee, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Vertium, Esemono, The Legendary Ranger, Dzubint, I already forgot,
AntiVandalBot, Oducado, QuiteUnusual, Paste, Joe Schmedley, Oddity-, Wayiran, Gilliantayloryoung, JAnDbot, Dustin gayler, Levitica,
SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, Maheshkumaryadav, Joellee, Kiwimandy, Edper castro, DerHexer, JaGa, Mahnol, Cocytus, MartinBot, Lordmyx, Jeannealcid, Jim.henderson, Rhlitonjua, Psychoair, Jerry teps, Bemsor, Nixonmahilum, Tgeairn, JonBurrows, Jmm6f488, Kemiv,
Semaja, Reno911, Boxmoor, Neon white, NYCRuss, Vanillagorillas, Tokyogirl79, Turner70, HiLo48, DadaNeem, Olegwiki, Druss666uk,
Ja 62, Funandtrvl, Metallicaguy007, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, MissionInn.Jim, Technopat, Sparkzy, Helpper, Jose ﬁgueredo, Sankalpdravid, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, The3stars, Tpk5010, Snowbot, Jlhw, Milan Keršláger, Billinghurst, Enigmaman, Falcon8765, Justmeherenow,
Noncompliant one, Cool110110, DeanC81, Yintan, LeadSongDog, Flyer22, Jojalozzo, Iestynpugh, Oxymoron83, Harry, Techman224,
Manway, Millstream3, AMbot, Mr. Stradivarius, Barry Jameson, Denisarona, Jons63, Elassint, ClueBot, Kai-Hendrik, Binksternet, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Jotag14, Taroaldo, Tomas e, Chris.tripledot, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, PMDrive1061,
Chaserx7, Canis Lupus, Rhododendrites, Imaximax1, Vivon1, Jmaio2, Aleksd, Light show, Agilentis, Thingg, PCHS-NJROTC, Aronzak,
Johnuniq, MBK-iPhone, BarretB, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, Gonzonoir, Afpre, Charco2006, Bamford, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet,
Gpershing, MrOllie, Jgkjfdlsgkjd, Fatboy500, PranksterTurtle, Debresser, Favonian, Jaydec, 5 albert square, Tide rolls, Bultro, Jarble, HerculeBot, Matt.T, Albeiror24, Jackelﬁve, Ben Ben, Kurtis, Publicly Visible, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Mdolphy, KamikazeBot, JackCoke, Lessandmore, IW.HG, Ircpresident, Vörös, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Kerfuﬄer, Jim1138,
IRP, Darkblazikenex2, Nick UA, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Justwiki, Xqbot, JimVC3, Capricorn42, RoodyAlien, Mrc1028,
Srich32977, Pradameinhoﬀ, Wikieditor1988, Tankrider, Lior1075, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Yashansi, YOKOTA Kuniteru, Blockyeyes,
Ka4, Buchana4, Dejan33, Sfaﬁnski, Bobmack89x, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Gajic32, Professional7, MJ94, Serols, Mentmic, Fulldate unlinking bot, Merlion444, FoxBot, Lotje, Callanecc, Vrenator, Aoidh, Reaper Eternal, ThinkEnemies, Reach Out to the Truth, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Fred11111111, RjwilmsiBot, VernoWhitney, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Becritical, EmausBot, John of Reading, Immunize, Sophie, Angrytoast, Katherine, Dewritech, Minimac’s Clone, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic,
Ida Shaw, Pragnesh89, Josve05a, Michael Essmeyer, Empty Buﬀer, Forgottenking, Bustermythmonger, EneMsty12, Christina Silverman,
Kjg0972, Erianna, Umni2, Donner60, Yulli67, ChuispastonBot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Mechanical digger, Sagaa2010, Gareth Griﬃth-Jones,
AznBurger, 6ii9, Hiral NJITWILL, Widr, Leeaaro4, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aigendon, HMSSolent, Nightenbelle, Markthing Inc., Titodutta,
KLBot2, BG19bot, VasundraTaneja, Jhanov1999, Ramesh Ramaiah, FxHVC, Najma El Shelhi, Frze, AvocatoBot, SusanBREN, Metricopolus, Mark Arsten, Lochfyneman, Dainomite, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, Glacialfox, Klilidiplomus, Yasht101, Aisteco, CrimeWeb, Fylbecatulous, Agent 78787, Darylgolden, Riley Huntley, Iristotle, Pratyya Ghosh, Padenton, Khazar2, Abowker, Bamachick20, HelicopterLlama,
Lugia2453, Frosty, Metalytics, FrostieFrost, Mason Doering, PinkAmpersand, Greengreengreenred, Dddege, LectriceDuSoir, Reziebear,
Glaisher, Bullblade, EdynBliss, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, Cindy123456, Jnguyenx3, Keatonhouse, M3osol1301, JaconaFrere, Skr15081997,
Kacyoconnor14, Lordangel101, Altaythegooner, AKS.9955, Cybersecurity101, Pinklights2323, S166865h, StaceyHutter, Johnc123456,
Willhesucceed, Vanyaxd, Julietdeltalima, Hellys320, Destor918, Lymaniﬀy, Rishab Elangovan, Guegreen, FormerPatchEditor, Erosen15,
Drdebaratiwiki and Anonymous: 646
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