1. science
2. biology
3. zoology
4. endangered species

Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
Dirar H. Nasr;* Mohamed E. Hamza; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad **
Abstract
Several studies have been carried out in Sudan by national and international
scientists with emphasis on the status of coral reefs and their biodiversity. Little
work has been done with regard to mangroves and sea-grass beds compared
with that donne with regard to coral reefs. These studies reflected the threats
facing marine biodiversity including habitat destruction, environmental
degradation from oil related, and pollution from land based activities. in this
paper trends in conservation of marine biodiversity including past activities
and recent initiatives were described. The role of the Regional Organization
for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
(PERSGA) is highlighted with regard to legal aspects, capacity development,
and promotion of on-the-ground projects concerning conservation of marine
ecosystems and their biological diversity.
Introduction
The Red Sea itself is probably one of
the most biologically diverse tropical
seas in the world outside the IndoPacific centre of marine biodiversity
in the Indo-malay region.
The Sudanese Red Sea coast has
a total length of approximately 750
km including inlets and bays. There
are 7 ecosystems recorded from the
Red Sea and Sudanese coast which
include “Sabkhats”, Marshes and
Wetlands, Sandy Shores, Rocky
Shores, Mangroves, Coral Reefs
and sea grasses; more than 200
species of corals recorded, of which
about 6% are endemic; 170 species
of echinoderms, of which 5.3%
are endemic; about 500 species of
benthic algae have been recorded and
over 1,000 species of fish (Sheppard
et al., 1992).
General works on the hydrology
and oceanography in Sudanese waters
was reviewed by UNEP/N (1988) and
Sheppard et al. (1992). The climate is
arid with an average annual rainfall
of 111 mm, falling mostly in the wet
season of November to February. Sea
* Faculty of Marine Scinces, Red Sea University.
** Faculty of Animal production, University of Sudan for Science and Technology
Red Sea University Journal, Refereed scientific biannual Journal
Vol.(2)Jun -2012
7
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
surface temperatures measured in the
Port Sudan area range from 26.2°C to
30.5°C, with salinities from 38­to 41‰
(Records of the Institute of Marine
Research, Red Sea University). Both
parameters tend to increase in semienclosed sheltered bays and coastal
lagoons. Generally, winds are from
a northerly direction, and near-shore
surface currents follow the prevailing
wind direction.
It is well known that coral reefs
contain the richest marine biodiversity
among other ecosystems. In Sudan,
they have attracted the attention
of many scientists. Species from
Sanganeb (Schroeder and Scheer,
1981), Wingate (Scheer and Pillai,
1983) and Suakin (El Mak, 1988),
and the reefs in the vicinity of Port
Sudan (Schroeder and Nasr, 1983)
and the Towartit reef complex (Vine
and Vine, 1980) have been listed and
extensively described. Comparative
ecological analysis of biota and
habitats in littoral and shallow sublittoral waters has been carried out in
Sudanese Red Sea with emphasis on
Sanganeb Atoll (Krupp et al., 1993).
Plankton fauna (Nasr, 1980; El Hag
and Nasr, 1989), seaweeds (Dafalla
and Karim, 1980), the biology of pearl
oysters (Nasr, 1982, 1984), penaeid
shrimps (Elhag, 1978; Branford,
1980, Ahmed, 2003), fishes (Abu
Gideiri, 1984), molluscs (Mastaller,
1978), sea cucumber (Ibrahim, 2001)
and seabirds (Elsheikh, 2007).
Increasing threats to Sudan’s coral
8
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
reefs have been reviewed (UNEP/
IUCN, 1988, Schroeder et al. 1980,
Nasr, 1985, Elhag, 1999), but
recent analysis by PERSGA (2001)
addresses current causes of concern
in a greater depth.
Efforts for the conservation of such
diverse coral reefs and associated
fauna and flora in Sudan have
taken place since early seventies
(Schroeder et al. 1980, Nasr, 1985).
Recently, institutional and legal
frameworks have been developed
to protect the marine environment
and their biodiversity through the
activities of the PERSGA.
Status of Marine Biodiversity
in Sudan
The most widely used definition of
biodiversity considers three levels:
genetics, species and ecosystem
diversity (Norse et al., 1986).
Conservation of the Biological
Diversity in the sea has been
neglected more than that on land, yet
the sea is rich in genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity (Norse, 1993).
The biodiversity at the genetic
level is the least visible and the least
studied compared with the ecosystem
and species levels.
The coastal and marine environments
of the Sudan consist of: an arid
coastal zone, coastal wetlands (in
some areas), mangroves, seagrasses,
and coral reefs. These ecosystems
are the basis of much of the Sudan’s
coastal and marine biodiversity. They
Red Sea University Journal, Refereed scientific biannual Journal
Vol.(2)Jun -2012
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
are also vital to the livelihood of the
coastal populations from fisheries
and recreational point of view. They
stabilize and protect the coastline;
moreover, they are linked by the
movement of water through them, and
decline in the health of one will have
impacts on the others. The aridity of
the coastal zone and availability of
water supplies concentrated human
settlement at Port Sudan and Suakin
and created a reliance on the marine
environment as a source of food.
Coral reefs: some scientists referred
to these reefs, in the past, as being
among the most diverse in the Red
Sea (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). However,
the reality is more complex due
to the interplay of many physical
and environmental factors (Vine
& Vine, 1980). Others considered
these reefs to be in moderate to good
health, despite recent reports of
extensive coverage of algae over a
high proportion of the fringing reefs
(Pilcher and Nasr, 2003).
The Towartit reef complex, has
been studied extensively by Vine
and Vine (1980) who report poor
hard coral growth and high algal
covering on the fringing reef south
of Port Sudan. Hard corals comprise
significantly more of the substrate
offshore in the Towartit complex
(Head, 1980), and the high density of
the offshore reefs of Suakin decreases
as one proceeds towards the coastal
fringing reef.
Surveys by Nasr and Al-Sheikh
Red Sea University Journal, Refereed scientific biannual Journal
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
(2000) at Abu Hashish Jetty (Port
Sudan) revealed that the percentage
of livehard coral (HC) ranged from
23.5 % at 10 m depth and 50 % at
5 m, while dead coral (DC) ranged
from 2.5 % at 10 m depth and 0 %
at 5 m depth suggesting that the area
was comparatively healthy.
The Suakin Archipelago consists
of a number of offshore islands rising
from relatively deep water. They
contain coral reefs with a diverse
fauna. The Archipelago is a nesting
site for marine turtles and some sea
birds.
Dungonab Bay and Mukawar
Island (180 km north of Port Sudan)
are home of coral reefs, whale sharks
and the largest aggregations of manta
rays in the Red Sea, and contain
many important nesting beaches for
turtles and sea birds (PERSGA/GEF.
2004). Dungonab Bay has also been
known for years as an important area
for the cultivation of the pearl oyster,
Pinctada margaritifera.
Mangroves: There are extensive
mangrove stands in Sudan especially
south of Port Sudan. Mangroves
are an important ecosystem. Their
extensive root systems stabilize
sediments and protect the coastline;
they provide shelter for various
marine animals, birds and the
juveniles of commercially important
fish and crustaceans eg. Mullets
and shrimps–thereby enhancing
overall biodiversity. The dead leaves
and branches of mangroves are a
Vol.(2)Jun -2012
9
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
source of food within the mangrove
ecosystem and also offshore, such as
in shrimp communities.
The low tidal range of the Red Sea
naturally limits the expansion and
width of mangrove stands in Sudan.
It is evident from recent assessments
(PERSGA/GEF, 2001; Wilkie, 1995)
that mangroves are diminishing
through anthropogenic influence.
However, little work has been done
with regard to mangroves and seagrass compared to coral reefs. The
status of other associated flora and
fauna were reviewed by UNEP/IUCN
(1988) and PERSGA/GEF (2004).
Living Marine Resource: The
fisheries of the Sudanese Red Sea
are of considerable socio-economic
importance to Sudan in terms of
national food security and income
generation for rural communities.
Fisheries resources are exploited
by artisanal subsistence fishers and
local commercial fisheries targeting
invertebrates, demersal finfish and
pelagic finfish. The shark resources
are heavily fished in Sudan by
fishers, working outside their normal
territorial boundaries for the SouthEast Asia shark-fin market (PERSGA/
GEF. 2003a). Traditional fisheries
for sea cucumber have declined in
Sudan because of overexploitation
for export markets.
Seagrass beds:
Seagrass roots stabilize sediments,
and in conjunction with nearby
mangroves, protect the coastline.
10
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
Water currents are reduced in the
vicinity of seagrass beds leading
to the deposition of fine sediments
and the clarification of surrounding
waters. Many marine animals rely
upon seagrass beds for shelter and
food, including water birds, fish and
crustaceans, and the internationally
important dugong and green turtles.
Commercially, important fish and
crustaceans use seagrass beds as
nursery grounds. Nocturnally, active
fish migrate at night from the nearby
coral reefs to the seagrass beds to
feed.
Globally important species: The
Sudanese waters support some
internationally important species,
notably marine cetaceans mammals
represented by dolphins, dugong, sea
turtles and seabirds.
Resident and migratory bird
Popu­lations: Coastal wetlands, the
shallow waters adjacent to reefs and
islands, and the scattered islands
provide ideal habitat for a large
number of seabirds. Studies on
seabirds for the whole Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden region (RSGA) are few
and carried out one to two decades
ago (PERSGA/GEF 2003b).Studies
recorded 17 true seabird species and
14 other water bird species. Many of
those recorded in the RSGA Region
are found in Sudanese coastal
waters such as the White–eyed Gull
(Larus leucophthalmus), Sooty Gull
(Larus hemprichii), White-cheeked
Tern (Sterna repressa), Swift Tern
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Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
(Sterna bergii), Brown Noddy
(Anous stolidus), in addition to Sooty
Falcon, Osprey, Bridled Tern and
Crab Plover. ( Elsheikh,2007)
Threats facing
marine biodiversity
The threats facing marine biodiversity
include habitat destruction, over–
exploitation of living marine resources,
environmental degradation from
petroleum development, significant
risks from marine transportation, and
pollution from industrial activities.
Coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass
beds are being damaged by a variety
of coastal developments notably landfilling for urban expansion, and as a
direct result of human activities. The
major threat of marine turtle are from
a variety of activities including eggs
poaching, direct and indirect incidental
catch through fishing operations, and
marine pollution including persistent
marine debris.The threats facing
seabird populations include human
disturbance, human exploitation,
habitat destruction (especially from
urban expansion) and pollution. In
Sudan, extensive agricultural use of
pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
is known to occur along the coast of
Sudan. Potential hazards include the
Tokar Delta Agricultural Scheme
and the country’s Locust Control
Programme. The black rat, Rattus
rattus, was observed preying on
birds’ eggs and chicks, and attacking
gulls (PERSGA, 2003).
Red Sea University Journal, Refereed scientific biannual Journal
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
There are large numbers of nesting
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in the
Mukawwar Island and Dungonab
Bay MPA. Of particular note is
the occurrence of occupied and
undisturbed nests close to human
settlements within the MPA
(PERSGA/GEF 2004). However,
detailed research is needed to
investigate the effects of these
threats. Yet, seabird must be given
priority in conservation.
Trends in the conservation of
biodiversity Past activities
Initiatives to aware the officials
and public of the importance of
coral reefs and their conservation in
Sudan were initiated in early 1980
(Schroeder et al. 1980 and Nasr,
1985). Such initiatives were guided
by the Sudan Marine Conservation
Committee under the leadership of
the former Institute of Oceanography
and with the support of IUCN/
WWF and PERSGA following the
signing of the Jeddah Convention
(1982). These initiatives included
public education, improvement of
legal protection and comprehensive
scientific baseline studies.
Recent Initiatives
At the regional level, PERSGA took
the initiative to conserve key habitats
and key species in the region, through
five steps towards their protection.
The first step was developing a set
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11
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
of Standard Survey Methods (SSM).
The second step involved training
regional specialists in these methods.
The third step was conducted to
determine the status of these habitats
and species in each country. The
fourth step was the development of
Regional Action Plans (RAP) for the
Conservation of these marine habitats
and species. Finally, PERSGA
supported the RSGA countries to
develop National Action Plans (NAPs)
as a fundamental step harmonizing
the RAP to suit each particular
country case. At the national level,
therefore, conservation initiatives
in the Sudanese Red Sea continued
with the support of PERSGA. An
ICZM plan for Sudan has been
developed; National Action Plans
for the conservation of mangroves,
marine turtles and seabirds were
prepared; on-the- ground projects
are being funded by PERSGA and
developed by the Sudan according
to the needs of the country. A
Regional Environmental Monitoring
Programme has been prepared by
PERSGA and implemented by its
member countries. In Sudan, these
projects included conservation of coral
reefs, rehabilitation of mangroves
(Faculty of Marine Science and
Fisheries) and continuous monitoring
of the quality of sea water (Institute
of Marine Sciences).
The National Action Plans for coral
reef and mangrove ecosystems define
a set of priority actions pertaining
12
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
to specific objectives aimed at
ameliorating the predicted impacts
on reefs, mangroves and associated
coastal habitats; implementation
of ICZM planning, enhancement
of public education and awareness,
management of MPA, ecologically
sustainable reef fisheries and mangrove
utilization, impacts of shipping and
marine pollution, conducting research
and monitoring. These priority
actions resulted in the declaration
of Dungonab Bay and Mukawar
Island as a Marine Protected Area
following comprehensive surveys
and development of Site-Specific
Management Plan and an Oil Spill
Response Centre at Port Sudan.
Legal aspects
At the regional level, although Sudan
has ratified a number of regional
and international Conventions and
Protocols which are relevant to the
protection of the environment in
general, the national legal framework
for the protection of the environment
in Sudan can be described as weak.
In accordance with Article III
of the Jeddah Convention (1982),
PERSGA formulated two additional
protocols: (a) Protocol concerned
with the Conservation of biodiversity
and the Establishment of Network
of Protected Areas in the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden and (b) Protocol
concerned with the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-Based
Activities in the Red Sea and Gulf of
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Vol.(2)Jun -2012
Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
Aden. The two Protocols were signed
by Plenipotentiaries during 2005.
Article 4 of the Biodiversity Protocol
takes into consideration the following
general obligations: protection,
conservation and management of
natural biological diversity with
particular emphasis on threatened
species; establishment of protected
areas; adoption of strategies, plans and
programmes for the conservation of
biodiversity; adoption of appropriate
measures for contingency plans for
environmental emergencies; adoption
of comprehensive Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and control
land-based and sea-based sources
of pollution that pose a significant
impact on habitats and species.
At the national level, several
national legislative frameworks are
in place that relate to coral reefs: the
Sudanese Fishery Ordinances and
Regulations of 1937 amended in
1975 prohibits overfishing, dumping
of any harmful substances including
oil into the sea and the collection
of corals, shells and aquarium fish;
the Environmental Health Act of
1975 prohibits dumping into the
sea of any item that is harmful to
humans or animals in addition to the
Sudanese Maritime Law which has
been approved in 2009.
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
international levels. These would
strengthen Sudan’s legal framework
benefiting coral reefs and their
biodiversity. At the same time, there
is a need for a planned research and
monitoring programme on coral
reefs in addition to the enhancement
of community participation and
awareness. An integrated coastal
management plan which takes into
consideration shipping, coastal
development, pollution and natural
resources, has been prepared for
Sudan through the assistance of
PERSGA; if its implementation
is effectively enforced, it should
cater for most of the impacts on the
biodiversity at ecosystem and species
levels.
Conclusion
In spite of the approved legislation,
several
legislative
decisions
are needed at both national and
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Management and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity in Sudan
Dirar H. Nasr ; Mohamed E. Hamza ; Moamar E. Ali; Ahmed E. Hamad
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:‫مستلخص‬
‫ ودوليني عن حالة الشعاب‬،‫لقد مت إجراء دراسات عدة يف السودان من قبل علماء وطنيني‬
، ‫ غري أن ما مت القيام به من عمل فيما يتعلق بأشجار املانغروف‬.‫املرجانية وتنوعها البيولوجي‬
‫ وقد عكست هذه الدراسات‬.‫ومسطحات احلشائش البحرية قليل باملقارنة مع الشعاب املرجانية‬
‫ والتدهور البيئي من‬،‫التهديدات اليت تواجه التنوع البيولوجي البحري مبا يف ذلك تدمري املوائل‬
‫ يف هذا البحث قد مت وصف‬.‫ والتلوث الناجم عن األنشطة الربية‬،‫جراء أنشطة متعلقة بالزيت‬
‫االجتاهات السائدة يف جمال احملافظة على التنوع البيولوجي البحري مبا يف ذلك األنشطة السابقة‬
‫ ومت تسليط الضوء على دور اهليئة اإلقليمية للمحافظة على بيئة البحر األمحر‬.‫واملبادرات احلديثة‬
‫ وتشجيع تنفيذ مشاريع على أرض‬،‫ وتنمية القدرات‬،‫وخليج عدن فيما يتعلق باجلوانب القانونية‬
.‫الواقع فيما يتعلق باحملافظة على النظم االيكولوجية البحرية وتنوعها البيولوجي‬
16
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Vol.(2)Jun -2012