ACL Injury and Reconstruction Impairs Pressure Pain Sensitivity and Arterial Flow Mediated Dilation BY Jeffrey D. Clark B.S., Central Michigan University, 1998 M.S.P.T, Central Michigan University, 2001 M.B.A., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2006 THESIS Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Rehabilitation Sciences in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Chicago, 2013 Chicago, Illinois Defense Committee: Shane A Phillips, Chair and Advisor Carol A Courtney, Advisor, Physical Therapy Sangeetha Madhavan, Physical Therapy ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my thesis committee--Shane Phillips, Carol Courtney and Sangeetha Madhavan for their unwavering support and assistance. They provided guidance in all areas that helped me accomplish my research goals and enjoy myself in the process. A number of individuals involved with data collection and analysis were extremely helpful to me during this time, and I would like to thank them as well— JDC ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. INTRODUCTION………………………………..................................... A. Background……………………………………………………….. B. Main Objective……………………………….............................. C. Hypothesis………………………………………………………… D. Rationale……………………………………................................ 1 1 1 1 2 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ACL, OA AND VASCULAR DYSFUNCTION A. Review of Literature on ACL injury and OA 1. ACL Injury: Prevalence, Cost and OA risk…………..…… 2. OA and Cardiovascular Risk……………………………… 3. Inflammation in ACL injuries and OA – Inflammation Drives Degeneration………………………………………. 4. Inflammation in ACL injuries and OA Induces Nociceptive Sensitization…………………………………. B. Background of Primary Testing Measures 1. Arterial Flow Mediated Dilation ………………………… 2. Pressure pain Threshold Testing……………………….. 3 4 5 9 11 14 III METHODS…………………………………………………….................. A. Study Design and Subjects…………………………..................... B. Overview of Study Protocol………………………………………. C. Pressure Pain Threshold Testing………….................................... D. Brachial and Popliteal Artery Flow-Mediated Dilation…............. G. Statistical Analysis………………………………………………... 15 15 15 16 17 19 IV RESULTS………………………………………………………………… A. Subject Inclusion and Exclusion…………………………………. B. Demographics…………………………………………………….. C. Pressure Pain Threshold…………………………………………... 1. PPT at the Hand……………………………………………….. 2. Right and Left PPT Comparisons……………………………... 3. PPT at the Tibia ………………………………………………. 4. PPT at the Medial Tibiofemoral Joint………………………… D. Brachial Artery Flow Mediated Dilation…………………………. E. Popliteal Artery Peak Shear Rate…………………………………. F. Popliteal Artery Flow Mediated Dilation………………………… G. Correlation of FMD to PPT………………………………………. H. Correlation of Pain to Chronicity………………………………… 20 20 20 22 22 22 23 24 28 29 30 36 39 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) CHAPTER PAGE V. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………........ A. Subject Characteristics……………................................................. B. Pain Comparisons…………………………………………………... C. FMD Comparisons……………………………………………….. E. OA to CVD Connection………………………………………….. F. Limitations……………………………………………………….. D. Conclusions……………………………………………………… 40 41 42 45 46 47 49 CITED LITERATURE…………………………………………………….. 50 VITA……………………………………………………………………….. 61 iv LIST OF TABLES TABLE I SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................. 21 TABLE II PPT AT DOMINANT HAND WEB SPACE ................................................................ 22 TABLE III RIGHT AND LEFT PPT COMPARISON AT KNEE JOINT LINE AND TIBIA...... 23 TABLE IV PRESSURE PAIN THRESHOLD AT MEDIAL TIBIA ............................................ 24 TABLE V PRESSURE PAIN THRESHOLD AT MEDIAL TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT LINE .... 25 TABLE VI BRACHIAL CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................... 28 TABLE VII POPLITEAL PEAK SHEAR RATE ......................................................................... 29 TABLE VIII POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS ...................................................................... 31 TABLE IX POPLITEAL CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................... 32 v LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 PPT AT THE MEDIAL TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT LINE ............................................. 26 FIGURE 2 UNILATERAL PPT COMPARISONS ......................................................................... 27 FIGURE 3 POPLITEAL PEAK SHEAR COMPARISONS .......................................................... 30 FIGURE 4 POPLITEAL FMD CONTROL VS ACL .................................................................... 31 FIGURE 5 RIGHT POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS ............................................................. 33 FIGURE 6 LEFT POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS ............................................................... 34 FIGURE 7 LEFT POPLITEAL FMD: CONTRALATERAL TO RIGHT SIDE INJURY ........... 35 FIGURE 8 SCATTER PLOT OF POPLITEAL FMD TO MEDIAL JOINT LINE PPT ............... 36 FIGURE 9 SCATTERPLOT OF TIBAL PPT TO POPLITEAL FMD .......................................... 37 FIGURE 10 SCATTER PLOT OF FMD TO PPT IN LEFT LEG OF RIGHT ACL-R .................. 38 FIGURE 11 CORRELATION OF PPT TO CHRONICITY .......................................................... 39 FIGURE 12 THEORETICAL MODEL .......................................................................................... 41 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACLS Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study ACL Anterior Cruciate Ligament ACL-R ACL reconstruction group BMI Body mass index CON Control Group CRP C-reactive protein CV Cardiovascular CVD Cardiovascular Disease DBP Diastolic blood pressure ECM Extracellular matrix ED Endothelial-dependent FMD Flow-mediated dilation HR Heart rate KOS-ADLS Knee Outcomes Survey – Activity of Daily Living Scale LDL Low-density lipoprotein LLE Left lower extremity MET Metabolic equivalent MTFJL Medial tibiofemoral joint line NO Nitric oxide NOS Nitric oxide synthase NTG Nitroglycerin vii OA Osteoarthritis RA Rheumatoid Arthritis ROS Reactive oxygen species RLE Right lower extremity PPT Pressure Pain Threshold SBP Systolic blood pressure viii SUMMARY A study investigating the pressure pain sensitivity and vascular effects of ACL injury with subsequent ACL surgical reconstruction was carried out using a non-randomized, crosssectional approach. One investigational visit was conducted on 15 subjects with ACL reconstructions and 14 subjects without lower extremity injury served as controls. All participants were between 18-40 years old and free of cardiovascular disease. Information on demographics, physical activity, medical history, and LE injury was collected for both groups. Pressure pain threshold with pressure algometry and arterial vascular dilation with ultrasonography (flow-mediated dilation) were assessed in both the upper and lower extremities. The ACL injury subjects were found to have lower pressure pain threshold and reduced FMD as compared to the control group. ix I. INTRODUCTION A. Background Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a common problem in the young, athletic population. Independent of surgical reconstruction, an ACL injury increases the risk for development of knee osteoarthritis (OA). Historically, people with ACL injuries tend to report lower levels of physical function and demonstrate altered neuromuscular recruitment patterns compared to age matched controls. There is a large inflammatory response to the acute injury and numerous reports of chronic elevation of various inflammatory markers following ACL injuries. The exact source of this chronic inflammation is unknown. However, its presence may impair both normal pain processing and vascular function. The relationship between pain, vascular dysfunction, and inflammation in the knee has not been investigated. B. Main Objective The main objective of this thesis was to determine if there is a relationship between knee ACL injury and subsequent reconstruction, local and/or remote pressure pain threshold (as a sign of altered nociceptive processing) and vascular dysfunction, associated with inflammation. C. Hypothesis It was hypothesized that rupture to the ACL and subsequent reconstruction results in the activation of numerous chronic pro-inflammatory mechanisms that sensitize both the peripheral and central nervous system and impair vascular function (flow mediated dilation). Dysfunction in either the nervous or vascular systems could contribute to the observed accelerated knee degeneration after ACL injury. Null hypothesis: No significant difference will exist in pressure pain threshold (PPT) and flow mediated dilation (FMD) when comparing a healthy population of 25-35 years olds with ACL reconstructions and a control group matched by age, sex and activity level. D. Rationale The rationale for investigating nociceptive processing and brachial and popliteal artery FMD in young adults stems from early trends in OA research showing a probable link between knee injury and the onset of both OA and CV disease. Understanding how knee injury affects endothelial function and pain processing clinically and physiologically has the potential to promote the development of new physical or pharmacological treatments and prevent the functional decline associated with OA. Since the developmental pathway of vascular dysfunction and nociceptive processing is complex and demonstrates individual variability, for the purpose of this study, a young subject sample, absent of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, age and BMI matched was selected. Previous work has shown numerous factors can affect vascular FMD response so careful exclusion criteria were employed to limit these confounding variables. Prior to reviewing the methods for this study, the background section will review the potential origins of OA following ACL injury and reconstruction, altered pain processing in ACL/OA population and the potential direct physiological link between OA and CVD/ endothelial dysfunction. 2 3 II. REVIEW OF ACL AND RELATED LITERATURE A. Review of Literature Relating to ACL injury and Osteoarthritis 1. ACL Injury: Prevalence, Cost and OA risk The incidence of new ACL injuries in the United States is estimated to be 200,000 annually, with 100,000 ACL reconstructions 1,2 performed each year at an annual cost of $3 billion. 3,4 Current estimates indicate tearing the ACL can ‘age’ the knee by approximately 30 years, leading to OA anywhere from 5-20 years after the injury.5 The highest incidence of ACL injury is in individuals 15-25 years old who participate in pivoting sports;6 which translates into subsequent high use demands on an abnormal knee. It has been recommended by the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons that individuals with ACL rupture discuss surgical options prior to return to high intensity sport, to avoid subsequent intra-articular damage.3 Although it is clear that ACL reconstruction does not prevent the development of OA,7 the decision to not have surgery also involves risk. At 10 year follow up in ACL patients who did not undergo reconstruction, 90% had meniscus damage and 70% had articular lesions;8-10 compared to reports of meniscal injuries in approximately 50% of initial ACL injuries4. Meniscus injury at or after the time of ACL injury may be a strong predictor of the development of OA. Neumann et al reported in a population of 79 subjects with ACL injury, that overall risk of OA was 16%, but increased to 37% in persons with any meniscal tear and decreased to zero percent in those without meniscus injury.4 In contrast, Struewer et al 2011, analyzed a population with isolated ACL injuries and no subsequent meniscal damage, finding at two year follow up 78% had some signs of OA and at mean 13.5 year follow-up a 95% prevalence of OA signs.11 Presently, the exact link between ACL injury, with or without subsequent reconstruction, and post-traumatic OA remains a topic of much debate and research. Underlying this debate is the challenge of identifying the mechanisms which mediate the transition between acute injury and pain to chronic pain and osteoarthritis. Identifying altered inflammatory and nociceptive processes following ACL injury may promote understanding of the resultant degenerative changes. 2. Osteoarthritis and Cardiovascular Risk Knee OA affects 27 million Americans and disables approximately 10% of those affected.12 Although the precise etiology of OA remains unknown, it is considered a multifactorial condition driven by a combination of local and systemic factors.13 Arthritis and related conditions, such as OA, cost the U.S. economy nearly $128 billion per year in medical care and indirect expenses, including lost wages and productivity.14 OA is not classically considered an inflammatory condition due to the absence of inflammatory cells (ie: neutrophils) in synovial fluid. Yet, recent research of inflammatory biomarkers shows elevated levels of cytokines such as interleukin 1, 6, 15 (IL-1, IL-6 and IL-15), tumor necrosis factor- α (TNFα) and transforming growth factor- β (TGF-β).15-18 Patients with risk factors for atherosclerosis, including hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance, also exhibit increased pro-inflammatory cytokines. These cytokines are known to impair endothelium-dependent vasodilation, an early 4 hallmark of atherosclerosis.19-21 Furthermore, people with OA or rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are at significantly higher risk of cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality versus the general population.22-25 In a recent survey study by Golightly et al NFL players with OA are more likely to report CVD, hypertension, diabetes, and depression than those without.26 The relationships between inflammatory markers, CV risk factor disease states (ie: obesity, hypertension and insulin resistance19-21 and lower physical function are relatively well established.27 Previous studies have shown that C-reactive protein (CRP) levels are associated with age, obesity (BMI) and CVD.28 While the link between OA and CVD remains uncertain, obesity remains an important factor. Several large, recent reports have not found a relationship between CRP levels and incidence or progression of OA independent of BMI.29,30 It is postulated that similar to other CVD risk factors, post-traumatic knee OA, increases circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines that stimulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation leading to impaired nitric oxide (NO) mediated endothelium-dependent dilation of peripheral blood vessels. In addition, sensitization of nociceptive pathways may be mediated by proinflammatory cytokines, thereby causing pain and subsequent decrease in function. The efferent secretion of neuropeptides such as Substance P and Calcitonin Gene Related Peptide (CGRP) from sensory afferents (noxious and non-noxious) may accentuate pain and inflammatory processes, through a mechanism referred to as neurogenic inflammation. 31 3. Inflammation in ACL injuries and OA – Inflammation Drives Degeneration Acute increases in cytokine levels after ACL injury are well established and by increasing inflammation at the knee, may function to promote both degeneration of the joint and chronic pain. It has been suggested that the two are separate but related processes.32 The 5 degenerative process has been studied in both animal and human models. Within 24 hours after injury, there is a rapid rise in cytokine levels (IL -6 and 8, tumor necrosis factor and keratin sulfate) that return in approximately 1 week, to a level comparable to a chronic knee OA group.33 It is unknown, when or if, the inflammatory cytokine levels return to a pre-injury baseline. Numerous studies have however identified various inflammatory cytokines as biomarkers for early and late stage knee OA.34,35 Sensory neurons are known afferents, but C-fibers (Group IV) can act efferently and release neuropeptides (Substance P and CGRP) that serve to increase neurogenic inflammation in the area.36 This chronic inflammatory environment and sensitization to the nervous system has the potential to negatively impact normal neuromuscular function, vascular function and articular cartilage. Normal articular cartilage is composed of a tight meshwork of collagen fibrils that entrap proteoglycans. In normal healthy joints, Type II collagen accounts for 90-95% of the collagen in articular cartilage.37 There are two major classes of proteoglycans: large aggregating proteoglycans monomers called aggrecans and small proteoglycans including decorin, biglycan and bifromodulin.37 Aggrecans have large numbers of chondroitin-sulfate and keratansulfate chains attached to a protein core filament.37 More advanced idiopathic OA has been associated with increased damage to and loss of type II collagen.38 Unknown mechanisms activate collagenases and aggrecanases that cleave type II collagen and aggrecans, leading to the breakdown of these vital articular cartilage building blocks. Nelson et al, in 2006, analyzed cartilage samples of 28 people undergoing ACL reconstruction and compared this to 21 human knee samples from autopsy.38 The ACL subjects were divided into two groups, greater than and less than 1 year since injury. Both groups showed significant increases in denaturation and 6 cleavage of type II collagen compared to controls (collected at autopsy from 21 persons with a median age of 53 years). The cartilage changes measured in the ACL population are similar to idiopathic OA and support the theory of an injury-induced degenerative process.38 Another investigation into type II collagen breakdown reveals urinary (u) CTX II levels (fragments of type II collagen) are elevated for at least 4 months in humans after ACL reconstruction. 39 Interestingly, after adjusting for BMI, uCTX-II levels were significantly higher at all time points compared to a control group. 39 This work by Chmielewski also highlights the possibility that surgical reconstruction is yet another insult to the knee that could further or reinforce the inflammatory degenerative cycle. In an animal model, ADAMTS-5 (ADisintegrin and Metalloproteinase with Thrombospondin Motif) has been identified as an aggrecanase responsible for the rapid onset of post-traumatic OA40. Malfait et al in 2010, utilized a surgical medial meniscus destabilization procedure to induce osteoarthritic degeneration and pain (demonstrated by withdrawal to mechanical stimulus) in wild-type mice as soon as 8 weeks post insult. ADAMTS-5 (aggrecanase-1) null mice were completely protected against degeneration and allodynia, therefore blocking the expression of aggrecanase prevents the development of OA and related sensory changes 40, in an animal model. Additional animal studies, using an ACL injury model, show rapid onset of degenerative changes in the knee after surgical ACL transection.41 Miller et al found six weeks after ACL transection in rabbits that synovial hyperplasia, capsular thickening, MCL scarring and bucket handle tears were observed in all 12 of the skeletally mature 1 year old New Zealand White rabbits that underwent ACL transection. 7 Animal model studies have demonstrated degenerative changes in both isolated ACL and meniscus injury models and human observational studies report knee OA will develop in nearly 50% of knees after ACL or meniscal injury.7,42-44 Despite the high prevalence of post-traumatic knee OA the precise connection between trauma and degenerative changes remains unclear. Aggrecanase-mediated degeneration of aggrecans is a hallmark feature of OA45. In subjects with previous knee meniscectomy but without radiographic OA, levels of synovial fluid aggrecans were weakly and inversely associated with increased loss of joint space over a period of 7.5 years.46 Although costly and time consuming, western blot analyses is the current gold standard for measurement of systemic levels of aggrecanase-cleaved aggrecans.47 Clinical tests of the serum and urine are developing and in the future may serve as excellent biomarkers for staging of knee OA.45 Byproducts of cartilage degeneration likely serve as a chronic chemical irritant and may trigger peripheral and central nociceptive processes that perpetuate alterations in the neuromuscular and vascular systems. The clinical use of biomarkers remains controversial. In a study sample that included 1235 subjects no association was found between 17 biomarkers measured and radiographic knee OA.48 Pain was not reported in this study and there was no long-term follow-up, therefore it is unknown if biomarker levels were associated with pain or the progression of degenerative changes. Clinically there is a weak correlation between pain and radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis.49 While knee OA affects an estimated 27 million Americans only 10 million will seek medical care due to complaints of pain.13 Current MRI based research by Zhang et al 2012 shows a strong link between synovitis and pain, with an odds ratio of 2.4 (p= 0.045) for “frequent knee pain” when synovitis is present on MRI50. More recent studies have also started to define the role of central sensitization in knee OA patients who report high levels of clinical 8 pain in the absence of moderate to severe radiographic knee OA.51 Clinical management of knee OA should improve as researchers develop a better understanding of the relationship between joint degeneration, inflammation and altered nociceptive processing. 4. Inflammation in ACL injuries and OA Induces Nociceptive Sensitization Inflammation can effect nociceptive pathways.31 This can be transient in the case of a mild injury that resolves, or more long lasting depending on injury severity or a multitude of factors that can lead to the development of chronic pain. An improved understanding of the local inflammatory mechanisms and peripheral and centrally mediated nociceptive mechanisms is necessary to understand the progression from acute injury to chronic pain and OA. Peripheral sensitization of the nervous system is defined as increased responsiveness and reduced threshold of nociceptors to stimulation of their receptive fields.52,53 Central sensitization is generally described as an increased responsiveness of nociceptive neurons in the central nervous system to normal or subthreshold afferent input leading to hyperalgesia.53 Both peripheral and central sensitization contribute to the development of hyperalgesia in the ACL injury and knee OA populations. Witonski et al in 2004, found elevated levels of the neuropeptide, substance P, in torn ACLs 1-4 months post injury, indicating the presence of neurogenic inflammation.54 Neurogenic inflammation is likely one of the key factors in both central nociceptive sensitization and alterations observed in neuromuscular performance. 9 Neuromuscular impairments in the ACL injury and knee OA populations are abundant. 55,56 Proprioceptive deficits have been identified in both populations and are typically found in the affected and even the unaffected knee. Functional deficits, such as giving way and gait limitations, may be associated with diminished proprioceptive acuity56 but limited evidence exists. Individuals with prior ACL rupture, complain of pain and ‘giving way’ during functional activities, even with restored static stability and normal strength of the surrounding musculature 57 . Surgical ACL reconstruction has been shown to improve functional status and quadriceps activation but not to the level of age matched controls.58 The factors that promote arthritic changes are complex. In addition to abnormal wear and tear from altered arthrokinematics, facilitated nociceptive mechanisms may promote pain at the ipsilateral and potentially, the contralateral knee, due to neurogenic inflammation.59 Heightened nociceptive reflexes, indicating central sensitization of nociceptive pathways, have been demonstrated in subjects following ACL rupture, in spite of the fact that all subjects were reportedly pain-free at the time of testing.60,61 Attempts to determine which ACL deficient individuals will be able to cope without surgical reconstruction have looked at quadriceps and hamstring strength and activation patterns, extent of joint laxity, proprioception and other sensory changes.62 Courtney et al 2006 found heightened hamstring activation patterns in response to unexpected platform perturbations, particularly in the group classified as ‘copers.’63 A later study demonstrated a facilitated flexor withdrawal reflex in a group of individuals with ACL deficiency, indicative of increased central nociceptive excitability, and thus suggested that heightened hamstring activation in this population may be a consequence of this altered pain processing.60 A similar pattern of heightened flexor withdrawal activation was observed in a knee OA population.64 Similar 10 patterns of heightened flexor withdrawal reflexes have been seen after joint injury in both animals65 and humans.66,67 B. Background of Primary Testing Measures 1. Arterial Flow Mediated Dilation Brachial artery FMD has been studied extensively in CVD populations and considered a reliable measurement tool and valid measure of widespread endothelial health.68 Current research reports, however, show an inconsistent relationship between upper extremity (UE) and lower extremity (LE) measures. A recent report by Thijssen et al found no correlation between measures in humans,69 while animal study research correlations do exist.70 Although there is less published research on LE arterial FMD, research shows an increased likelihood of atherosclerotic plaque development in the LE compared to the brachial and carotid arteries.71-73 It is possible that the pro-inflammatory environment local to the injury alters endothelial function. On the other hand, CV risk factors are known to impair endothelial function systemically. Since, there is a lack of correlation between LE and UE measures, and the impact of the cellular changes maybe local to the ACL injury; this study will probe FMD in bilateral popliteal arteries of young and otherwise healthy, lean subjects. In addition, brachial artery FMD will be used to determine local vs. systemic effect of ACL injury on FMD. The reliability of popliteal FMD measures has been established.69,74 Abnormal endothelial function marked by reduced dilation to an increase in blood flow (endothelium dependent FMD) is a well-established early indicator of CVD and is strongly correlated with the likelihood of future CV events.75 There is an ever growing evidence base that supports the need to maintain full function of the vascular endothelium in prevention of 11 atherosclerosis. Optimal function of the endothelium likely occurs through release of endothelial-derived factors such as nitric oxide (NO), which produce anti-proliferative, antiinflammatory, anti-thrombotic, and pain modulating properties, in addition to vasodilation.20,76 The cardiovascular risk associated with OA emphasizes the importance of studying endothelial dysfunction as a precursory event before CV symptoms arise. Endothelial dysfunction is an early indicator of blood vessel damage and atherosclerosis, 75,77 and is closely related to coronary endothelial function. 79 Endothelial function can be assessed through a reliable, noninvasive method called flow-mediated dilation (FMD), which is an ultrasonic assessment of FMD in response to occlusion-induced hyperemia. The assessment of endothelial function through FMD represents endothelium-derived NO availability in humans.79 During the FMD test, vasodilation occurs following an acute increase in blood flow, typically induced by circulatory arrest in the arm (supra-systolic cuff occlusion) for a period of 4-5 minutes. 80, 78 The hyperemia increases laminar shear forces parallel to the long axis of the vessel, 79-81 which is transduced through luminal mechanoreceptors to the endothelial cell80. The increase in arterial diameter, as a consequence of reactive hyperemia, is compared to the baseline diameter and is expressed as % FMD. However, it is arguable whether NO is the only mediator of endothelium dependent vasodilation82, since the mechanism of vasodilation depends on vessel type, its size and how FMD is induced.83,84 Impairment of endothelial function is apparent in many cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, stroke, coronary heart disease, and atherosclerosis.85 Atherosclerosis research trends have moved away from the classic view of passive cholesterol storage and toward the current view of active, inflammatory-driven metabolism in the arterial walls.86 In a sample of 329 myocardial infarctions only 19% occurred in coronary 12 arteries with greater than 75% stenosis while nearly 50% occurred in arteries with less than 50% stenosis.87 This work shows that coronary angiography has a limited ability to predict the site of subsequent myocardial infarction. CRP, a biomarker of systemic inflammation, is targeted in many CVD studies and is linked to elevated risk of CV events. Data from the Physician Health Study (n=550) shows that men in the highest quartile of CRP levels have triple the relative risk of a CV event of those in the lowest quartile.88 Human physiology investigations have confirmed that CRP is primarily produced in the liver in response to IL-6.89 The FMD response is impaired by inflammatory cytokines such as CRP and is considered an early prognostic indicator of cardiovascular disease. Proteases (such as ADAMTs) play a critical role in the synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the intimal wall. Versican is a proteoglycan in the arterial wall that holds low density lipoprotein (LDL) in place. Inflammation drives a shift in the balance of the ECM. Salter et al in 2010 reports inflammation induced activity of ADAMTs contributes to plaque instability, increased risk of rupture and thrombosis90. Inflammation induced activity of the ADAMT’s can initiate degradation of articular cartilage and increase vascular instability. Nitric Oxide (NO) plays a role in both pain perception and endothelial function.(reviewed in Mackenzie et al76). The challenge with creating the link between knee OA and atherosclerosis comes down to the lack of established optimal levels of NO.91 NO in the proper amount is an essential component of a diverse range of physiological processes.76 However, NO production in excess, as a component elevated inflammation, will lead to the reaction of NO with superoxide free-radicals, resulting in short lived oxidant species such as peroxynitrite, which is a potent inducer of cellular death and blocks nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzyme activity.92 pathway may represent a link between early OA and vascular dysfunction. 13 This 2. Pressure Pain Threshold Testing According to the International Association for the Study of Pain, pressure algometry is the most commonly used quantitative technique to assess tenderness in myofascial tissues and joints. 52 A reduction in pressure pain thresholds or increased pain ratings at numerous sites indicate widespread hyperalgesia. Exact mechanisms of widespread hyperalgesia are complex and not fully understood but the presence of both peripheral and central sensitization are commonly discussed components. Hyperalgesia of deep somatic tissues has been demonstrated in patients with knee OA, using PPT.93,94 Nociceptors in deep somatic tissue, such as joint and muscle, show pronounced sensitization to mechanical stimuli in contrast to cutaneous nociceptors.93 Numerous studies have shown decreased PPT in acute and chronic musculoskeletal conditions both local95,96 to the source and remotely.97,98 In the present study, PPT at the involved knee represented local hyperalgesia, while measures at the involved side tibia, contralateral lower extremity and hand are a sign of central sensitization. 14 III. METHODS A. Study design and Subjects This was a non-randomized prospective, cross-sectional study. A convenience sample of men and women (n=29) were recruited from an urban university setting. A total of 15 individuals with ACL reconstruction (ACL-R) (male, n=3; female, n=12), defined as those who had under gone surgical ACL reconstruction more than 6 months prior to participation in the study. Fourteen healthy control subjects, (CON) (male=4; female = 10) defined as individuals with no history of lower extremity, participated. Exclusion criteria were as follows: current use of vasoactive medications, history of diabetes, hypertension, pregnancy, tobacco use in the past 6 months, illicit drug use, cardiovascular disease or events, thyroid disease, pituitary tumor, a genetic disease causing disability, gout and a body mass index (BMI) ≥30 kg/m2. The study was approved by the Office of Protection of Research Subjects and Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Illinois at Chicago. B. Overview of Study Protocol All data was collected in the Outpatient Care Center at the University Of Illinois Hospital & Health Sciences System Chicago. All subjects fasted (8 hours) and abstained from exercise (8 hours) before testing. Subjects completed medical history questionnaires, including specifics on injuries. Average physical activity in the participants was assessed by a metabolic activity questionnaire for the last two months [Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study (ACLS)]. Previous studies validate the ACLS questionnaire for associations between physical activity levels and health, as well as fitness.99,100 Reported activity was later computed to determine total metabolic equivalent (MET) hrs/week.101 Lower extremity self-reported 15 functional level was assess with the Knee Outcomes Survey-Activities of Activity of Daily Living Scale (KOS-ADLS). The KOS is one of the most commonly used self-report functional measures. Its reliability and validity are well established in both the OA and ACL patient population.102-104 A lower extremity physical exam was completed by a single investigator (JDC; a physical therapist with 11 years of clinical experience), to screen for the presence of knee ligament or meniscus injury and other major lower extremity range of motion or alignment abnormalities. Next, PPT testing (see section C below) was completed using pressure algometry at five sites: 1) thumb web space of dominant hand, 2) medial tibiofemoral joint line of bilateral knees, 3) mid shaft tibia bilaterally. Lastly, the ultrasound protocol for flow-mediated dilation (FMD) was completed to the right brachial and bilateral popliteal arteries. C. Pressure Pain Threshold Testing PPT testing was completed with a Wagner Pain Test FPX algometer (Wagner Instruments, Greenwich CT), utilizing 1cm2 applicator. Pressure was applied at a rate 50kPa/sec and subjects were clearly instructed to signal their “first pain” or the moment the pressure became painful. Four measures were taken at each site (30 seconds rest between measures) and the averages of the final three measures were used in the analysis.105 PPT as a quantitative measure of hyperalgesia in musculoskeletal conditions has been found to be reliable in numerous conditions and body regions.96,106,107 and ICC’s are reported to range from 0.83-0.91 and have been reported in the lower and upper extremities of control and knee OA sample populations.108 16 D. Brachial and Popliteal Artery Flow-Mediated Dilation Due to the lack of correlation in human research between LE and UE measures and the relative youth and health of the subjects in this investigation, bilateral LE popliteal FMD will be assessed in addition to the right brachial artery FMD. In order to control for other variables that are known to affect FMD results, all subjects were tested in the early morning (approximately 8am), in the same room with consistent climate control, after fasting at least 8 hours from food, caffeine and vitamins. Subjects also abstained from vigorous exercise for at least 12 hours prior to testing and all females were tested 7-10 days after the first day of their most recent menstrual cycle. Prior to FMD and blood pressure measurement, subjects were placed supine on a plinth for at least 20 minutes in the same temperature controlled room, while physical exam and PPT testing was completed. Ultrasound imaging was conducted using M-Turbo ultrasound (Sonosite; Seattle, WA). Imaging of the brachial artery was performed in a longitudinal plane, at approximately 5 cm proximal to the antecubital fossa of the right arm, abducted approximately 80° from the body, with the forearm supinated. The ultrasound probe (11 MHz) was positioned at a 60° insonation angle to visualize the anterior and posterior lumen-intima interfaces to measure diameter or central flow velocity (pulsed Doppler). Baseline images and blood pressure readings of the opposite arm with an automated sphygmomanometer were recorded. After baseline ultrasound imaging, Doppler readings of peak flow and average flow were performed for at least 5 seconds. A blood pressure cuff was placed on the forearm, distal to the antecubital fossa on the right arm being imaged and inflated 60 mmHg above baseline systolic blood pressure (SBP) for 5 minutes. Once the cuff was released, blood pressure and HR measurements in the opposite arm were taken, along with Doppler readings of the first 10 seconds after cuff 17 release. The brachial artery was then imaged continuously to capture 30 seconds, 1 min, 2 min, and 3 min post cuff release. The same protocol was utilized for FMD measurements in the right and left popliteal arteries. The blood pressure cuff remained on the left upper arm, the subject turned into a right, semi-prone side lying position and a pillow was placed between the lowers limbs and the knees were flexed to a comfortable position of approximately 30 degrees of knee flexion. Longitudinal imaging of the popliteal artery occurred approximately 5cm proximal to the center of popliteal fossa. The proximal edge of the occlusion cuff was placed just distal the popliteal fossa. Images were digitally recorded using Brachial Imager (Medical Imaging, Iowa City, Iowa, USA) and analyzed as previously described80. 450 frames (7.5 frames per second for 10 seconds) were captured, digitized, and analyzed from the M-line (border between intima and media of brachial artery) of the same location of blood vessel using visible landmarks through edge detection software. Approximately 75 frames were analyzed for each baseline and time point measurement through an average of artery diameters over the entire R-R interval. Electrocardiogram (ECG) gating was not performed for all subjects during ultrasound analysis. Previous research demonstrated that when comparing FMD and NTG-induced dilation analyses through QRS gating or an average of brachial diameters over the entire R-R interval, a strong agreement was found between both methods for FMD and NTG-induced dilation, with measurements based on average diameter not reducing accuracy.109 Percent FMD was calculated using the averaged minimum mean brachial artery diameter at baseline compared with the largest mean values obtained after release of the forearm occlusion. The peak flow velocity was observed from 5 seconds of baseline diameter Doppler readings and 10 seconds of post-cuff release Doppler readings were recorded for shear rate calculations. Shear rate was calculated as 18 blood velocity (cm/s) divided by vessel diameter (cm).110 Baseline arterial diameter measures were used shear rate calculations. G. Statistical Analysis All data are reported as mean± SE, with P <.05 as significant unless otherwise noted. The Shapiro-Wilk test for normality was completed as this test is appropriate for sample sizes of less than 50. The Kruskal-Wallis Test (non-parametric ANOVA) was completed to assess for significant difference between in FMD and PPT of subgroups within and between the ACL-R and the control groups. (ie: right and left knees, involved and un-involved knees within the ACLR group to right and left knees within the control group). Independent samples t-tests (parametric data) and Mann Whitney U tests (non-parametric data) were employed to compare differences in subject characteristics between groups. Post-hoc between group comparisons were completed with the Mann-Whitney U test following the Kruskal-Wallis for the FMD and PPT data. PPT testing results are reported in N/cm2 and dilation in dose response data is expressed as a percentage change from the resting/baseline diameter to the maximal diameter. For correlation analyses, Pearson product-moment was used for parametric variables, and Spearman rho for nonparametric variables. Effect sizes were also calculated when possible. Analyses were run with IBM SPSS Statistics software (Version 20.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). Plotting was completed in SigmaPlot Version 12.3 (San Jose, CA, USA) 19 IV. RESULTS A. Subject Inclusion and Exclusion 27 subjects were tested and in a subset of 22 individuals, FMD testing was performed. One subject was entirely excluded from both PPT and FMD analysis since she was not in the fasting state and her PPT 2SD’s above the mean. Another subject was also excluded from the control group analysis due to a remote history of several lower extremity injuries and PPT results nearly 2 SD’s below the mean. B. Subject Characteristics Age, gender, BMI, HR, SBP and DBP (mmHg) were not significantly different between control and ACL reconstruction (ACL-R) groups (TABLE I). The ACL-R subjects did report a higher level of activity level (MET Hours/wk) on the ACLS questionnaire (z= -2.115, U= 47.5, p= 0.034 with an effect size of r= 0.407) but a lower functional level on the KOS-ADLS (z= 3.456, u=21, p= 0.001 with an effect size of r= 0.665). The worst pain on NPRS for the ACL-R group was significantly higher than the CON group (z= -2.259, u= 53.5, p= 0.024 with an effect size of r= 0.435). Using Cohen’s criteria the above effect sizes are considered medium and large (0.1= small effect, 0.3= medium effect, 0.5 = large effect). 111 20 Table I SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS Control ACL N 14 15 Age Subjects Total (n=29) 26.6±3.25 N=14 10 female, 4 male N=13 9 female, 4 male 26.9±1.29 N=15 10 female, 5 male N=14 9 female, 5 male 0.402‡ 0 - Pain included p-value - Total ACL knees Side of ACL Reconstruction Included FMD included Subjects Popliteals (R/L) Brachials 0 20 RLE only: 5 LLE only: 3 BLE:6 N=10 N=20 N=10 N=11 N=21 N=11 - HR 59.8±1.99 61.5±2.04 0.563† SBP 109.9±3.26 114.1±2.21 .109‡ DBP 70.1±2.01 70.7±1.82 0.830† BMI ACLS (METhours/wk) 22.27±0.34 23.12±0.81 0.467‡ 31.42±3.44 46.34±5.35 0.034‡ KOS-ADLS Avg Pain (NPRS) Worst Pain (NPRS) Chronicity (years since surgery) 98.08±1.1 90.80±1.82 Mean: 0.2±0.15 Mean: 0.36±0.2 Median: 0 Median: 0 Mean: 0.31±0.31 Mean: 1.57±0.52 Median: 0 Median: 0.5 ACL Group Only Mean: 7.79 ±0.88 (median: 8.04) Range: 1.25-13.9 †: T-test ‡: Mann-Whitney U Test 21 - 0.001‡ 0.432 0.345 0.049† 0.02‡ C. Pressure Pain Threshold 1. PPT at the Hand PPT results did not differ between groups at the dominant hand 1st and 2nd digit (thumb) web space; control: 26.04N±1.64, ACL-R: 27.99±3.38, p=0.617. (Table II) Table II PPT AT DOMINANT HAND WEB SPACE PPT Dominant Web Space ACL-R Group Con Group (Mean ± SE) (Mean + SE) p value 26.04N±1.64 27.99±3.38 p=0.617 2. Right and Left Leg PPT Comparisons Comparisons between the right and left limbs of the control group and the ACL-R groups at the medial tibiofemoral joint line and tibia showed no significant differences (Table III). Therefore the right and left LE measures were combined as indicated into involved and uninvolved limbs based on the side of the ACL reconstruction. 22 Table III RIGHT AND LEFT PPT COMPARISON AT KNEE JOINT LINE AND TIBIA Right Left (Mean ± SE) (Mean + SE) p value Joint Line CON 41.86 ± 4.66 40.17 ± 4.74 0.803† Joint Line ACL-R 32.07 ± 3.004 27.0 1± 2.93 Median 29.16 23.2 Tibia CON 39.80 ± 4.98 41.82 ± 4.77 Median 30.8 40.13 Tibia ACL-R 31.35 ± 3.25 30.68 ± 3.91 Median 29.0 32.0 0.129‡ 0.608‡ 0.806‡ †T-test ‡Mann-Whitney U test 3. PPT at the Tibia PPT measures at the tibia (control, ACL-R all, ACL-R involved) were compared with the Kruskal-Wallis test (non-parametric), due to result of robust tests for equality of means (BrownForsythe p=<0.05) during initial attempts to compare via ANOVA. . The result of the KruskalWallis revealed X2 =4.438, df=2, p=0.109. Post hoc Mann-Whitney U testing of the differences observed in PPT’s measures at the tibia show a strong trend toward lower PPT in the ACL-R group. PPT results from the control tibia: median= 36.2 to the ACL-R all group: median= 30.14 (z= -1.833, u= 207.5, p= 0.067). (Table IV) Trending but non-significant differences were also observed when the involved tibias were compared to the control group (p=0.082) (Table IV). 23 Table IV PRESSURE PAIN THRESHOLD AT MEDIAL TIBIA PPT Grouping Tibia CON vs.ACL-R all Tibia CON vs. ACL-R Inv CON Median 36.2 N 36.2 N ACL Median 30.14 N 29.57 N Z U Sig. (2 tail) -1.83 207.5 0.067 -1.74 181.5 0.082 Effect Size 0.262 0.257 N 49 46 4. PPT at the Medial Tibofemoral Joint The Kruskal-Wallis test with an independent groups design to determine more specific changes in pain sensitivity either locally or regionally was completed at the medial knee. The different cases (or independent groups) were as follows: CON all, ACL-R all, ACL-R involved knees, ACL-R contralateral knees, CON R LE, CON LLE, ACL-R RLE, ACL-R LLE. Results revealed statistically significant difference in PPT values across the 8 different groups X2= 18.584, p=0.010. The CON group had a median PPT of 37.79 N while the ACL all and ACL involved group medians were 26.48N and 27.63N respectively. Post hoc analysis with Mann Whitney U test to determine difference between pairs of groups revealed significant difference between all control knees (median: 37.79) and all knees in the ACL-R group (median: 26.48) (z= -2.545, u=217, p=0.011 with an effect size of r = 0.346). Significant difference was also found when only the involved medial knee PPT (median: 27.63), was compared to the control group (z=.2.016, u= 169, p=0.044 with an effect size of 0.297). A Bonferroni adjustment of the alpha value (0.05/2= 0.025), to control for a Type I error in the presence of multiple post-hoc comparisons, confirms the only significant finding was the comparison of whole group median scores (ACL-R vs Control: p=0.011 with effect size of r=0.346)(Figure I). A post-hoc PPT 24 comparison of the LLE CON group to the LLE of the ACL-R group also reveals a statistically significant difference between the CON median: 36.27, ACL-R median: 23.2 (z= -2.329, u: 43, p=0.02, effect size of r=0.45). This was the largest effect size observed in all the comparisons. Further investigation of the LLE shows the lowest PPT mean when measures taken from the left medial knee of a unilateral R LE injury (mean = 25.186±3.27; median 21.6) (z=-2.021, u= 64, p=0.043, effect size r=0.476). There are 5 observations in this LLE (contralateral to R LE injury) uninvolved grouping. (Figure II) Only 3 observations occurred in the R LE (contralateral to LLE injury) and the PPT data was as follows: 17.6N, 58.67N and 20.8N. Due to the low number of observations and variability in this data, this comparison was not completed. Table V PRESSURE PAIN THRESHOLD AT MEDIAL TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT LINE PPT Grouping ACL Median ACL-R all vs CON all* 26.48 N ACL-R Inv vs CON all* 27.63 N LLE ACL-R vs. LLE CON* 23.2 N RLE ACL-R vs. R LE CON 29.16 N *Mann-Whitney U Test p=<.05 CON Median 37.79 N 37.79 N 36.27 N 38.7 N 25 Z -2.54 -2.01 -2.32 -1.31 U 217 169 43 64 Sig. (2 tail) 0.011 0.044 0.02 0.19 Effect Size 0.346 0.297 0.448 0.252 N 54 46 27 27 Figure 1 PPT AT THE MEDIAL TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT LINE 50 PPT (N) 40 30 20 10 0 Control ACL Mann-Whitney U Test p=0.011 Mann Whitney U test of PPT measures from all CON knees and all ACL-R knees at the medial tibiofemoral joint line revealed statistically significant difference (p=0.011). 26 Figure 2 UNILATERAL PPT COMPARISONS 50 PPT (N) 40 30 20 10 0 CON RLE CON LLE ACL RLE ACL LLE ACL LLE Univ Control LLE vs ACL LLE p=0.02; Control LLE vs. ACL LLE uninvolved= 0.043 Significant difference was also determined when only the injured knees were compared to the control group. The LLE of the CON group also demonstrated different pain sensitivity than that of the ACL-R group (p=0.02). 27 D. Brachial Artery Flow Mediated Dilation Comparison of between group differences at the right brachial artery showed a similar FMD response of 9.07±2.26% in the CON group and 8.27±1.32 in the ACL group with p=0.755. Peak shear response and FMD normalized to peak shear response were also similar between the ACL-R and the Control group. (Table VI) Table VI BRACHIAL CHARACTERISTICS ACL-R Group Con Group Brachial Artery (right) FMD % (Mean ± SE) 8.27±1.32 (Mean + SE) 9.07±2.26 p value 0.869 Peak Shear Rate 394.93±39.65 417.70±38.53 0.686 Normalized (FMD%/Shear) 0.0256±.008 0.0206±.004 0.806 28 E. Popliteal Artery Peak Shear Rate Initial investigation of the popliteal FMD data revealed statistically significant differences in the peak shear response between the right and left limbs of control group p=0.012 and trending differences in the ACL reconstruction group, p=0.068 (Table VII) (Figure 3). These differences introduce error into combined group comparisons that average FMD results from both right and left limbs. However, despite limb differences, combined average peak shear rates from both limbs of the CON and ACL-R group did not differ significantly, 121.31 ±9.37 vs. 119.74±12.18, respectively with p=0.877. Table VII POPLITEAL PEAK SHEAR RATE Peak shear rate, -sec ± SE N CON all 121.31 ±9.37 16 CON R LE 143.01 ±12.06 9 CON LLE 100.1±9.19 8 ACL all 119.74±12.18 17 CON all vs ACL all: p=0.877‡ ACL R LE 145.16 ±26.12 8 ACL R LE vs LLE: p=0.068‡ ACL LLE 100.83±13.07 9 ACL involved 128.27 ±14.376 12 ACL contralateral 101.99 ±18.576 6 Grouping ‡: Mann-Whitney U Test 29 p value CON R LE vs. LLE p= 0.012‡ Figure 3 POPLITEAL PEAK SHEAR COMPARISONS 180 160 Peak Shear Rate 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 CON R LE CON L LE ACL R LE ACL L LE CON all ACL all Group and Limb Side Control R LE vs. LLE p=0.012; ACL R LE vs LLE p=0.068; Control All vs. ACL all p=0.877 F. Popliteal Artery Flow Mediated Dilation The popliteal FMD response was different between the two groups. (Table VIII) Mann-Whitney U test revealed median FMD of the control group at 5.785% compared to 3.93% in the ACL-R group (z=-2.254, u= 109, p = 0.024, with effect size r = 0.361).( Figure 4) Comparison of the control (median: 5.785%) to the ACL-R involved only limb (4.525%) FMD 30 failed to reach significance (z = -1.481, u = 87, p = 0.138). (Table VIII) Therefore the FMD % in the involved limbs was slightly higher than in the uninvolved. Table VIII POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS FMD CON vs ACL all CON Median 5.785 Z ACL Median 3.94 -2.254 FMD CON vs. ACL Inv 5.785 4.525 FMD Grouping -1.481 U 109 Sig. (2 tail) 0.024 Effect Size 0.361 87 0.138 0.262 Figure 4 POPLITEAL FMD CONTROL VS ACL 7 6 % FMD 5 4 3 2 1 0 Control all ACL all ACL Inv Control all vs. ACL all: p=0.024; Control all vs. ACL Inv: p=0.138 31 N CON:18 ACL: 21 CON: 18 ACL: 14 Same side limb comparisons between the CON and ACL-R groups were then completed. Statistical significant difference was not achieved when the right popliteal FMD from the control group 6.73% ±0.88 (n=10 ) was compared to the ACL-R group 4.65% ±0.77 (n=8), p=0.102. This comparison included three FMD’s from subjects with B LE ACL-R, when the three FMD’s from subjects with B LE injuries were excluded mean FMD did decrease in the ACL-R group but the difference did not reach statistical significance. (ACL-R group, R LE only: 3.9% ± 1.05 compared to the control group: 6.73±0.88 , p=0.076.) (Figure 5) FMD normalized to peak shear rate did not differ between the ACL-R and the CON groups in the right limb, p=0.418. Left limb popliteal FMD comparisons between the CON and the ACL-R groups also did not reach significance differences, 5.18% ± 0.63 to 4.54 ± 0.76 respectively, p=0.554. (Table IX and Figure 6). FMD normalized to peak shear rate also did not differ in LLE, p=0.412. (Table IX) Table IX POPLITEAL CHARACTERISTICS Right Popliteal Artery FMD % Peak Shear Rate Normalized (FMD%/Shear) Left Popliteal Artery FMD% Peak Shear Rate Normalized (FMD%/Shear) ACL-R Group CON Group p value 4.65 ± 0.766 6.73 ± 0.877 0.102 145.16 ±26.12 143.01 ± 12.06 0.0356 ± 0.0035 .0418 ±.0056 0.418 4.53 ± 0.896 5.18 ± 0.625 0.554 100.83±13.07 100.1±9.19 0.0385± 0.0068 0.0439±.0027 32 0.412 Figure 5 RIGHT POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS 8 % FMD 6 4 2 0 Right Control Right ACL-R all Right ACL-R only Right Control vs All R ACL p=0.102; R Control vs. R unilateral solo: p=0.076 R ACL-R all= 5 RLE ACL only, 3 BLE ACL 33 Figure 6 LEFT POPLITEAL FMD COMPARISONS 7 6 % FMD 5 4 3 2 1 0 Control LLE ACL LLE Control LLE vs. ACL LLE p=0.554 The final comparison that revealed a statistical significant difference was the popliteal FMD from LLE of the control group compared to a subset of the LLE of the ACL-R group that was contralateral to a unilateral R LE ACL reconstruction. FMD was 5.18%±0.63 in the control versus 2.76%±0.81 in the contralateral LLE of the ACL-R groups, independent samples t-test p=0.037. (Figure 7) There were a total of seven popliteal FMD results contralateral to a unilateral injury, five of this seven are from the left LE, the two R LE FMD’s were excluded from the above comparison due to previously mentioned limb differences in peak shear responses. 34 Figure 7 LEFT POPLITEAL FMD: CONTRALATERAL TO RIGHT SIDE INJURY 7 6 % FMD 5 4 3 2 1 0 Left Control Left Contralateral Left Control vs. Left Contralateral to Right side ACL: p=0.037 35 G. Correlation of FMD to PPT Spearman’s rho result determined no relationship between involved knee PPT at the medial joint line of ACL-R subjects compared to popliteal FMD of the same knees r = -0.038, n=21, p=0.871. (Figure 8) Pearson’s Correlation coefficient r = -0.213, n=12, p= 0.465 also revealed no significant relationship, between PPT measures at the involved tibia and same side popliteal FMD. (Figure 9) Pearson Correlation of PPT and FMD in the LLE uninvolved leg to the right unilateral injury returned an r =0.827,n=5 p =0.084. (Figure 10) This correlation reveals a strong possible connection of PPT and FMD in the lower limb contralateral to a unilateral injury. Figure 8 SCATTER PLOT OF POPLITEAL FMD TO MEDIAL JOINT LINE PPT 36 Figure 9 SCATTERPLOT OF TIBAL PPT TO POPLITEAL FMD 37 Figure 10 SCATTER PLOT OF FMD TO PPT IN LEFT LEG OF RIGHT ACL-R 38 H. Correlation of Pain and Chronicity Pearson correlation coefficient r = .157, n= 18, p = 0.520, revealed no significant relationship between involved knee PPT and chronicity in years since injury. (Figure 11) Figure 11 CORRELATION OF PPT TO CHRONICITY 39 V. DISCUSSION To our knowledge this is the first study to report decreased pressure pain sensitivity and arterial flow mediated dilation chronically after ACL reconstruction. The combined results of differences in PPT at the knee and percent FMD in the popliteal artery of the ACL reconstruction group versus the control reached statistical significance. Based on current results and background research we propose a cyclical mechanism, initiated by joint injury and inflammation, that activates intrinsic cellular degradation mechanisms (aggrecanases), which release bioactive aggrecan fragments that propagate the inflammation cycle. (Figure 12) Animal model research shows antigenic t-cell (immune system) responses to cartilage fragments (proteoglycan aggrecan epitopes);112 supporting the plausibility of the theory, that once activated, the aggrecanase-mediated joint degradation is cyclical. This cycle creates an interesting dilemma for an individual after ACL injury as ligamentous instability is associated with high risk of subsequent injury (especially to the meniscus), while surgical reconstruction introduces another nociceptive and inflammatory insult to the knee and neuromuscular systems. Chronic hyperalgesia in the knee effects normal neuromuscular control61 and vascular impairments may contribute locally to degenerative changes113 and relate, chronically, to cardiovascular disease26. 40 Figure 12 THEORETICAL MODEL JOINT INJURY, CHRONIC PAIN AND VASCULAR DYSFUNCTION A. Subject Characteristics The mean difference in worst pain between the two groups was 1.2 points on the 0-10 NPRS scale (ACL-R group: 1.57 and CON: 0.31). With a reported MCID of two points on the NPRS114, this difference does not reach clinical significance. 114114 However, more importantly the ACL-R group did report a median score on the KOS-ADLS 8 points lower than the control 41 group, 92 vs. 100, respectively. The MCID for the KOS-ADLS has been reported as 8-10 points103,104. Therefore, the KOS-ADLS difference between groups, especially in combination with the NPRS scores, is noteworthy and represents low- grade impairment in pain and function chronically after ACL reconstruction. The groups differed further in their exercise levels with the ACL reconstruction group reporting a median difference of 13 MET hours/week of activity. With an average weight of the study participants of 65.5 kg this means that he ACL reconstruction group is expending approximately 850 calories more each week than the control group. This finding has potential significance when considering the cardiovascular and all-cause mortality risk associated with sedentary lifestyle. 115 Exercise has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects in humans. In a group of 45 sedentary males, 12 weeks of moderate intensity exercise significantly decreased IL-6 levels116. The exact mechanism remains unknown however some theorize that exercise drives the release of myogenic IL-6 which displays anti-inflammatory properties that counteract the pro-inflammatory properties of cytogenic IL-6117. Furthermore, aerobic exercise has a cumulative large effect size of 0.52 for pain relief in knee OA populations in a systematic review of 13 randomized controlled trials118,119. This specifically relates to the hypothesis of the current study by providing a mechanism for a protective effect to both hyperalgesia and vascular function. Future study samples that match activity levels in the groups would control for the possible protective effect of exercise. B. Pain Comparisons Summative comparisons of the two groups show hyperalgesia in ACL reconstruction group which corresponds to this group’s report of both higher NPRS (worst pain levels) and 42 lower self- report functional levels (KOS-ADLS). Differences in pain are robust locally, at the medial knee, but are also trending distally at the tibia. No difference was noted at remote locations (thumb web space). Statistically significant differences in hyperalgesia were found at the medial knee of the ACL-R group compared to the controls. This is in accordance with numerous previous studies in the knee OA populations 93,94,120,121, however to our knowledge; this is the first reporting of such a finding in a chronic ACL reconstruction population. Based on knee OA studies it was hypothesized that in this relatively young sample we would find hyperalgesia isolated only to the involved knee. However, the tibial measures were also lower but not significant (p=0.067) in the ACL reconstruction group; tibial mean PPT of 31N vs. 40N in the reconstruction vs. control group respectively. Although this difference was not statistically significant, PPT in the ACL reconstruction group was nearly 25% less than the controls and a larger change in hyperalgesia at distal sites than expected. Numerous previous studies have reported hyperalgesia (lower PPT) in chronic painful conditions such as osteoarthritis, whiplash, and lateral epicondylalgia.122-124 However the higher NPRS level and lower PPT in this ACL-R sample, a group that would be expected to fully recover from surgery is a novel finding. This chronic low-grade hyperalgesia, especially at the tibial sites, is a sign of central sensitization and has the potential to further sensitize nociceptive pathways and promote the spreading of hyperalgesia. The spreading of hyperalgesia has been attributed to an increased responsiveness of spinal cord dorsal and ventral horn neurons outside of their original receptive field (ie: leg and thigh sites responding to knee joint stimulation).125-127 Experimental nociceptive stimulus induces neurogenic inflammation and activates the release of neuropeptides responsible for hyperalgesia both locally and in the corresponding 43 contralateral limb.59,128-130 Nociceptive stimulus alone may be sufficient in some individuals to produce chronic changes in pain perception. Research has shown, that phenotypic changes to low threshold A-β fibers occur, leading to expression of neuropeptides only observed in highthreshold nociceptive fibers (A ∆ and C).31,53 131 This phenotypic change to the A-β fibers may then serve as a foundation for non-noxious stimulus to further sensitize human pain perception, in the absence of subsequent injury or noxious exposure. Chronic inflammation can negatively affect neural tissue. Witonski et al in 2004, found elevated levels of the neuropeptide, substance P, in torn ACLs 1-4 months post injury, indicating the presence of neurogenic inflammation.54 Following acute ACL injury, nociceptive pathways become sensitized.60 A type II collagen biomarker study found an association between biomarkers, pain and function in an ACL reconstruction population during monthly testing for 4 months. The authors reported a positive correlation of uCTX-II levels with pain and a negative correlation to function.39 Classic injury and healing models support the resolution of inflammation and hyperalgesia at some point after injury; however this does not appear to occur in many individuals after ACL injury and reconstruction. Therefore some combination of inflammatory mechanisms and nociceptive pathway change is likely occurring. Further testing is necessary to determine if intrinsic cellular degradation mechanisms (ie: induction of aggrecanases) in humans play the vital role they do in animal model research. 40 As an observational study, it is impossible to determine the exact mechanism of the hyperalgesia observed, however several plausible explanations exist. 44 C. FMD Comparisons Peak shear response between the R LE and LLE of the CON group was significantly different and nearly reached significant in the ACL-R group; revealing a consistent difference in the peak shear response and resultant FMD in the right and left legs. Most importantly whole group shear stress between ACL-R and CON did not differ significantly (p= 0.840) but FMD response between groups did (p=0.024). Due to the reported high sensitivity of the popliteal arteries to shear stress132 consideration of this variable is of the utmost importance. If mean peak shear rates between groups were different then whole group comparisons would not be possible. Therefore whole group differences need to be interpreted carefully, while intra-limb comparisons control for the differences observed in peak shear rates. Summative comparison of the two groups reveal impaired FMD in the ACL-R group as a whole (p=0.024). More specific comparison of involved knee FMD (popliteal artery local to injury) to the controls weakens this difference (p=0.138). (Table VIII and Figure 4) Interestingly, comparison of popliteal FMD of the control groups LLE to the LLE of the ACL reconstruction group contralateral to a R LE only injury revealed significant difference (p=0.013). Additionally, there is the possibility of relationship between FMD and PPT with Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient r=0.827, n= 5, p =0.084. (Figure 10) This reduced arterial function, in the limb contralateral to the injured side, is contrary to our initial hypothesis that the pain and arterial dysfunction would be most significant local to the inflammatory source (injured knee). 45 Neurogenic inflammation (NI) triggered both by chronic nociceptive input and elevated inflammatory cytokines local/ipsilateral to a unilateral ACL reconstruction is the most plausible explanation. NI as a well-known vasodilator128, may be minimizing the local inflammatory mediated vascular impairment through the stimulation of dorsal root and axonal reflexes. 129,130 NI, through spinal circuitry, can induce vascular change in the contralateral, uninvolved limb.59,129 Kelly et al reported changes in vascular dilation but not permeability (which would lead to edema) in an experimental NI model. The vasodilation observed by Kellyet al, was slightly greater ipsilateral vs. contralateral but the difference was not significant.59 The contralateral changes observed in the present study likely represent complex interactions of local inflammatory factors and nociceptive driven neurovascular changes. The role of the autonomic nervous system, specifically sympathetic stimulation to the lower extremities, should also be considered. Sympathetic stimulation is a known vasoconstrictor133, while neurogenic inflammation is a known vasodilator. If previous injury and surgery and current hyperalgesia stimulates a low-grade sympathetic response, this vasoconstrictive response would affect the bilateral LE’s but be overpowered ipsilateral to the injury. Exercise could possibly play a role in minimizing both the arterial dysfunction and hyperalgesia. Exercise has been shown to have anti-nociceptive effects on OA pain.118,119 Others have proposed exercise either stimulates a biochemical anti-inflammatory effect116,117 or the local shear stimulus to the arterial endothelium improves NO bioavailability.134 Unfortunately the methodology of the current study does not allow for the determination of the exact physiological mechanisms at play. 46 D. OA to CVD Connection Surprisingly, in a large sample of nearly 3600 people, OA in any finger joint predicted cardiovascular deaths in men (relative risk: 1.42, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.92)22. Others have also questioned if OA, especially subchondral bone sclerosis and cyst formation is an atheromatous vascular disease.113 In a cross-sectional observation, Kurunlahti et al, reported a significant association between atheromatous lesions in the abdominal aorta and low back pain, as determined by presence of atherosclerotic lesions on CT scans in a low back pain population compared to age matched controls.135 MRI investigation in a knee OA population revealed increased popliteal artery wall thickness (a measure of metabolic disease) in a knee OA population versus an age matched control136. The evidence continues to build supporting a direct physiological connection between OA and cardiovascular disease, beyond just similar comorbid conditions in a similar cohort. Future research is recommended that builds on the current project with larger sample sizes, more extensive investigation of inflammatory cytokines, serum or urine analysis of type II cartilage byproducts and a more detailed analysis of arterial function. E. Limitations Subjects with ACL injury and subsequent construction were used; therefore the changes observed may not be only a result of the ACL injury but may also be related to the surgical reconstruction procedure. The ACL reconstruction sample was of greater convenience and reports show increased incidence of post-traumatic knee OA after ACL injury independent of surgical reconstruction. 47 Significant findings of pain and arterial dysfunction in the left leg contralateral to a right unilateral ACL reconstruction, was limited by only five observations. Unfortunately there were only 3 subjects in this study with isolated left ACL reconstructions and FMD and PPT data from the right LE of these subjects was very limited. PPT data was low for 2 of the 3 subjects, but FMD results were only available for 2 of the subjects, therefore no formal analysis was completed. The outcomes of the left limb contralateral to the right injury in the present study would have been strengthened if a similar occurrence was observed in the right limb of those with left unilateral injury and reconstruction. Differences in peak shear response in the right vs. left popliteal FMD limited combined group comparisons. Baseline artery diameter was slightly greater in the left popliteal arteries but did not reach significance (p=0.3-0.5). The larger resting diameter of the left popliteal artery would decrease peak shear rates. Differences in arterial size and hyperemic response could be due to both limb dominance and distal muscle mass. However 20 of the 21 subjects who completed FMD testing were R hand dominant (leg dominance was not assessed) and leg muscle mass was also not measured. Finally, the majority of data was analyzed with non-parametric tests which are less likely to find significant differences between groups. Future investigations should include larger sample sizes to improve ability to complete contralateral comparisons in both lower extremities and obtain more normally distributed data that allows for comparisons with parametric tests. 48 F. Conclusions Hyperalgesia and impaired FMD are both present in a group of individuals chronically after ACL reconstructive surgery compared to an age matched healthy control group. This is a novel finding in human research and as developed can improve the understanding of post-traumatic knee OA and a possible link to cardiovascular disease. Significant hyperalgesia was observed local and contralateral to the ACL reconstruction. A trending pattern of hyperalgesia was also observed at tibial measurement sites. 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Positive association between increased popliteal artery vessel wall thickness and generalized osteoarthritis: is OA also part of the metabolic syndrome? Skeletal radiology. Dec 2009;38(12):1147-1151. 60 VITA NAME: Jeffrey Donald Clark EDUCATION: B.S., Central Michigan University, 1998 M.S.P.T, Central Michigan University, 2001 M.B.A., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2006 TEACHING: Department of Physical Therapy, University of Illinois as Chicago, 2003-2012 PROFFESIONAL MEMBERSHIP: ABSTRACTS: American Physical Therapy Association American Academy of Orthopaedic Manual Physical Therapy Immediate changes in quantitative sensory testing following lumbar manipulation. Poster Presentation: AAOMPT 2010 Conference, San Antonio, Texas Clark JD, Rhon D and Courtney CA. Acute knee injury to chronic pain: clinical/neurophysiological features of osteoarthritic progression. Platform Presentation (Focused Symposia). IFOMPT 2012 Conference, Quebec City, Canada PUBLICATIONS: Courtney CA, Clark JD, Duncombe AM, and O’Hearn MA. Clinical presentation and manual therapy for lower quadrant musculoskeletal conditions. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, Volume 19, Number 4, 2011 , pp. 212-222(11) 61
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