Integrity No man can purchase his virtue too dear, for it is the only thing whose value must ever increase with the price it has cost us. Our integrity is never worth so much as when we have parted with our all to keep it. —Ovid, Roman poet ! " The supreme quality for leadership is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an army, or in an office. —Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of the United States From Many, One Overview In the course of this lesson, students will consider the value of integrity both as an ideal for human behavior and as a characteristic of the American political system. In Part I, students reflect on the meaning of integrity as presented in selected statements from the Founders. Part II focuses the students on the definition and idea of integrity as it relates to their personal lives. The small group discussion in Part III reinforces the integrated nature of the principles contained in our Founding documents. In Part IV, students examine how the principle of separation of powers is essentially an integrating principle: all three branches of government working together as one. In a class-wide discussion, students assess how a person of integrity would act in certain situations. Finally, students attempt to apply the value of integrity in their own lives. Objectives Students will be able to: • explain the importance of the value of integrity in a constitutional democracy • compare the various meanings of integrity • appreciate the integrated nature of the Founding documents • evaluate the integrating principles of the Constitution (separation of powers) • distinguish between those who act with integrity and those who do not • appreciate the necessity of integrity for thoughtful participation in civil society • apply the value of integrity to situations in their own lives Standards CCE: (9–12) II.C, II.D, V.C, V.E NCHS: (5–12, Ch. 3) Era III: 3.A, 3.B NCTE: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12 CEP Principles: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7 NCSS Strands: 2, 5, 6, 10 Materials Required: Student Handouts A. Reading Selections: Founders’ Views on Personal and National Integrity B. Integrity Quotes C. Document Cards D. Separation of Power Cards E. Civic Value Record Sheet Teacher Keys Focus Questions Transparency: Acting with Integrity Character Challenges Answer Key Optional: Historical Narratives • • Henry David Thoreau: What I Have to Do . . . George C. Marshall: In Peace and in War Recommended Time One 90-minute class block or two 45-minute class periods. Additional time as needed for homework. Integrity 137 Lesson Plan I. Background/Homework [10–15 minutes the day before] A. Distribute Handout A—Reading Selections: Founders’ Views on Personal and National Integrity. For homework, have the students read the selections and answer the accompanying questions. B. Optional: Assign one or both of the historical narratives and accompanying questions. II. Warm-Up [15 minutes] A. Review the students’ answers from the previous night’s homework. B. Have students complete one of the following exercises at the beginning of class the day of the lesson (or in addition to the homework the night before the lesson). 1. Ask students to write a one-page response to the prompt: “What do we mean when we say that people should act with integrity?” 2. Give students Handout B—Integrity Quotes. Ask them to choose one and write a response, focusing on their understanding of what it means to act with integrity. C. Using the provided Focus Questions, continue the discussion about integrity and reach class consensus about the best definition, listing class contributions on the board or overhead. III. Small Group Discussion: National Integrity [15 minutes] A. Introduce the next activity by telling students that they will be imagining what it would be like if the Founders had not created a unified or whole system of government; in other words, a government of integrity. They will look first at the Founding documents and then take a detailed look at some aspects of the Constitution. B. Prior to class, make sufficient copies of Handout C—Document Cards so that each student can have one. Students should form themselves (or be formed) into groups of three. Shuffle the cards and ask students to draw one. Each group will have several possible combinations of cards. C. In their small groups, students should answer these questions (Answers will vary): 1. How would American history be different if the Founders had written only the document(s) in front of you (and not the other ones)? 2. What specifically would be missing from American history and American traditions if we were missing the other documents? 3. If we had only the document(s) in front of you, how would your life be different? 4. Why is it necessary to study and understand all three documents to fully understand American history and American civic values? 5. Do the principles contained in these three documents offer an integrated picture of American political values? 6. Do any of these principles contradict each other? Which ones and how? IV. Small Group Discussion: Political Integrity [15 minutes] A. Prior to class, make sufficient copies of Handout D—Separation of Power Cards so that each student can have one. Students should then form themselves (or be formed) into groups of three. Shuffle the cards and ask students to draw one. Each group will have several possible combinations of cards. B. In their small groups, students should answer these questions (Answers will vary): 1. How would American government be different if the Founders had created only the branches on the cards in front of you? 2. What challenges would our government face if we were missing one or more of the branches of government? 138 Citizenship and Character Lesson Plan 3. If our government had only the branch(es) in front of you, how would your life be different? 4. Throughout history, many governments have had only one or two branches (e.g., the absolute monarchies of France had no separation of powers; the British parliamentary system does not have an independent executive; the American government under the Articles of Confederation lacked an executive branch). What is the value in having three separate branches integrated into one system? V. Small Group Discussion: Personal Integrity [15 minutes] A. Explain to the students that a person who acts with integrity is one who is whole or undivided in his or her ethical or moral code. Such a person tries to make all ethical decisions based upon the same ethical or moral code. B. Place a transparency of Acting with Integrity on the overhead projector and read each Character Challenge to the class, asking for student responses to the questions. Answers will vary, and students may not be able to apply each value to all of the situations. Guide the discussion toward an appreciation of the value of integrity as well as an awareness of the difficulty of acting with integrity. VI. Wrap-Up Discussion [10–15 minutes] A. Ask students how easy or difficult it is to be a person of integrity; i.e., a person who consistently makes all of his or her decisions according to ethical or moral values. What are the main challenges to being a person of integrity? B. Explain to students that even the Founders found it difficult to be people of integrity, but they never stopped trying to achieve that goal. Share with them the example of Benjamin Franklin who, in his Autobiography, told of his efforts to improve himself one virtue at a time. C. Distribute Handout E—Civic Value Record Sheet and ask students to keep track of how well they are living according to these civic values over the course of the next week (or the next day). Encourage them to be people of integrity. VII. Homework Options A. Write an essay in which you argue in favor of integrity in our daily lives. B. Find an article/photograph of individuals or institutions acting with integrity and write a paragraph predicting the consequences of their integrity. C. Find an article that illustrates the separation of powers in the U.S. government and write a one paragraph explanation of why this is an example of political integration. D. Write a one-page response to your Civic Value Record Sheet answering this question: What did you learn about yourself while completing this exercise? CD-ROM Interactive Activity Extension Complete a close reading of Chapter 6 of The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin and write a two- to three-page paper comparing Franklin’s efforts to become a virtuous citizen with your own efforts to become a person of integrity. Moderation 139 Integrity 139 Focus Questions 1. What words are similar to “integrity”? What do these words mean? E.g., integer (a whole number); integration (bringing together of various elements); integrated (the state of being together or wholeness); integral (essential or necessary to the wholeness of something) 2. When we say that someone is a person of integrity, what do we mean? Answers will vary, but most students will refer to the characteristics of morality, ethical behavior, honesty, etc. Encourage them to think of integrity as also meaning wholeness or completeness—a person of integrity embodies many values. 3. If a person acts with integrity, what are some of the values that will motivate his or her actions? E.g., honesty, courage, respect for others, perseverance, industry, responsibility, justice, initiative, moderation, and others 4. Does a person of integrity base decisions on some values more than others? Answers will vary, but most students will acknowledge that individuals are usually motivated by only some values and that few individuals are able to base their actions upon consideration of all ethical values (since ethical values are sometimes in conflict with each other). 5. Who do you think are persons of integrity, either living or dead? Why? E.g., answers will vary but possible responses include Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Ghandi, members of the students’ own families 6. Has there been a time in your life when you have (or have not) acted with integrity? How easy or difficult was it? Answers will vary. Students are likely to relate instances in which they did (or did not) act honestly. Encourage them to think of times when they made decisions based on more than one civic value. 7. What does it mean to have a government of integrity? Government’s integrity can be thought of in two different ways. A government of integrity is one in which all participants are people of integrity and in which all decisions are based upon moral and ethical principles. A second understanding refers to the nature of the government itself: all the various parts work closely together to form the whole of the political structure. 140 Citizenship and Character Transparency Acting with Integrity What is the courageous action? What is the respectful action? What is the considerate action? What is the persevering action? What is the industrious action? What is the responsible action? What is the just action? What action shows initiative? What is the moderate action? What is the action of a person with integrity? © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 141 Transparency Character Challenges 1. You are the President of the United States and your country’s commercial ships have been attacked by the British and French navies. Half of Congress wants you to declare war against France; half wants you to declare war against England. What should be done? 2. You are a United States senator and you have to vote on the guilt or innocence of the president during his impeachment trial. The majority of your own party members support conviction while the president’s supporters are urging you to vote against conviction. What should be done? 3. You are the Attorney General of the United States and the president orders you to fire a special prosecutor because of potential challenges to the president’s authority. What should be done? 4. You are an investigative reporter writing about a political scandal. Your publisher, who is being pressured by the people reported on, strongly encourages you not to publish the story. What should be done? 5. You have served two terms as President of the United States, and many people would like you to serve a third term (and there is no constitutional barrier to doing so). What should be done? 142 Citizenship and Character © The Bill of Rights Institute Handout A Reading Selections: Founders’ Views on Personal and National Integrity Directions: Read the following statements of the Founders about personal and national integrity. Answer the questions that follow on a separate sheet of paper. Selection 1 . . . His integrity was pure, his justice the most inflexible I have ever known, no motives of interest or consanguinity [having a close relationship], of friendship or hatred, being able to bias his decision. . . . The whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in a few points indifferent. —Thomas Jefferson on George Washington Selection 2 . . . The foundation of our national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable principles of private morality, and the preeminence of free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the affections of its citizens and command the respect of the world. . . . There is no truth more thoroughly established than that there exists in the economy and course of nature an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness; between duty and advantage; between the genuine maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy and the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity . . . —George Washington, excerpt from First Inaugural Address, 1789 Selection 3 We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. —The Preamble to the United States Constitution Questions 1. According to Jefferson, what factors did not influence Washington’s decision-making? Why does Jefferson see this as an example of integrity? 2. What do you think Jefferson means by “pure” integrity? 3. According to Washington, what must be the foundation for American public policy? 4. What does Washington mean by “private morality”? Is there a difference today in people’s understanding between the concept of private morality and public morality? Was there a difference at the time of the Founding? Do morality and integrity mean the same thing? 5. What three sets of “indissoluble unions” does Washington speak about? Why are these sets indissoluble? What might happen if any one of these elements is missing? 6. According to the Preamble, what are the six purposes of government? 7. If our government is to be a government of integrity, can it ignore any one of these purposes? If so, which one and why? If not, why not? © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 143 Handout B Integrity No man can purchase his virtue too dear, for it is the only thing whose value must ever increase with the price it has cost us. Our integrity is never worth so much as when we have parted with our all to keep it. —Ovid, Roman poet ! " The supreme quality for leadership is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an army, or in an office. —Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of the United States ! " Don’t worry so much about your self-esteem. Worry more about your character. Integrity is its own reward. —Laura Schlessinger, American author and radio talk show host ! " A single lie destroys a whole reputation of integrity. —Baltasar Gracian, Spanish philosopher and Jesuit priest ! " If you have integrity, nothing else matters. If you don’t have integrity, nothing else matters. —Alan Simpson, American senator ! " Our success or failure, in whatever office we may hold, will be measured by the answers to four questions— were we truly men of courage? were we truly men of judgment? were we truly men of integrity? were we truly men of dedication? —John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States ! " Arguments of convenience lack integrity and inevitably trip you up. —Donald Rumsfeld, American Secretary of Defense 144 Citizenship and Character © The Bill of Rights Institute Handout C Document Cards Declaration of Independence Constitution of the United States of America Bill of Rights Declaration of Independence Constitution of the United States of America Bill of Rights Declaration of Independence Constitution of the United States of America Bill of Rights © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 145 Handout D Separation of Power Cards 146 Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial Branch Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial Branch Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial Branch Citizenship and Character © The Bill of Rights Institute Handout E Civic Value Record Sheet Are You a Person of Integrity? For the next seven days, try to keep track of how often you act or make decisions with one or more of these civic values in mind. Put a checkmark down each time you act according to a specific value. DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4 DAY 5 DAY 6 DAY 7 Courage Respect Consideration Perseverance Industry Responsibility Justice Initiative Moderation Integrity Your Choice Your Choice Your Choice © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 147 Henry David Thoreau What I Have to Do . . . ! “As I stood considering the walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which strained the light, I could not help being struck with the foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. . . . I did not for a moment feel confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone and mortar.” Locked in jail, Henry David Thoreau felt free. For over a year, Thoreau had been living in a small, bare cabin near Walden Pond, Massachusetts, observing, admiring, and absorbing the natural world. In the middle of the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century, he had decided to set himself apart and live according to Transcendentalist principles: simplicity, economy, and moderation. Now he found himself in a more spartan environment— prison. He had known that he would end up there. As he listened to his cellmate claim innocence in the face of barn-burning charges, Thoreau knew his own guilt. He was holding firm to his beliefs. He intended to make a point. In 1846, the state of Massachusetts, like a number of others, required that citizens pay a tax to vote (commonly called a “poll tax”). The same year, 1846, the United States became heavily involved in a war with Mexico. Strongly opposed to the war, Thoreau believed that winning it would surely mean an expansion of slavery throughout the West and South. As a staunch abolitionist, he adamantly opposed the use of his tax money to support the government’s efforts. He explained, “What I have to do is to see that I do not lend myself to the wrong which I condemn.” Thoreau’s opposition to slavery was not new. He had been raised in a home where slavery was regarded as evil. His mother was one of the early members of the Concord Woman’s Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1837, and spoke out often against slavery. The Thoreaus also participated in 148 Citizenship and Character " the Underground Railroad, bringing many escaped slaves to freedom. Raised in this environment, Thoreau witnessed and took part in this form of civil disobedience. In fact, the founder of the Concord Woman’s Anti-Slavery Society remembered in 1851 that “Henry Thoreau more often than any other man in Concord” was involved with caring and providing for the “passengers” that came through at night on the Underground Railroad. Unlike his mother who was involved in abolitionist organizations, Thoreau placed more emphasis on the individual’s responsibility to live a life of integrity that did not, however seemingly minutely, support unjust enterprises. Thus, he refused to pay his poll tax and was arrested. His actions got the attention of the community, and he received some support for his protest. While incarcerated, his mentor—friend, fellow Transcendentalist, and essayist— Ralph Waldo Emerson, visited. Emerson asked, “Henry, what are you doing in here?” Thoreau quickly retorted,“What are you doing out there?” To follow an unjust law, it seemed to Thoreau, was an immoral act.“Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison,” he reasoned. “If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose.” Acting with such consistency and integrity was not easy. In his essay about the experience, Civil Disobedience, Thoreau reflected, “I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax.” His fellow citizens, he lamented, lacked the integrity to live up to their ideals. They talked but they would not act. “They hesitate, and they regret, and sometimes they petition; but they do nothing in earnest and with effect. They will wait, well disposed, for others to remedy the evil. . . .” By standing up for his beliefs, Thoreau paid his version of a “tax”—a night in jail—and fulfilled what he thought were his responsibilities as a citizen. © The Bill of Rights Institute The seemingly small act was not simply symbolic. Thoreau hoped that his example might inspire others to act with integrity and stay true to their beliefs. “If one honest man, in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this co-partnership, and be locked up in the county jail, it would be the abolition of slavery in America.” The next day, however, Thoreau was a free man. His aunt paid the tax for him and he was released. Thoreau was not pleased. Nevertheless, he continued to protest slavery. He applauded the actions of abolitionist John Brown and his assault on the U.S. Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry. He also openly condemned the U.S. government for hanging Brown and for its support of the Fugitive Slave Law. In a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in 1859, Thoreau declared, “I would rather see the statue of Captain Brown in the Massachusetts State-House yard, than that of any other man whom I know. I rejoice that I live in this age, that I am his contemporary. What a contrast, when we turn to that political party which is so anxiously shuffling him and his plot out of its way, and looking around for . . . someone who will execute the Fugitive Slave Law, and all those other unjust laws which he took up arms to annul!” Thoreau’s ideals of uncompromising honesty and integrity influenced many people even decades later. His words and actions inspired Americans opposed to McCarthyism in the 1950s, those fighting apartheid in South Africa in the 1960s, and antiwar efforts of the 1970s. Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr., embraced his ideals of passive resistance and civil disobedience. Henry David Thoreau understood that one person of integrity, who holds to his or her beliefs in action as well as word, can change the world: “For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done for ever.” Questions 1. Acting with integrity by definition means being sincere and honest. In what ways did Henry David Thoreau act with integrity? 2. Thoreau expressed what were considered at the time dissenting views. Can a person have dissenting views and still be considered a person of integrity? 3. What are the benefits of acting with integrity? 4. Think of someone in your life that you respect and perceive as a person of integrity. What did he or she do to earn your respect? Explain. © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 149 George C. Marshall In Peace and in War ! The waves of applause began to subside as he approached the podium. Still, whispers lingered, questioning the selection of this man for the award. Within the first five minutes of his speech, General George Catlett Marshall answered his critics. He began, “There has been considerable comment over the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to a soldier. I am afraid this does not seem as remarkable to me as it quite evidently appears to others. . . . The cost of war in human lives is constantly spread before me, written neatly in many ledgers whose columns are gravestones.” These were not the words of an arrogant, battle-hungry warrior. He stood before them that evening to accept the Nobel Peace Prize of 1953, an intelligent and compassionate soldier-statesman. This was the man who had helped lead the Allied forces to victory in World War II. This was the author of the Marshall Plan, so critical to the economic rebuilding of Europe in the war’s aftermath. His words were evidence of the principles by which he lived—initiative, perseverance, courage, moderation. Marshall was a man of the highest integrity. His concern for future generations resonated in the hall. The key to a lasting peace, he asserted, was education. “Because wisdom in action in our Western democracies rests squarely upon public understanding, I have long believed that our schools have a key role to play. Peace could, I believe, be advanced through careful study of all the factors which have gone into the various incidents now historical that have marked the breakdown of peace in the past.” The retired general understood the importance of education in his own training. He began his service in the United States Army in 1901. He earned high praise for his leadership abilities. He also served as an instructor and staff officer for many years. Although his promotions came slowly, Marshall persevered. He worked under General Pershing during World War I, and 150 Citizenship and Character " played an integral role in development of military strategy. In 1927, two events greatly affected Marshall’s life: the sudden death of his wife and his assignment as head of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia. He plunged into depression, but the task of training soldiers gave him a focus. Under his guidance and initiative, a training program at Fort Benning was restructured. During his five years there, over two hundred future generals were trained. The experience reinforced his strong commitment to education. From 1932 to 1936, Marshall had more opportunities to develop his leadership skills. He worked with the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Guard. With the beginning of World War II, the army reassigned him. In September 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt selected him to serve as Chief of Staff of the War Plans Division. The promotion coincided with Germany’s invasion of Poland. Marshall spent the majority of his career responding to the consequences of the invasion. During his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize, he reflected that America had “acquired, I think, a feeling and a concern for the problems of other peoples. There is a deep urge to help the oppressed and to give aid to those upon whom great and sudden hardship has fallen.” Marshall recognized the importance of the United States in the international community. As the head of the army, Marshall went to Congress and the president, in the face of great opposition, to make the case for American support of the war in Europe. He urged them to realize the effect war would have on the United States. His perseverance again led to success, and he began to prepare for the possible entrance into war. In the meantime, Marshall’s foresight and approach gained him a reputation for honesty and courage. Marshall also recognized his personal responsibility to the United States. Following © The Bill of Rights Institute America’s entry into World War II in 1941, President Roosevelt began to rely on him in both the military and political arenas. By 1945, he was indispensable. When faced with the difficult choice of leading the D-Day invasion of Normandy or staying in Washington, he placed duty before selfinterest. The president said he “could not sleep at ease,” with Marshall on the front line. Marshall stayed. Later, such personal sacrifices and public contributions earned him several honors. He was given the title General of the Army, and Time named him “Man of the Year.” Following his military service, Marshall became Secretary of State in the Truman administration. Post-war Europe presented new challenges. In 1947, he tackled the task of defining America’s new role as a world power. He wanted to help the “. . . millions who live under subnormal conditions and who have now come to a realization that they may aspire to a fair share of the God-given rights of human beings.” He believed that if the United States acted “with wisdom and magnanimity,” it could “guide these yearnings of the poor to a richer and better life through democracy.” Marshall saw industry as critical to European recovery. In a speech to the graduating class of Harvard University, he shared what became known as the Marshall Plan. Although it was clear that Europe needed aid from the United States, he stressed a moderate approach. “The remedy lies in breaking the vicious circle and restoring confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole,” he said. “This is the business of Europeans.” Over the next two years, the United States helped stabilize the economies of western European nations and establish the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for their security. George C. Marshall’s dedication and courage had earned him the respect of world leaders like English Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt. His guiding principles and personal integrity helped lead the United States through perilous times. Through his initiatives, Marshall placed other nations on the path to prosperity. America, he said, is “young in world history, but these ideals of ours we can offer to the world with the certainty that they have the power to inspire and to impel action.” The Nobel Peace Prize winner prepared to leave the stage, concluding, “I have done my best, and I hope I have sown some seeds which may bring forth good fruit.” Questions 1. A person with integrity embodies a number of admirable character traits. What traits did General George C. Marshall exemplify? 2. What would happen if Marshall had been a man of great courage but acted without moderation? or was perceived as honest but unwilling to persevere? 3. What happens when you emphasize one positive character trait, but neglect others? 4. Do you think that General George C. Marshall is a good example of a “man of integrity”? Why or why not? © The Bill of Rights Institute Integrity 151 Resources Integrity Henry David Thoreau Cain, William E., and William B. Cain, ed. A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Harding, Walter Roy. The Days of Henry Thoreau. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992. The Henry D. Thoreau Home Page. 2001. The Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods. <http://www.walden.org/ thoreau/default.asp?MFRAME=thoreau/home_hdt.htm>. Lenat, Richard. “Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau.” Thoreau Reader. 2002. <http://eserver.org/ thoreau/civil.html>. Lewis, Jone Johnson, ed. “Henry David Thoreau.” Transcendentalists. 1995–2003. Last updated 25 Feb. 2002. <http://www.transcendentalists.com/1thorea.html>. Richardson, Robert D., Jr., and Barry Moser. Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Thoreau, Henry David. Journals of Henry David Thoreau. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994–1997. Thoreau, Henry David.“A Plea for Captain John Brown.” Transcendentalists. Jone Johnson Lewis, ed. 1995–2003. Last updated 25 Feb. 2002. <http://www.transcendentalists.com/thoreau_plea_john_brown.htm>. Thoreau, Henry David. Nancy L. Rosenblum, ed. Thoreau: Political Writings. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. “Thoreau, Civil Disobedience and the Underground Railroad.” 2001. CFR. <http://www.calliope.org/ thoreau/thurro/thurro2.html>. “Thoreau, Henry David.” The Expanded Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. 2003. <http://historychannel. com>. “Today in History: July 12.” American Memory. The Library of Congress. <http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ today/jul12.html>. George C. Marshall Chace, James. “An Extraordinary Partnership.” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 3 (1997). Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997. “Marshall, George Catlett, Jr.” American National Biography. <http://www.anb.org/>. Marshall, George Catlett, Jr. “Essentials to Peace.” Nobel Lecture delivered in the auditorium of the University of Oslo on 11 Dec. 1953. Published in Nobel Lectures: Peace 1951–1970. Nobel e-Museum. <http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1953/marshall-lecture.html>. Marshall, George Catlett, Jr. “The Marshall Plan.” In Our Nation’s Archive: The History of the United States in Documents, Erik Bruun and Jay Crosby, eds. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 1999. Mosley, Leonard. Marshall, A Hero for Our Times. New York: Hearst Books, 1982. Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1943–1945. New York: Viking Press, 1973. Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Statesman, 1945–1959. New York: Viking Press, 1987. Stoler, Mark A. George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. U.S. Department of State. Office of the Historian. The Origins of NATO, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Bureau of Public Affairs. Washington, D.C., Apr. 1999. U.S. Department of State. Office of Policy and Public Affairs. The Marshall Plan. Bureau for European and Canadian Affairs. Washington, D.C., 12 May 1997. 152 Citizenship and Character
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