Download Report

Internet
This article is about the worldwide computer network. phony and television, are being reshaped or redeﬁned by
For other uses, see Internet (disambiguation).
the Internet, giving birth to new services such as voice
Not to be confused with the World Wide Web.
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol television (IPTV). Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped
The Internet is a global system of interconnected
computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol into blogging and web feeds. The entertainment indussuite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. try, including music, ﬁlm, and gaming, was initially the
It is a network of networks[1] that consists of millions of fastest growing online segment. The Internet has enabled
private, public, academic, business, and government net- and accelerated new forms of human interactions through
works of local to global scope, linked by a broad array instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networkof electronic, wireless, and optical networking technolo- ing. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for
gies. The Internet carries an extensive range of infor- major retailers and small artisans and traders. Businessmation resources and services, such as the inter-linked to-business and ﬁnancial services on the Internet aﬀect
hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide supply chains across entire industries.
Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and The Internet has no centralized governance in either techpeer-to-peer networks for ﬁle sharing and telephony.
nological implementation or policies for access and us[9]
Many concepts and debates on technology, which shaped age; each constituent network sets its own policies.
the Internet, date back to research commissioned by the Only the overreaching deﬁnitions of the two principal
United States government in the 1960s to build robust, name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address
fault-tolerant communication via computer networks.[2] space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed
This work evolved into eﬀorts in the United Kingdom by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The techand France, that led to the primary precursor network,
the ARPANET, in the United States. In the 1980s, the nical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force
work of Tim Berners-Lee, in the United Kingdom on
the World Wide Web, theorised the fact that protocols (IETF), a non-proﬁt organization of loosely aﬃliated international participants that anyone may associate with by
link hypertext documents into a working system,[3] hence
[10]
[4]
marking the beginning the modern Internet. From the contributing technical expertise.
early 1990s, the network experienced sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and
mobile computers were connected to it.
1 Terminology
The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding
for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks.[5] Though the Internet has been widely used by academia since the 1980s,
the commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life.
As of December 2014, 37.9 percent of the world’s human
population has used the services of the Internet within the
past year--over 100 times more people than were using it
in 1995.[6][7] Internet use grew rapidly in the West from
the mid-1990s to early 2000s and from the late 1990s
to present in the developing world. In 1994 only 3% of
American classrooms had access to the Internet, while by The Internet Messenger by Buky Schwartz in Holon.
2002 that ﬁgure was 92%.[8]
Most traditional communications media, including tele- See also: Capitalization of “Internet”
1
2
2
HISTORY
The Internet, referring to the speciﬁc global system of interconnected IP networks, is a proper noun and written
with an initial capital letter. In the media and common
use it is often not capitalized, viz. the internet. Some
guides specify that the word should be capitalized when
used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as a verb
or an adjective.[11] The Internet is also often referred to
as the Net.
Historically the word internet was used, uncapitalized, as
early as 1883 as a verb and adjective to refer to interconnected motions. The designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning
interconnecting computer networks with gateways.[12][13]
The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak
of “going on the Internet” when invoking a web browser
to view web pages. However, the World Wide Web or
the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other web resources, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs.[14] As another point of comparison, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the lanProfessor Leonard Kleinrock with the ﬁrst ARPANET Interface
guage used on the Web for information transfer, yet it is
Message Processors at UCLA.
just one of many languages or protocols that can be used
for communication on the Internet.[15] In addition to the
Web, a multitude of other services are implemented on
Graphics Department. In an early sign of future growth,
the Internet.
there were already ﬁfteen sites connected to the young
The term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World ARPANET by the end of 1971.[22][23] These early years
Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a techni- were documented in the 1972 ﬁlm Computer Networks:
cally unsavvy user.
The Heralds of Resource Sharing.
Early international collaborations on the ARPANET were
rare. European developers were concerned with develop2 History
ing the X.25 networks.[24] Notable exceptions were the
Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in June 1973, folMain articles: History of the Internet and History of the lowed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum
World Wide Web
Earth Station and Peter T. Kirstein's research group in
the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science,
of London and later at University College LonResearch into packet switching started in the early 1960s University
don.[25][26][27]
and packet switched networks such as Mark I at NPL in
the UK,[16] ARPANET, CYCLADES,[17][18] Merit Net- In December 1974, RFC 675 – Speciﬁcation of Interwork,[19] Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the net Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yolate 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. gen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a
The ARPANET in particular led to the development shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeat this
of protocols for internetworking, where multiple sepa- use.[28] Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981
rate networks could be joined together into a network of when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed
the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the
networks.[20]
The ﬁrst two nodes of what would become the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and
ARPANET were interconnected between Leonard Klein- the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconrock's Network Measurement Center at the UCLA’s nected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introSchool of Engineering and Applied Science and Douglas duced.
Engelbart’s NLS system at SRI International (SRI) in
Menlo Park, California, on 29 October 1969.[21] The
third site on the ARPANET was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics center at the University of California at
Santa Barbara, and the fourth was the University of Utah
TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the
National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States
from research and education organizations, ﬁrst at 56
kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.[29] Com-
3
3 Governance
Main article: Internet governance
The Internet is a globally distributed network comprising
T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992.
mercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge
in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. by 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use
of the Internet to carry commercial traﬃc.[30] The Internet started a rapid expansion to Europe and Australia in
the mid to late 1980s[31][32] and to Asia in the late 1980s
and early 1990s.[33]
ICANN headquarters in Marina Del Rey, California, United
States.
many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks.
It operates without a central governing body.
The technical underpinning and standardization of the
core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-proﬁt organization of loosely aﬃliated international participants
Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a tremendous that anyone may associate with by contributing technical
impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of expertise.
near instant communication by email, instant messaging,
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) “phone calls”, two- To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces
way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web[34] of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporawith its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and tion for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), headonline shopping sites. Increasing amounts of data are quartered in Marina del Rey, California. ICANN is the
transmitted at higher and higher speeds over ﬁber optic authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identiﬁers for use on the Internet, including domain names,
networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more.
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numThe Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater bers in the transport protocols, and many other parameamounts of online information and knowledge, com- ters. Globally uniﬁed name spaces, in which names and
merce, entertainment and social networking.[37] During numbers are uniquely assigned, are essential for maintainthe late 1990s, it was estimated that traﬃc on the pub- ing the global reach of the Internet. ICANN is governed
lic Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the by an international board of directors drawn from across
mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was the Internet technical, business, academic, and other nonthought to be between 20% and 50%.[38] This growth commercial communities. ICANN’s role in coordinatis often attributed to the lack of central administration, ing the assignment of unique identiﬁers distinguishes it as
which allows organic growth of the network, as well as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global
the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet proto- Internet.[42]
cols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IP addresses:
over the network.[39] As of 31 March 2011, the esti• African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for
mated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion
[40]
Africa
(30.2% of world population).
It is estimated that in
1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information
• American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)
ﬂowing through two-way telecommunication, by 2000
for North America
this ﬁgure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97%
• Asia-Paciﬁc Network Information Centre (APNIC)
of all telecommunicated information was carried over the
for Asia and the Paciﬁc region
Internet.[41]
4
4 INFRASTRUCTURE
• Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Internet service providers establish the world-wide conRegistry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the nectivity between individual networks at various levels
Caribbean region
of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when
needed to perform a function or obtain information, rep• Réseaux IP Européens - Network Coordination resent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top
Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, of the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large
and Central Asia
telecommunication companies that exchange traﬃc directly with each other via peering agreements. Tier 2
The National Telecommunications and Information Ad- and lower level networks buy Internet transit from other
ministration, an agency of the United States Depart- providers to reach at least some parties on the global Inment of Commerce, continues to have ﬁnal approval over ternet, though they may also engage in peering. An ISP
may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or
changes to the DNS root zone.[43][44][45]
implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load
The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992, with
balancing. Internet exchange points are major traﬃc exa mission to “assure the open development, evolution and
changes with physical connections to multiple ISPs.
use of the Internet for the beneﬁt of all people through[46]
out the world”.
Its members include individuals (any- Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large
one may join) as well as corporations, organizations, enterprises, and governments, may perform the same
governments, and universities. Among other activities function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing
ISOC provides an administrative home for a number transit on behalf of their internal networks. Research netof less formally organized groups that are involved in works tend to interconnect with large subnetworks such
developing and managing the Internet, including: the as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK’s national
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Ar- research and education network, JANET.
chitecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering It has been determined that both the Internet IP routing
Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are
Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG).
examples of scale-free networks.[47]
On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored
World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis,
established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
4
Infrastructure
See also: List of countries by number of Internet users
and List of countries by Internet connection speeds
Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to direct IP packets to the next-hop router
or destination. Routing tables are maintained by manual
conﬁguration or automatically by routing protocols. Endnodes typically use a default route that points toward an
ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border
Gateway Protocol to establish the most eﬃcient routing
across the complex connections of the global Internet.
4.2 Access
The communications infrastructure of the Internet con- Common methods of Internet access by users include
sists of its hardware components and a system of software dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits,
layers that control various aspects of the architecture.
broadband over coaxial cable, ﬁber optic or copper wires,
Wi-Fi, satellite and cellular telephone technology (3G,
4G). The Internet may often be accessed from comput4.1 Routing and service tiers
ers in libraries and Internet cafes. Internet access points
exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet
PoP #3
Tier 1 Networks
kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many
Tier 2 Networks
hotels also have public terminals, though these are usually
IXP
fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for variTier
2
ISP
PoP
#1
PoP #2
ous usage, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online
payment. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet
Tier 3 Network
Tier 3 Network
via local computer networks. Hotspots providing such ac(single homed ISP)
(multi-homed ISP)
cess include Wi-Fi cafes, where users need to bring their
own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA.
Internet users
(business, consumers, etc)
These services may be free to all, free to customers only,
or fee-based.
Transit
Transit
Peering
Transit
Transit
Packet routing across the Internet involves several tiers of Internet
service providers.
Grassroots eﬀorts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services covering large city
5
areas are in place in London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The Internet
can then be accessed from such places as a park bench.[48]
Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various
high-speed data services over cellular phone networks,
and ﬁxed wireless services. High-end mobile phones
such as smartphones in general come with Internet access
through the phone network. Web browsers such as Opera
are available on these advanced handsets, which can also
run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this
is not as widely used.[49] An Internet access provider and
protocol matrix diﬀerentiates the methods used to get online.
5
Protocols
Application
Data
IP
header
Frame
header
UDP UDP
header data
Transport
IP data
Internet
Frame data
Frame
footer
Link
As user data is processed through the protocol stack, each abstraction layer adds encapsulation information at the sending
host. Data is transmitted over the wire at the link level between
hosts and routers. Encapsulation is removed by the receiving host.
Intermediate relays update link encapsulation at each hop, and
inspect the IP layer for routing purposes.
While the Internet’s hardware can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software architecture that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its
scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has
been assumed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF).[50] The IETF conducts standard-setting work
groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects
of Internet architecture. Resulting discussions and standards are published in a series of publications, each called
a Request for Comments (RFC), on the IETF web site.
The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that
constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous
documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP)
when implementing Internet technologies.
the Internet protocol suite. This is a model architecture
that divides methods into a layered system of protocols,
originally documented in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. The
layers correspond to the environment or scope in which
their services operate. At the top is the application layer,
the space for the application-speciﬁc networking methods used in software applications. For example, a web
browser program uses the client-server application model
and a speciﬁc protocol of interaction between servers and
clients, while many ﬁle-sharing systems use a peer-topeer paradigm. Below this top layer, the transport layer
connects applications on diﬀerent hosts with a logical
channel through the network with appropriate data exchange methods.
Underlying these layers are the networking technologies
that interconnect networks at their borders and hosts via
the physical connections. The internet layer enables computers to identify and locate each other via Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and routes their traﬃc via intermediate (transit) networks. Last, at the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which provides connectivity
between hosts on the same network link, such as a physical connection in form of a local area network (LAN) or a
dial-up connection. The model, also known as TCP/IP, is
designed to be independent of the underlying hardware,
which the model therefore does not concern itself with
in any detail. Other models have been developed, such
as the OSI model, that attempt to be comprehensive in
every aspect of communications. While many similarities exist between the models, they are not compatible
in the details of description or implementation; indeed,
TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the discussion
of OSI networking.
The most prominent component of the Internet model is
the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems (IP addresses) for computers on the Internet. IP enables internetworking and in essence establishes the Internet itself. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial
version used on the ﬁrst generation of the Internet and
is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up
to ~4.3 billion (109 ) Internet hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its ﬁnal stage in 2011,[51] when
the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new
protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s,
which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and
more eﬃcient routing of Internet traﬃc. IPv6 is currently
in growing deployment around the world, since Internet
address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.[52]
IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In
essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet
not directly accessible with IPv4 software. This means
software upgrades or translator facilities are necessary for
networking devices that need to communicate on both
networks. Essentially all modern computer operating sysThe Internet standards describe a framework known as tems support both versions of the Internet Protocol. Net-
6
work infrastructure, however, is still lagging in this development. Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is
facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts,
e.g., peering agreements, and by technical speciﬁcations
or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the
network. Indeed, the Internet is deﬁned by its interconnections and routing policies.
6
SERVICES
ware can include animations, games, oﬃce applications
and scientiﬁc demonstrations. Through keyword-driven
Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and
Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a
vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the
decentralization of information on a large scale.
The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations
to publish ideas and information to a potentially large
6 Services
audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a webThe Internet carries many network services, most promi- site involves little initial cost and many cost-free services
nently the World Wide Web, electronic mail, Internet are available. However, publishing and maintaining large,
professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-totelephony, and File sharing services.
date information is still a diﬃcult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups
use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily up6.1 World Wide Web
datable online diaries. Some commercial organizations
encourage staﬀ to communicate advice in their areas of
specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed
by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result.
One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product
developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique
the public’s interest in their work. Collections of personal
web pages published by large service providers remain
popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated.
Whereas operations such as Angelﬁre and GeoCities have
existed since the early days of the Web, newer oﬀerings
from, for example, Facebook and Twitter currently have
large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web
This NeXT Computer was used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and page hosts.
became the world’s ﬁrst Web server.
Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and
e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, via the Web continues to grow.
or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are
When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web
not synonymous. The World Wide Web is only one of
page was stored in completed form on a web server, forhundreds of services used on the Internet. The Web is
matted in HTML, complete for transmission to a web
a global set of documents, images and other resources,
browser in response to a request. Over time, the process
logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with
of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic,
Uniform Resource Identiﬁers (URIs). URIs symbolcreating ﬂexible design, layout, and content. Websites are
ically identify services, servers, and other databases,
often created using content management software with,
and the documents and resources that they can provide.
initially, very little content. Contributors to these sysHypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access
tems, who may be paid staﬀ, members of an organizaprotocol of the World Wide Web. Web services also use
tion or the public, ﬁll underlying databases with content
HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order
using editing pages designed for that purpose, while cato share and exchange business logic and data.
sual visitors view and read this content in HTML form.
World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft’s There may or may not be editorial, approval and secuInternet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's rity systems built into the process of taking newly entered
Safari, and Google Chrome, lets users navigate from one content and making it available to the target visitors.
web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text,
video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while
the user is interacting with the page. Client-side soft-
6.3
6.2
Data transfer
Communication
Email is an important communications service available
on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text
messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents and other ﬁles are sent as email
attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.
Internet telephony is another common communications
service made possible by the creation of the Internet.
VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring
to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication.
The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like
voice applications for personal computers. In recent years
many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as
convenient as a normal telephone. The beneﬁt is that,
as the Internet carries the voice traﬃc, VoIP can be free
or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with
always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL.
VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between diﬀerent providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that
eliminate the need for a personal computer.
Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.
Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few
VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is
not universally available. Older traditional phones with
no “extra features” may be line-powered only and operate during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a
backup power source for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly
popular for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Modern video game
consoles also oﬀer VoIP chat features.
6.3
Data transfer
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts
of data across the Internet. A computer ﬁle can be
emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for
easy download by others. It can be put into a “shared location” or onto a ﬁle server for instant use by colleagues.
The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by
the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In
any of these cases, access to the ﬁle may be controlled by
user authentication, the transit of the ﬁle over the Internet
may be obscured by encryption, and money may change
hands for access to the ﬁle. The price can be paid by the
remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card
7
whose details are also passed – usually fully encrypted –
across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the ﬁle
received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5
or other message digests. These simple features of the
Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer ﬁle for transmission. This includes
all manner of print publications, software products, news,
music, ﬁlm, video, photography, graphics and the other
arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the
existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.
Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by
end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening
such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features.
These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet “broadcasters” who never had on-air licenses. This
means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more speciﬁc, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver.
The range of available types of content is much wider,
from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services. Podcasting is a variation on this
theme, where – usually audio – material is downloaded
and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable
media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little
censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual
material worldwide.
Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality
needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality
requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality
needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.[53]
Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon.
While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the
picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traﬃc at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time.
Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams,
with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded
on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for
free streaming video with a vast number of users. It
uses a ﬂash-based web player to stream and show video
ﬁles. Registered users may upload an unlimited amount
of video and build their own personal proﬁle. YouTube
claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily. Currently,
YouTube also uses an HTML5 player.[54]
8
7 SOCIAL IMPACT
7
Social impact
Others - 11%
Portuguese - 2%
Main article: Sociology of the Internet
Arabic - 3%
Japanese - 4%
The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction,
activities, and social associations.
French - 4%
Chinese - 4%
7.1
Users
English - 55%
Spanish - 5%
See also: Global Internet usage, English on the Internet
and Unicode
Overall Internet usage has seen tremendous growth.
German - 5%
Russian - 6%
April 2013
80
77*
70
73*
71
Website content languages[58]
67
63
60
59
61
54
50
51
46
42
40
36
39*
38
36*
33
30
30
31
24
20
11
0
1996
2
0
3
5
1
1
1998
23
21
18
17
10
7
8
2
2000
3
11
4
2002
12
6
14
7
2004
16
8
15
26
31*
28*
24
21
18
12
9
2006
2008
2014
2012
2010
* Estimate
Internet users per 100 inhabitants
Source: International Telecommunications Union.[55][56]
Others - 17%
English - 27%
Korean - 2%
Russian - 3%
French - 3%
Arabic - 3%
German - 4%
Portuguese - 4%
Japanese - 5%
Chinese - 25%
Spanish - 8%
Internet users by language[57]
From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[59] By 2010,
22 percent of the world’s population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos
viewed daily on YouTube.[60] In 2014 the world’s Internet
users surpassed 3 billion or 43.6 percent of world population, but two-thirds of the users came from richest
countries, with 78.0 percent of Europe countries population using the Internet, followed by 57.4 percent of the
Americas.[61]
The prevalent language for communication on the Internet has been English. This may be a result of the origin
of the Internet, as well as the language’s role as a lingua
franca. Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet.
After English (27%), the most requested languages on
the World Wide Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%),
Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each),
Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean
(2%).[57] By region, 42% of the world’s Internet users
are based in Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean taken together, 6% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1%
in Australia/Oceania.[62] The Internet’s technologies have
developed enough in recent years, especially in the use
of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world’s widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some languages’ characters) still remain.
In an American study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage
of women, although this diﬀerence reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas
women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use
the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for
recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men
and women were equally likely to use the Internet for
shopping and banking.[63] More recent studies indicate
that in 2008, women signiﬁcantly outnumbered men on
most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age.[64] In addition,
women watched more streaming content, whereas men
downloaded more.[65] In terms of blogs, men were more
likely to blog in the ﬁrst place; among those who blog,
men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas
women were more likely to have a personal blog.[66]
7.3
Social networking and entertainment
According to Euromonitor, by 2020 43.7% of the world’s
population will be users of the Internet. Splitting by country, in 2011 Iceland, Norway and the Netherlands had the
highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with
more than 90% of the population with access.
7.2
Usage
The Internet allows greater ﬂexibility in working hours
and location, especially with the spread of unmetered
high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through
mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards,
handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users
to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities
of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services oﬀered and mobile data charges may be signiﬁcantly higher than other
access methods.
9
to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other’s work. Business
and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs
in a wide variety of areas including scientiﬁc research,
software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet
access and computer literacy spread.
The Internet allows computer users to remotely access
other computers and information stores easily, wherever
they may be. They may do this with or without computer
security, i.e. authentication and encryption technologies,
depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new
ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at
home can audit the books of a company based in another
country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information
emailed to them from oﬃces all over the world. Some
of these things were possible before the widespread use
of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would
have made many of them infeasible in practice. An ofﬁce worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other
side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing,
or open a remote desktop session into their oﬃce PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection
on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal ﬁles and data, including email
and other applications, while away from the oﬃce. It has
been referred to among system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[68] because it extends the secure
perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations
and its employees’ homes.
Educational material at all levels from pre-school to postdoctoral is available from websites. Examples range from
CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides
and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For distance
education, help with homework and other assignments,
self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just
looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never
been easier for people to access educational information
at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and
the World Wide Web in particular are important enablers
of both formal and informal education. Further, the Internet allows universities, in particular researchers from
the social and behavioral sciences, to conduct research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in
reach and generalizability of ﬁndings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of
7.3
results.[67]
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas,
knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software.
Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share
ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups
more easily to form. An example of this is the free
software movement, which has produced, among other
things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOﬃce.org. Internet chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant
messaging system, or a social networking website, allows
colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while
working at their computers during the day. Messages can
be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than
via email. These systems may allow ﬁles to be exchanged,
drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members.
Social networking and entertainment
See also: Social networking service § Social impact
Many people use the World Wide Web to access news,
weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations
and to pursue their personal interests. People use chat,
messaging and email to make and stay in touch with
friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some
previously had pen pals.
Social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter,
and Myspace have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety
of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and
to connect with others. It is also possible to ﬁnd existing
acquaintances, to allow communication among existing
groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial
Content management systems allow collaborating teams and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize
10
in users’ videos and photographs.
While social networking sites were initially for individuals
only, today they are widely used by businesses and other
organizations to promote their brands, to market to their
customers and to encourage posts to "go viral". “Black
hat” social media techniques are also employed by some
organizations, such as spam accounts and astroturﬁng.
A risk for both individuals and organizations writing posts
(especially public posts) on social networking websites, is
that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally
lead to an unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash
on social media from other internet users. This is also
a risk in relation to controversial oﬄine behavior, if it
is widely made known. The nature of this backlash can
range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases,
rape and death threats. The online disinhibition eﬀect describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more
stridently or oﬀensively online than they would in person. A signiﬁcant number of feminist women have been
the target of various forms of harassment in response to
posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough
to aid victims of online abuse.[69]
For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall
brand damage, especially if reported by the media. However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage
in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to that
presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by strengthening the brand in the eyes of others.
Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in to
demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can
then provoke a counter-backlash.
Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding
the posting of personal information of individuals (also
known as doxxing), due to concerns about such postings
leading to mobs of large numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the speciﬁc individuals thereby identiﬁed. In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to imply
that all identifying photos and names must be censored in
Facebook screenshots posted to Reddit. However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts
is less clear, and in any case like-minded people online
have many other ways they can use to direct each other’s
attention to public social media posts they disagree with.
Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying
and approaches by sexual predators, who sometimes pose
as children themselves. Children may also encounter material which they may ﬁnd upsetting, or material which
their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to
naivety, they may also post personal information about
themselves online, which could put them or their families at risk, unless warned not to do so. Many parents
choose to enable internet ﬁltering, and/or supervise their
children’s online activities, in an attempt to protect their
7 SOCIAL IMPACT
children from inappropriate material on the internet. The
most popular social networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the age
of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by registering an account with a false birth date,
and a signiﬁcant number of children aged under 13 join
such sites anyway. Social networking sites for younger
children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for children, also exist.[70]
The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity
since its inception, with entertaining social experiments
such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university
servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much
traﬃc. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos. Over 6 million people
use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas. The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken advantage
of the World Wide Web, and often provide a signiﬁcant
source of advertising revenue for other websites.[71] Although many governments have attempted to restrict both
industries’ use of the Internet, in general this has failed to
stop their widespread popularity.[72]
Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is
multiplayer gaming.[73] This form of recreation creates
communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These
range from MMORPG to ﬁrst-person shooters, from
role-playing video games to online gambling. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern
modes of online gaming began with subscription services
such as GameSpy and MPlayer.[74] Non-subscribers were
limited to certain types of game play or certain games.
Many people use the Internet to access and download
music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and
relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of
these activities, using centralized servers and distributed
peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists’ copyrights than others.
Internet usage has been correlated to users’ loneliness.[75]
Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their
feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in
the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread.
Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form which
involves: “highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger
social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still
linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share
a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader. Overseas supporters provide
funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute
tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively,
members and practitioners of such sects construct viable
virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testi-
7.5
Telecommuting
11
monies and engaging in collective study via email, on-line
chat rooms and web-based message boards.”[76] In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the
prospect of young British Muslims being indoctrinated
into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet, being
persuaded to join terrorist groups such as the so-called
"Islamic State", and then potentially committing acts of
terrorism on returning to Britain after ﬁghting in Syria or
Iraq.
at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis and
Hertz combined, which together employ almost 60,000
people.[84]
Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day
surﬁng the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study
by Peninsula Business Services.[77] Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily
life. Psychologist Nicolas Carr believe that Internet use
has other eﬀects on individuals, for instance improving
skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity.[78]
Remote work is facilitated by tools such as
groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling,
videoconferencing, and Voice over IP (VOIP). It can be
eﬃcient and useful for companies as it allows workers
to communicate over long distances, saving signiﬁcant
amounts of travel time and cost. As broadband Internet
connections become more commonplace, more and
more workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use
these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet
and internal phone networks.
7.4
7.5 Telecommuting
Main article: Telecommuting
Electronic business
Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business
processes spanning the entire value chain: purchasing,
supply chain management, marketing, sales, customer
service, and business relationship. E-commerce seeks to
add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships with clients and partners.
7.6 Crowdsourcing
Internet provides a particularly good venue for
crowdsourcing (outsourcing tasks to a distributed
group of people) since individuals tend to be more
open in web-based projects where they are not being
physically judged or scrutinized and thus can feel more
According to International Data Corporation, the size comfortable sharing.
of worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to- Crowdsourcing systems are used to accomplish a variety
business and -consumer transactions are combined, of tasks. For example, the crowd may be invited to deequate to $16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Eco- velop a new technology, carry out a design task, reﬁne
nomics adds those two together to estimate the total size or carry out the steps of an algorithm (see human-based
of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to computation), or help capture, systematize, or analyze
roughly 13.8% of global sales.[79]
large amounts of data (see also citizen science).
7.4.1
Drawbacks
While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and
location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic
inequality and the digital divide.[80] Electronic commerce
may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of
mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in
increases in income inequality.[81][82][83]
Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social
transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic eﬀects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers
employ 47 people for every $10 million in sales, while
Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee
room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at $10 billion in
2014, about half as much as Hilton Hotels, which employs 152,000 people. And car-sharing Internet startup
Uber employs 1,000 full-time employees and is valued
Wikis have also been used in the academic community
for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries.[85] In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on
grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.[86] The United States Patent
and Trademark Oﬃce uses a wiki to allow the public to
collaborate on ﬁnding prior art relevant to examination of
pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used
a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and
planning of a local park.[87]
The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among
wikis on the World Wide Web[88] and ranks in the top 10
among all Web sites in terms of traﬃc.[89]
7.7 Politics and political revolutions
See also: Internet censorship, Culture of fear and Mass
surveillance
The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political
tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004
12
Banner in Bangkok during the 2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activities on social media
could result in imprisonment (observed June 30, 2014).
7 SOCIAL IMPACT
of us would agree that this resembles a selfprotective measure by the system against the
growing civic potentials of the Internet. Nevertheless, both types represent limitations to “peripheral capacities”. Thus, the Chinese government tries to prevent communicative power to
build up and unleash (as the 1989 Tiananmen
Square uprising suggests, the government may
ﬁnd it wise to install “upstream measures”).
Even though limited, the Internet is proving
to be an empowering tool also to the Chinese
periphery: Analysts believe that Internet petitions have inﬂuenced policy implementation
in favour of the public’s online-articulated will
...[93]
Incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship
have now been recorded in many countries, including
western democracies.
in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use
the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for 7.8 Philanthropy
carrying out their mission, having given rise to Internet
activism, most notably practiced by rebels in the Arab The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing
countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-toSpring.[90][91]
peer charities, which allow individuals to contribute
The New York Times suggested that social media websmall amounts to charitable projects for other individusites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people orgaals. Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving,
nize the political revolutions in Egypt, by helping activists
allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual
organize protests, communicate grievances, and dissemiprojects of their choice.
[92]
nate information.
A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use
The potential of the Internet as a civic tool of commuof peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva pinicative power was explored by Simon R. B. Berdal in
oneered this concept in 2005, oﬀering the ﬁrst web-based
his 2004 thesis:
service to publish individual loan proﬁles for funding.
Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microﬁnance orAs the globally evolving Internet provides
ganizations which post stories and updates on behalf of
ever new access points to virtual discourse
the borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25
forums, it also promotes new civic relations
to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as
and associations within which communicative
borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peerpower may ﬂow and accumulate. Thus, trato-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being
ditionally ... national-embedded peripheries
funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate
get entangled into greater, international periphwith lenders themselves.[94][95]
eries, with stronger combined powers... The
However, the recent spread of low cost Internet access
Internet, as a consequence, changes the topolin developing countries has made genuine international
ogy of the “centre-periphery” model, by stimperson-to-person philanthropy increasingly feasible. In
ulating conventional peripheries to interlink
2009 the US-based nonproﬁt Zidisha tapped into this
into “super-periphery” structures, which entrend to oﬀer the ﬁrst person-to-person microﬁnance
[93]
close and “besiege” several centres at once.
platform to link lenders and borrowers across international borders without intermediaries. Members can fund
Berdal, therefore, extends the Habermasian notion of the loans for as little as a dollar, which the borrowers then
Public sphere to the Internet, and underlines the inher- use to develop business activities that improve their fament global and civic nature that interwoven Internet tech- ilies’ incomes while repaying loans to the members with
nologies provide. To limit the growing civic potential of interest. Borrowers access the Internet via public cyberthe Internet, Berdal also notes how “self-protective mea- cafes, donated laptops in village schools, and even smart
sures” are put in place by those threatened by it:
phones, then create their own proﬁle pages through which
they share photos and information about themselves and
If we consider China’s attempts to ﬁlter
their businesses. As they repay their loans, borrowers
“unsuitable material” from the Internet, most
continue to share updates and dialogue with lenders via
8.2
Censorship
their proﬁle pages. This direct web-based connection allows members themselves to take on many of the communication and recording tasks traditionally performed
by local organizations, bypassing geographic barriers and
dramatically reducing the cost of microﬁnance services
to the entrepreneurs.[96]
8
Security
Main article: Internet security
Many computer scientists describe the Internet as a
“prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet
highly complex system”.[97] The structure was found to
be highly robust to random failures,[98] yet, very vulnerable to intentional attacks.[99]
Therefore, the Internet structure and its usage characteristics have been studied extensively and the possibility of developing alternative structures has been
investigated.[100]
13
gathers “messages” but it does not analyze them and ﬁgure out what they mean. Other programs are needed
to perform traﬃc analysis and sift through intercepted
data looking for important/useful information. Under the
Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act
all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniﬃng technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of
their customers’ broadband Internet and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) traﬃc.[105]
There is far too much data gathered by these packet sniffers for human investigators to manually search through
all of it. So automated Internet surveillance computers
sift through the vast amount of intercepted Internet trafﬁc, and ﬁlter out and report to human investigators those
bits of information which are “interesting”—such as the
use of certain words or phrases, visiting certain types of
web sites, or communicating via email or chat with a certain individual or group.[106] Billions of dollars per year
are spent, by agencies such as the Information Awareness Oﬃce, NSA, GCHQ and the FBI, to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems which intercept
and analyze all of this data, and extract only the information which is useful to law enforcement and intelligence
agencies.[107]
Many types of attacks occur on the internet, including computer viruses which copy with the help of humans, computer worms which copy themselves automatically, denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and Similar systems are now operated by Iranian secret pospyware that reports on the activity and typing of users. lice to identify and suppress dissidents. All required hardware and software has been allegedly installed by German
Defences to these types of attack include ﬁrewalls and Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia.[108]
antivirus software.
8.2 Censorship
8.1
Surveillance
Main article: Computer and network surveillance
See also: Signals intelligence and Mass surveillance
The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the
monitoring of data and traﬃc on the Internet.[101] In the
United States for example, under the Communications
Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and
broadband Internet traﬃc (emails, web traﬃc, instant
messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement
agencies.[102][103][104]
Packet capture (also sometimes referred to as “packet
sniﬃng”) is the monitoring of data traﬃc on a computer
network. Computers communicate over the Internet by
breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages,
ﬁles, etc.) into small chunks called “packets”, which
are routed through a network of computers, until they
reach their destination, where they are assembled back
into a complete “message” again. Packet Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are travelling
through the network, in order to examine their contents
using other programs. A packet capture is an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it
Internet censorship and surveillance by
country[109][110][111][112]
Pervasive censorship
Substantial censorship
Selective censorship
Changing situation
Little or no censorship
Not classiﬁed / no data
Main articles: Internet censorship and Internet freedom
See also: Culture of fear
Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North
14
11
Korea, the Mainland China, Saudi Arabia and the United
Arab Emirates restrict what people in their countries can
access on the Internet, especially political and religious
content. This is accomplished through software that ﬁlters domains and content so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention.[113]
In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily, possibly to avoid
such an arrangement being turned into law, agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list
of forbidden URLs is supposed to contain addresses of
only known child pornography sites, the content of the
list is secret.[114] Many countries, including the United
States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography,
via the Internet, but do not mandate ﬁltering software.
There are many free and commercially available software
programs, called content-control software, with which a
user can choose to block oﬀensive websites on individual
computers or networks, in order to limit a child’s access
to pornographic materials or depiction of violence.
REFERENCES
smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well
as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches,
Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when
transmitting Internet traﬃc.[118][119]
10 See also
• Computer crime
• Deep Web
• File Transfer Protocol
• Freenet
• Index of Internet-related articles
• Internet metaphors
• "Internets"
• Open Systems Interconnection
• Outline of the Internet
9
Performance
11 References
The Internet is heterogeneous; for instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary
widely, and exhibits emergent phenomena that depend on
its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer
rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.
9.1
Outages
An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local
signalling interruptions. Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to
large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due
to a small number of high-capacity links. Land cables
are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging
for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation
of Armenia.[115] Internet blackouts aﬀecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form
of Internet censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet
in Egypt, whereby approximately 93%[116] of networks
were without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.[117]
9.2
Energy use
[1] RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers, 1.1.2 Architectural Assumptions, 1989
[2] “IPTO -- Information Processing Techniques Oﬃce”, The
Living Internet, Bill Stewart (ed), January 2000.
[3] Couldry, Nick (2012). Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice. London: Polity Press. p.
2.
[4] “So, who really did invent the Internet?", Ian Peter, The
Internet History Project, 2004. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
[5] “Internet History -- One Page Summary”, The Living Internet, Bill Stewart (ed), January 2000.
[6] “The Open Market Internet Index”. Treese.org. 1995-1111. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
[7] “World Stats”. Internet World Stats. Miniwatts Marketing
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[8] Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms:
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[9] “Who owns the Internet?", Jonathan Strickland, How Stuﬀ
Works. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
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been made. In 2011 researchers estimated that the InSeptember 2006.
ternet consumed between 170 and 307 GW, less than 2
percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate [11] “7.76 Terms like 'web' and 'Internet'", Chicago Manual
includes the energy needed to build, operate, and periodof Style, University of Chicago, 16th edition (registration
required)
ically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion
15
[12] “Internet, n”. Oxford English Dictionary (Draft ed.).
March 2009. Retrieved 26 October 2010. Shortened
< INTERNETWORK n., perhaps inﬂuenced by similar
words in -net
[13] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., gives nineteenthcentury use and pre-Internet verb use
[14] “HTML 4.01 Speciﬁcation”. HTML 4.01 Speciﬁcation.
World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved August 13,
2008. [T]he link (or hyperlink, or Web link) [is] the basic
hypertext construct. A link is a connection from one Web
resource to another. Although a simple concept, the link
has been one of the primary forces driving the success of
the Web.
[15] “The Diﬀerence Between the Internet and the World
Wide Web”. Webopedia.com. QuinStreet Inc. 2010-0624. Retrieved 2014-05-01.
[16] Ward, Mark (29 October 2009). “Celebrating 40 years of
the net”. BBC News.
[17] “A Technical History of CYCLADES”. Technical Histories of the Internet & other Network Protocols (Computer Science Department, University of Texas Austin).
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Further reading
• First Monday, a peer-reviewed journal on the Internet established in 1996 as a Great Cities Initiative of
the University Library of the University of Illinois at
Chicago, ISSN: 1396-0466
• Rise of the Network Society, Manual Castells, WileyBlackwell, 1996 (1st ed) and 2009 (2nd ed), ISBN
978-1-4051-9686-4
• “The Internet: Changing the Way We Communicate” in America’s Investment in the Future, National
Science Foundation, Arlington, Va. USA, 2000
• “Lessons from the History of the Internet”, Manuel
Castells, in The Internet Galaxy, Ch. 1, pp 9–
35, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-19925577-1
• “Media Freedom Internet Cookbook” by the OSCE
Representative on Freedom of the Media Vienna,
2004
• The Internet Explained, Vincent Zegna & Mike Pepper, Sonet Digital, November 2005, Pages 1 – 7.
• “How Much Does The Internet Weigh?", by Stephen
Cass, Discover, 2007
• “The Internet spreads its tentacles”, Julie Rehmeyer,
Science News, Vol. 171, No. 25, pp. 387–388, 23
June 2007
• Internet, Lorenzo Cantoni & Stefano Tardini, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 978-0-203-69888-4
13
External links
• The Internet Society
• Berkman Center for Internet and Society
• European Commission Information Society
EXTERNAL LINKS
• Living Internet, Internet history and related information, including information from many creators
of the Internet
19
14
14.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
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Andre3k1, Incnis Mrsi, Reedy, Tarret, Prodego, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, VigilancePrime, McGeddon, Kenmcfa, CopperMurdoch, Ederjar, Tale, Unyoyega, Pgk, Vald, Shervink, Jacek Kendysz, Kilo-Lima, KocjoBot, Millifoo, Clpo13, Midway, Fulldecent,
Yelgrun, Mmeri, Delldot, Drzoidberg, Irrelivant, MindlessXD, Srnelson, Vilerage, Parkinn, TheDoctor10, Edonovan, Edgar181, MelancholieBot, Tommstein, Junipercwc, Xaosﬂux, Cachedio, PeterSymonds, Ohnoitsjamie, Folajimi, Choalbaton, Jack slack, Drn8, Chris the
speller, Bidgee, Persian Poet Gal, Bad Bud, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, Keryst, Sadads, 000o, Oni Ookami Alfador, Omghgomg, TheLeopard,
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Yashgaroth, Daniel5127, Filelakeshoe, Nikk32, Erikringmar, Jworld2, Shebaboy102, Mr.happy, Ryt, Lahiru k, Orangutan, SkyWalker,
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Stateguy, Bbao, Dgw, Green caterpillar, Lemmio, Lentower, INVERTED, Moreschi, Old Guard, Casper2k3, Ravensfan5252, Www06,
Linux Rocks, Tex, Helios Entity 2, Oden, MikeWren, Phatom87, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Karimarie, Cahk, Mblumber, Peripitus, Ryan,
Mike Christie, Johnny-5, Steel, UncleBubba, Chris21192, Gogo Dodo, BlueAg09, Icewindﬁresnow, Flowerpotman, Llort, ST47, XeoWizzard, WikiWikiMan, Eu.stefan, Tkynerd, Cbaxter1, SymlynX, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Phydend, Nathan nfm, Dbeilhartz, Grison,
K00LKid, ZerD, Inkington, Waxigloo, Kozuch, NorthernThunder, Toolingu, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Niubrad, Sthow, Hydrajr, Satori
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Kevkoch5, Wompa99, Headbomb, KillaDilla, Pjvpjv, West Brom 4ever, WillMak050389, PizzaMan (usurped), Tapir Terriﬁc, SomeStranger, TheJosh, Mr pand, Merbabu, Irvingbird, Dagvadorj, Jeph paul, Sinn, NigelR, Dinardi, Strongriley, AgentPeppermint, Zachary,
Tzhourdeka, Adw2000, Tocino, GreatLiver, Central2, Insiriusdenial, Natalie Erin, SignorSimon, Navigatr85, AlefZet, Escarbot, Oreo
Priest, Cyp01, Handface, Mentiﬁsto, Porqin, WIkiHorseMan, Sunshine22 858, KrakatoaKatie, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, Speedysam,
AbstractClass, Jsnruf, Majorly, Yonatan, PARA19, Gioto, Luna Santin, Widefox, Kramden4700, BossOfTheGame, Opelio, Asdfghty,
SummerPhD, Scrolls, Bigtimepeace, Grich, Monsier Pie, CobraWiki, Quintote, Joelscorp, Dr. Blofeld, Autocracy, Readro, Jj137, Nycceo, Scepia, Smartse, Dylan Lake, PhJ, Geape, Malcolm, Julie Deanna, Spencer, RajeshPandey, Madmax vii, Arx Fortis, Zidane tribal,
Myanw, TI85, Canadian-Bacon, Kariteh, Yet-another-user, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Pguerra, Kaobear, Moe kuwait, AaronKaplan, MER-C,
Sonicsuns, The Transhumanist, Malnourish, Rockhall, Tech2blog, Gamefreek76, H3llbringer, MODS=FAIL, Andonic, Naugahyde, Mwarren us, Ytmnd6, Martinkunev, Bigwig77, Pkoppenb, Dream Focus, Kirrages, Paladin656, Ô, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Yahel Guhan,
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Coldwell, Rivertorch, Jops, Michaelhaslip, Tedickey, Xeddy, Dinosaur puppy, Epidown, Bookuser, Prestonmcconkie, Tomatoe, Morganp7, Tokyogirl119, Djjkxbox, Indon, Srice13, Animum, Subatomicguy, SSZ, Hekxcieksdl, Shady Hippo, Mapper76, Loonymonkey,
Whiney, M8al, Interﬂop, Spellmaster, 3idiot, Jacobko, Arfan, DerHexer, Kgﬂeischmann, Wikigreatest, Ostaph7, Bitbit, Aviaris, Abbos,
HiB2Bornot2B, B9 hummingbird hovering, Stephenchou0722, Timknell, EtienneDolet, Hdt83, MartinBot, Michael Podgorski, Sjjupadhyay, Pagw, BetBot, You must have cookies enabled to log in to Wikipedia., Jay-d123, Poeloq, Piuneer, Aladdin Sane, Lol at Lilo, Sl021,
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plane, Thewallowmaker, Smokizzy, Lilac Soul, Siliconov, Pomte, Mikaida, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Trusilver, AstroHurricane001, Adavidb,
UBeR, Numbo3, Zib redlektab, Hans Dunkelberg, Piercetheorganist, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Public Menace, MoogleEXE, Jesant13, Mike Cherim, Jreferee, Mike.lifeguard, Octopus-Hands, Golfballock, Enchantian, Monkeyman393, Katalaveno, Smeira, Guade00,
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Lopez, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Larryisgood, Thedjatclubrock, Raza514, Orphic, Derekbd, MarcRS, Imacg3, Reymysterio01, TheRhani,
Bry9000, Gluttenus, Majoreditor, MagicBanana, Freewayeric, LeilaniLad, Barneca, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, JayEsJay, Eric outdoors,
Drunkenmonkey, Domstabsdogs, Frigglinn, TXiKiBoT, Ageing Geek, Mercurywoodrose, Berk, DaManWitDaPlan, Maximillion Pegasus, Antony, joseph, Tomsega, Sarenne, GDonato, Miranda, Dchall1, Wikidemon, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Stagefrog2, Qxz,
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Maxim, FlushinQwnzNyc, Olgerd, Shane3x, Wikidrone20000, Maksdo, Flash man999, RadiantRay, Aphilo, Mwilso24, Cybaxter, Wenli,
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Tom, Moonriddengirl, Euryalus, Kwirky88, BotMultichill, Gannzor, Gnoluyr, S M Woodall, Krawi, Harrystown, Geekmax, Lemonﬂash,
Callipides, Gerakibot, Missy Prissy, YourEyesOnly, Parhamr, Caltas, Perspectoﬀ, Jacotto, Arsenal0328, Dinestysfaith, Lennartgoosens,
Luxurius, G0dsweed, Knows lots, The Flying Purple Hippo, Maddenplayer, Ph1r35p4wn, Excelsior f, Spedwehavedisabilaty, Foboy,
Purbo T, Arda Xi, Keilana, Carmen.banea, RucasHost, NickD310, Pxma, Hobbit ﬁngers, Shreyash02, Tiptoety, Radon210, Oda Mari,
Elcobbola, Elmidmibbs, Yatesie, URBOSAUR, Hiddenfromview, Jazzilla, Tuuuuuuuubes, Diverock, Puremind, Scott981992, Krapface,
Aruton, Makemebad, Oxymoron83, MangaFreak0, Smilesfozwood, AngelOfSadness, Nuttycoconut, Sparsh717, Lightmouse, Malunis T,
14.2
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21
KathrynLybarger, Yamaka122, Ceas webmaster, BenoniBot, Poser-xox, Dillard421, Stephen Shaw, Svick, Leonidasthespartan, Promodulus, C'est moi, Spartan-James, JohnnyMrNinja, Anchor Link Bot, IamYossarian, Modelun88, Tfcollective, Wiggleintatter, Wisejoker,
Wiknerd, Maﬁoosnik, Dust Filter, Altzinn, Justin050190, Brandork, DavidJGW, Saghar2, Moarmudkipzlulz, Jons63, Into The Fray, PerpetualSX, Velvetron, Skyhuperut, WikipedianMarlith, Mr. Granger, Twinsday, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Rumping, Noorkhanuk85,
PipepBot, The teller of all 666, Jumborulz, UniQue tree, Ankiththegreat, The Thing That Should Not Be, ArdClose, Theguns, Deedub1983,
Enerccio, NPhoenix, PopeMas214, Sukmas214, EoGuy, Bhuvanneshsat, Jayan13, Imthesmartdude, Supertouch, SchulteMAS214, FundieBuster, Shade11sayshello, Longcatislooooooooooooong, Wiki Edit 12, Meekywiki, Bookh, Bennettchipper, JRod451, Brezzo, Der Golem,
Justin.purvis, Gingaspice, Wardron, Cameronmas214, Regibox, Kingbob2, Popedawg, CounterVandalismBot, We4reLegion, Niceguyedc,
HulleGranz, Italianboy931, Eybaybay, Goel madhur, Jskleckner, Allr0und, Logan590, Marklar689, Sup chily monster, SimpleParadox, Cirt, Istiamar, Shantu123, Puchiko, Edwina Storie, Liddlerebel, Breakmoved, Blossom the Awesome, DragonBot, Excirial, OracleGD, Oldrockx666, Cgeorge316, Joeikin, Cam809, Danscool, Chotisornmas214, Technobadger, Raydomingo, THEODORMAS214,
Suttipongkanasaimas214, Xklsv, Bentonmas214, Cenarium, Dpiccuirro, Not Zilla3, Jotterbot, LOLPEAR, Hardcoregayslaveman, Jp5508,
Mrguythefourth, Jivadent, Joke321, I amm Beowulf!, Kuka369, CMW275, Dekisugi, Greatﬂyingsock, Seth662, Dorgan65, Pamela Gardiner, Thehelpfulone, Expert at this, Thingg, Ominousguardian, Tehmechapope, Aitias, YTMND64, Murali nmv, Musicmaniac15, NitroOx, Dickguertin, UrsaLinguaBWD, PCHS-NJROTC, Rasmasyean, Burner0718, Vybr8, Grey666, Relly Komaruzaman, Oogadabaga,
Slayerteez, Wawplok, Pianokid54, Psychcf, Anonymasity, Zavon25, Rawrnessalphy, Spick And Span, John0101ddd, Dryice2ooo, Marcusvtos, Vjlenin, Gblxyz, Tylermillersucks, Jade wezel, Jsoﬀer, Rﬂorenc, Codemastercode, Mangy Cheshire Cat, Freshbakedpie, Chabby,
Petchboo, Whitehorse1413, Clothed so hardsm, Little Mountain 5, Rreagan007, Sloud74, Avi1111, Good Olfactory, BK08, Eaaiscool,
Kbdankbot, Blcarson, Bluejm2, Grayfell, Phillejay, Jkasd, Mabdul, Hirschtick3, Jgeer, Bandj, Capouch, M.nelson, Hyperthermia, Zellfaze, Sibbic, Bigbrotha3, Tothwolf, Blethering Scot, AnotherDeadPerson, Vocation44, Technician2, Damiens.rf, CarsracBot, Joycloete,
AndersBot, Fottry55i6, Favonian, Amitesh3011, Guﬀydrawers, Numbo3-bot, St ttb, Equilibrium007, Rehman, WQDW412, Lightbot,
DigitalSorcerer, SasiSasi, Jarble, JEN9841, Drew thomas amirault, LuK3, Pointer1, Publicly Visible, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, The Grumpy
Hacker, Pineapple fez, Rud Hud Hudibras, EnochBethany, KamikazeBot, Timir Saxa, ‫محبوب عالم‬, Squish7, Nybiker1, OregonD00d,
AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, 1exec1, Jim1138, 90, JaredInsanity, Tehori, Wikisanchez, EryZ, RandomAct, Mahmudmasri, SusanBrackman,
Citation bot, Carlsotr, Lord Aro, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Agather, PabloCastellano, Sman24, Khajidha, TechBot, DSisyphBot, Jmundo, Marxercise, Gahuntly, GrouchoBot, Solphusion, Eriktoto, Brandon5485, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Kesaloma, AlexPlante, Yoganate79, Stratocracy, Jangirke, Ronz91, Justinwiki324, Natural Cut, Erik9, HackerOnSteroids69, Thinker jones,
CommodoreAngryy, Dan larsen, Cocklip, Jugdev, GliderMaven, 802geek, Tiramisoo, W Nowicki, Flubberdubbe, Raznice, Hunter-Ing,
Bambuway, Louperibot, Citation bot 1, Manywindows, Littleduty2, MacMed, I dream of horses, ChrisJBenson, LittleWink, Spyke411,
Rafaelluik, Lorenzocantoni, Dana60Cummins, Wonsoh, Beao, Computerquip, Zhonghuo, Bband11th, Ivasykus, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, DriveMySol, TangoFett, Lotje, Jarmihi, Duoduoduo, Kitfoxxe, Tbhotch, Mileshalverson, FelixtheMagniﬁcent, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, HeinzzzderMannn, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Timtempleton, Tallungs, Dewritech, Sharkticon Guy, Roscheray,
Faolin42, MechaWave, Gagarine, P. S. F. Freitas, Mz7, Eagardea, Lolnob, Checkingfax, Liquidmetalrob, Bcanoerrecart, NexCarnifex,
BWP1234, Ora Stendar, Aronoel, H3llBot, Drangob123, SporkBot, Rapidosity, TcomptonMA, W163, Gsarwa, Septuaginta, Bomazi,
ChuispastonBot, NorCal764, Knochen, Senator2029, Will Beback Auto, Jwhimmelspach, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Incompetence,
Odisha1, Movses-bot, Wikifun95, Dubious Irony, Frietjes, Cntras, Hazhk, Aurora Glory Paradise, Joshua Gyamﬁ, Jebethe, Sirkh1,
Aurelie Branchereau-Giles, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Bibcode Bot, Someone35, Areeb cool, Anagramology, BG19bot, Pappy333,
Wri0013, Kndimov, AvocatoBot, Zerbu, Davidiad, Bereziny, Compfreak7, Cadiomals, Enervation, Floating Boat, Bfax, Zmasterodinternetz, In4matt, Meclee, Hamish59, Maurice Flesier, Merritttttt, Minsbot, Oleg-ch, Bonkers The Clown, Pskelkar74, MeanMotherJr, Da9iel,
ChrisGualtieri, Rezonansowy, Mogism, Sri555666, Coolness107, Jemappelleungarcon, DouglasDean, Paspie, Jonhope123, Jo-Jo Eumerus,
Combating Ignorance, Zalunardo8, Jennpliu, Neo Poz, Liketotaly, EllenCT, OldFishHouse, Thevideodrome, Atotalstranger, Bhasinnitish,
Abhikpal2509, Legendiii, Concord hioz, Monkbot, John Ozyer-Key, Hedieh Taraghi, Michael F 1967, Vincent60030, Evidense, YJAX,
User26954344524345, Ithewanderer, Daniela C DeMaria, Radawebs, ChamithN, DangerousJXD, None159, Rpot2, TechnologyExplorer,
Kaufmanitay, StanfordLinkBot, Craftdraw, SoSivr, Rajahllame, Lymaniﬀy, Shuﬄeman117, Abb2webb and Anonymous: 2056
14.2
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22
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Original artist: Jeﬀrey Ogden (W163)
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Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/
WebsitesByLanguagePieChart.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on data from “Usage of content languages for websites”, W3Techs.com, a division of Q-Success DI Gelbmann GmbH, original on 22 April 2012 accessed 30 December
2011, update on 2 July 2013 accessed 26 April 2013, URL: http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all
Original artist: Jeﬀ Ogden (W163)
• File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen
• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use oﬃcial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
14.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0