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GEOL 108.3
The Earth and How It Works
Class Syllabus
Your Instructor
Grading Scheme
Dr. Karla Panchuk
Department of Geological Sciences
Final
Exam
50%
Office Hours
Wednesdays and Thursdays
6:30 p.m. - 8:00 p.m. by phone
Assignments
50%
This course explores global and local-scale physical processes that
shape our planet. There is a strong emphasis on interrelationships
between geological processes and humans. Topics for discussion
include volcanoes, earthquakes, pollution, and the origin and
exploitation of energy, mineral and water resources.
Note: May be used toward the Natural Science requirement for
Programs Type A, B, and D (B.A. programs). Students with credit for
GEOL 103, 105, 110, or 121 may not take this course for credit.
For further details
visit the Additional
Information section
later in this syllabus.
University of Saskatchewan
! Check that you
have received all of
the Course Materials
Package
• Course Guide
• Submission Forms
and Envelopes (3)
Course Description
Overdue
assignments will be
assessed a penalty
of 5% per day up to
a maximum of 50%.
Welcome to class!
Please complete the
I
following:
Contact Information
Phone: 306-492-2394
Email: [email protected]
Extensions and
Late Assignments
Term: Spring/Summer 2015
Course Section: X01
Delivery: Independent
Studies
Start Date: May 6, 2015
End Date: August 11, 2015
Required Resources
Grotzinger, John & Jordan,
Tom. (2014). Understanding
Earth, 7th Edition. New York:
W.H. Freeman.
ISBN: 978-1-4641-3874-4
Textbooks are available from
the University of Saskatchewan
Bookstore:
http://www.usask.ca/consumer_
services/bookstore/textbooks
Class Syllabus
! Review the
information in this
Class Syllabus.
! Update your
Contact Information.
Log on to PAWS at
http://www.paws.usask.
ca and click the
Address icon to ensure
that your contact
information is correct.
Your instructor will use
this information to
contact you.
The University
communicates with
students through PAWS
and through the
student’s University
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communications. You
are required to use your
PAWS email for all
U of S communications.
Rev. April 9, 2015 gm ck pk jm kp
Page 1 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
Please Note: This Class Syllabus is an important step in updating the format of our distance classes. If for any reason the Class
Syllabus does not match the print Course Guide or online class information, the Class Syllabus shall be taken as correct.
Course Learning Outcomes
See Activities and Objectives sections within
the Course Guide.
Class Overview
Geology attempts to explain the physical
processes that shape our planet. In this
course you will examine the basics of
physical geology and learn about minerals,
rocks, and the processes that form them.
You will see how this information is applied
to mitigate the effects of natural disasters,
and to locate the natural resources that
make our way of life possible.
This course may change the way you look at
the Earth, and how you view time. The
science of geology transformed the human
perspective on our existence in the Universe
by revealing the age of our planet and solar
system. Earth—its continents, oceans, and
atmosphere—has been slowly evolving over
the past 4.5 million centuries. Measured
against this scale, our most ancient
civilizations originated only in the last
0.0001% of Earth’s history.
This course is divided into 3 modules. Each
module is subdivided into sections that
correspond to chapters in the textbook.
Module 1 is an introduction to the modern
theory and practice of geology, and the
basic processes that form minerals and
rocks.
Module 2 deals with processes that take
place within the Earth as a result of energy
supplied from Earth’s interior. These
processes include rock deformation,
volcanoes, and earthquakes. You will learn
how the seismic waves that we feel as
earthquakes tell us what Earth is like inside,
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Class Syllabus
and you will study the layering, composition,
and dynamic processes of Earth’s interior.
Module 3 covers the processes that affect
Earth’s surface because of energy provided
by the Sun. Of primary importance is the
climate system, which affects weathering,
erosion, mass wasting, and the hydrologic
cycle. The human impact on the climate
system is examined through a discussion of
fossil fuels and alternative energy resources.
All of the modules are organized in the same
way. For each of the chapters covered in
the textbook, there is a brief introduction,
followed by assigned readings. Following
the readings, there is a section titled
Activities and Objectives. Use this like a
checklist to help you focus on the key
aspects of the readings. For some of the
chapters there is also Additional Learning
Material to supplement and clarify your
textbook readings.
In the textbook and the Additional Learning
Material of the Course Guide, some
technical terms appear in bold type.
Become familiar with these terms. They are
standard vocabulary in the science of
geology, and many of them will be used
throughout the course. You can find the
definitions of these terms by studying the
context in which they appear, and you can
also consult the Glossary in the textbook. If
you are having trouble understanding what
the terms mean, ask your instructor.
At the end of each module, you will complete
and submit an assignment.
Your Instructor
Dr. Karla Panchuk
Hello, and welcome to Geology 108!
Please feel free to get in touch with me
regarding any questions or concerns about
the course. If you are new to independent
study courses, and unsure of what to expect,
Page 2 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
I’d like to hear from you. Although technology
exists that would let me see the confused
look on your face as you read your textbook,
not everyone has it, so you need to let me
know if you are having trouble.
For this course, office hours are by phone
from 6:30 p.m. – 8:30 p.m. on Wednesdays
and Thursdays. I will be waiting with
anticipation for your phone call, so don’t
disappoint me. Please note that my work
takes me out of my office on a regular basis.
If you are unable to take advantage of my
office hours, please let me know, and we can
arrange an alternative time for a phone call.
You can also leave a message at any time on
my voice mail.
If you contact me by email, or by phone
outside of regular office hours, I will respond
within 2 business days. If you don’t have
access to email, please contact me as soon
as possible by phone so I know the best way
to get in touch with you. This is important
because I will contact you using your usask
email address unless you give me other
instructions.
Profile
I attended the University of Saskatchewan for
my BSc and MSc, and did my doctoral work at
Pennsylvania State University. My research
involves applying geochemical clues from the
rock record to understand how the Earth
system works, and how it has changed
through time. I use computer models to test
hypotheses about events in Earth history that
have left their chemical fingerprints behind in
rocks all over the planet.
Required Resources (cont’d.)
Other Required Materials
Print Course Materials package mailed from
CCDE
Class Schedule
Week
Module
Readings in the Textbook
Evaluation
1–3
Module 1
Chapter 1: pp. 2-22
Assignment 1
(May 6 – 27,
2015)
Introduction to
Earth Processes
Chapter 2: pp. 26-39, 42-52
May 27, 2015
Chapter 3: pp. 56-68, 74-86
Chapter 4: pp. 90-111
Chapter 5: pp. 114-145
Chapter 6: pp. 148-167
Midterm Break (May 28 & 29, 2015)
University of Saskatchewan
Class Syllabus
Page 3 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
Week
Module
Readings in the Textbook
4–6
Module 2
Chapter 7: pp. 170-191
(June 1 – 19,
2015)
Internal
Geosystems
Chapter 12: pp. 312-342
Evaluation
Chapter 13: pp. 346-380
Midterm Break (June 22 – 24, 2015)
7
Module 2 (cont’d.)
Chapter 14: pp. 382-394
(June 25 – July
3, 2015)
Internal
Geosystems
8–9
Module 3
Chapter 15: pp. 406-431
(July 6 – 16,
2015)
Surficial
Geosystems
Chapter 16: pp. 434-445, 447-465
Assignment 2
July 3, 2015
Midterm Break (July 17 – 20, 2015)
10 – 11
Module 3 (cont’d.)
Chapter 17: pp. 455-481
(July 21 – 31,
2015)
Surficial
Geosystems
Chapter 21: pp. 586-611
Saskatchewan Day (August 3, 2015) University Closed
12
Assignment 3
(Aug. 4 – 11,
2015)
Chapter 23: pp. 640-671
FINAL EXAM
Aug. 4, 2015
Friday, August 14, 2015 at 9:00 a.m.
Note: If for any reason the Class Syllabus Reading List does not match the Module Reading List,
the Class Syllabus shall be taken as correct.
Evaluation Components
CCDE Writing Centre - Quality
writing help for free!
Anyone taking a distance class (online,
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Class Syllabus
independent studies, televised, or multi–
mode delivery) administered by the CCDE
can use this free service. The Writing
Centre provides tools and support to help
you write effective essays, reports, or
reviews. Simply submit a project draft, and a
qualified tutor will assess your work and
Page 4 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
offer advice to improve your project. Contact
the CCDE Writing Centre at
http://www.ccde.usask.ca/writing Assignments
Complete the assignments as you finish
each module. Your responses to the
assignment questions should be thoughtful
and well written. Be sure that you draw on
the information from the readings to support
your answers—write as though you are
explaining the concepts to another student.
Students often wonder how much they
should write for each answer. A good rule of
thumb is that for each point the question is
worth, there should be one fact or concept.
You may find it useful to read over the
assignment for each module before
beginning that module. This not only helps
you to identify key points in the readings
(sometimes one can get bogged down in
details), but if you answer the questions
after completing the appropriate section, it
also can help you stay on schedule.
IMPORTANT! Your responses must be
written in your own words – in your own
authentic voice. Answers that are not in
your own words will not receive credit. The
following is a list of things that don’t count
as answering in your own words:
•
Copying directly from a source
(textbook, Internet, etc.)
•
Copying a sentence and then
modifying it by changing a word to
its synonym, or changing the tense
of verbs
•
•
•
Making a new sentence by copying
parts of the original sentence and
arranging them in a different order
Copying a sentence and then
modifying it by omitting some of the
words
Stringing together phrases copied
from the source. In this case a
sentence isn’t being copied, but all
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Class Syllabus
of the content of the answer is
derived by copying from the source.
In this course there are many technical
terms. You don’t have to avoid these words,
nor should you, but you do have to use your
own words around them in your answers.
Sometimes it’s helpful to quote material
directly. Show what you have quoted by
using quotation marks, and indicate where
the quote came from (e.g., the page in the
textbook, or a url). Using quotes should not
be a substitute for answering in your own
words. To receive full credit, it must be clear
from your answer that you understand what
the quote means.
Note: See the assignments at the end of
this Class Syllabus.
Assignment Due Dates
It is important to meet the due dates on the
Class Schedule so you can stay on a
realistic schedule for completing the course.
Under exceptional circumstances, an
extension on an assignment may be
arranged by contacting the instructor prior to
the due date.
Submitting Assignments
Submission forms and pre-addressed
envelopes are included in your course
materials package. Assignments may be
submitted by mail, fax, in person, or email.
You are encouraged to submit your work by
email.
Options for Submitting
Assignments:
•
•
•
By email to your instructor
([email protected] )
By fax (with completed submission
form) to CCDE at (306) 966-5245.
In person (with completed
submission form) to the Main Office
at the Centre for Continuing and
Distance Education (address below)
Monday through Friday between
8:30 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. After Hours:
Page 5 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
•
Via the drop slot located at the top of
the central stairwell, on the Fourth
Floor of the Williams Building
(address below).
By mail (with completed submission
form) to:
The Centre for Continuing and
Distance Education (CCDE)
Room 464, Williams Building
University of Saskatchewan
221 Cumberland Avenue North
Saskatoon, SK S7N 1M3
provided to help you understand the
purpose for that grouping. Likewise, each
chapter will be introduced with a brief
discussion so you can focus on the
essential elements.
The following components of the Course
Guide are also developed to help you
prepare for the final exam:
•
Key chapter concepts are specifically
identified through the Activities and
Objectives for each chapter. Specific
activities are identified (memorize,
define, describe, explain, list) to help
you tackle the material and distinguish
key concepts from background
information. Definitions are important,
both to identify key material and to build
the necessary vocabulary.
Final Exam
•
Value:
50% of final grade
Date:
See Class Schedule
Length:
3 hours
Purpose:
The exam is comprehensive,
based on the entire course.
Description: The final exam is invigilated
and closed-book. It will consist of 80
multiple choice questions.
Key Terms listed in the Course Guide
are useful to quickly identify important
material and test your general
understanding.
•
The assignments questions are very
important study references. Study the
material from the assignments, and be
sure you have reviewed your instructor’s
comments in your graded assignment.
Please note that assignments sent by mail
should be postmarked no later than the due
date, and faxes should be sent prior to 4:30
p.m. Saskatchewan time on the due date.
You should keep a copy of all assignments
submitted.
The location listed in PAWS for your exam
is the Saskatoon location. If you want to
write your final exam outside Saskatoon,
you must complete an Application for Final
Examination form, available at:
https://ccde.usask.ca/exam-info This will let
us know where you would like to write your
exam.
If you are unable to access the form online,
contact the Centre for Continuing &
Distance Education at 306-966-4811.
Students writing in Saskatoon do not need
to complete this form.
Preparing for the Final Exam
Each module contains a grouping of
chapters that reinforce each other in some
way. An introduction for each module is
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Class Syllabus
Additional Information
Understanding Your Grades
Information on literal descriptors for grading
at the University of Saskatchewan can be
found at:
http://students.usask.ca/current/academics/
grades/grading-system.php
Please note: There are different literal
descriptors for undergraduate and graduate
students.
More information on the Academic Courses
Policy on course delivery, examinations and
assessment of student learning can be
found at:
http://policies.usask.ca/policies/academicaffairs/academic-courses.php
Page 6 of 22
GEOL 108.3 X – The Earth and How It Works
The University of Saskatchewan Learning
Charter is intended to define aspirations
about the learning experience that the
University aims to provide, and the roles to
be played in realizing these aspirations by
students, instructors and the institution. A
copy of the Learning Charter can be found
at:
http://policies.usask.ca/documents/Learning
Charter.pdf
It is your responsibility to be familiar with the
University of Saskatchewan Guidelines for
Academic Conduct. More information is
available at
http://www.usask.ca/secretariat/studentconduct-appeals/IntegrityDefined.pdf
Must Complete Information
Acknowledgements
You must complete all of the
assignments in order to be eligible for a
passing grade in this course.
Course Author
If you have extenuating circumstances,
contact your instructor.
Extensions and Late Assignments
(cont’d. from page 1)
Module Objectives
See Activities and Objectives sections
within the Course Guide.
Cindy Ganes, B.Sc.
Instructional Design and Course
Development
Earl R. Misanchuk, Ed.D
Margareth Peterson, M.Ed.
Assignments will not be graded if received
after the date of the final exam unless the
instructor has granted a formal extension.
Students with Disabilities
Students who have disabilities (learning,
medical, physical, or mental health) are
strongly encouraged to register with
Disability Services for Students (DSS) if
they have not already done so. Students
who suspect they may have disabilities
should contact DSS for advice and referrals.
In order to access DSS programs and
supports, students must follow DSS policy
and procedures. For more information,
check
http://www.students.usask.ca/disability/, or
contact DSS at 966-7273 or [email protected].
Integrity Defined (from the
Office of the University
Secretary)
“Integrity is expected of all students in their
academic work – class participation,
examinations, assignments, research,
practica – and in their non-academic
interactions and activities as well.” (Office of
the University Secretary)
University of Saskatchewan
Class Syllabus
Page 7 of 22
Assignments
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How It Works
Assignments
Assignment 1
Part 1
Each of statements a through g contains one factual error. For each statement,
1. identify the error, and
2. explain the reason or reasons why the statement is wrong.
Questions a through g are worth 5 points each.
a. Oceanic crust and continental crust differ because they are made up of
different kinds of minerals. Nevertheless, they are similar in that both oceanic
and continental crust exist which are billions of years old.
b. Not all volcanoes are on plate boundaries, but all plate boundaries have
volcanoes.
c. Although freezing and precipitation are identified as different ways that
minerals crystallize, these are really exactly the same thing, because in both
cases solid minerals form from a liquid.
d. As you go deeper into the Earth it gets hotter and hotter. One reason for this
is the enormous pressure that rocks are under. When the force of gravity
squeezes them together, they heat up. What this means is that the more
pressure a rock is under, the more likely it is to melt. Another way to make
rocks melt is to add water to them.
e. It is possible to get an igneous rock of mafic composition from an igneous
rock of ultramafic composition. This happens through partial melting of the
ultramafic rock, which means that all of the minerals in the ultramafic rock
melt just a little bit. The liquid from partial melting of ultramafic rocks then
rises through the Earth and later freezes into basalt or gabbro.
f.
If you found a rock like the one in the following Figure 1-1, you could safely
conclude that it formed from relatively low temperature lava that erupted on
the ocean floor.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
9
Figure 1-1: Igneous rock with key minerals identified. Source: Karla Panchuk with photograph courtesy of R.
Weller, Cochise College.
g. Oceans can get larger, but the only way to do this is for underwater
volcanoes to add rocks to ocean crust. Similarly, continents can get larger,
and as with oceans, the only way to do this is for volcanoes to add rocks to
continents.
Part 2
For questions 1 through 3 below, refer to the sedimentary rocks shown in Figure
1-2. For rock C, the image in the circle is a view of the rock under a microscope.
cement
2 mm
quartz
(white grains)
Figure 1-2: Three examples of sedimentary rocks. Source: Karla Panchuk with photographs courtesy of
R. Weller, Cochise College.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
1.
10
a.
Are the rocks in Figure 1-2 siliciclastic, chemical, or biological sedimentary
rocks? How were you able to tell? (3 points)
b.
Which rock is made of sediments that were carried by the fastest stream?
Explain your reasoning. (2 points)
c.
Which rock is made of sediments that were deposited closest to the rocks
from which they weathered? Explain your reasoning. (2 points)
d.
Which rock is made of sediments that were deposited furthest from the rocks
from which they weathered? Explain your reasoning. (2 points)
2.
Give the names for the rocks in Figure 1-2 and explain what made you decide on
those names. (6 points)
3.
a.
When walking along a sandy beach in bare feet, it can be difficult to imagine
that the sand between your toes might one day be solid rock. The rock
shown in C started out as just such a beach. What had to happen to the
beach and the sediments on it to lithify the sediments (i.e., to turn them into
rock)? (5 points)
b.
Would it have been possible for you to witness these events as they took
place? Why or why not? (3 points)
Part 3
Figure 1-3 is a map of Saskatchewan. The black region contains locations where the
biological sedimentary rock limestone is visible. It is referred to as fossiliferous limestone
because fossils are abundant within the rocks. These rocks are approximately 445
million years old. The region shaded in grey is where evaporites, a type of chemical
sedimentary rock, can be found beneath the surface. These evaporites include potash,
and are approximately 385 million years old.
Figure 1-3: Map of Saskatchewan showing the locations of fossiliferous
limestone and evaporite deposits. Source: Karla Panchuk.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
11
a.
Given what you know about the conditions under which limestone forms,
what are two important ways that Saskatchewan 445 million years ago was
different from Saskatchewan today? Explain your reasoning. (4 points)
b.
Now think about the conditions under which evaporite rocks form. What
would have to change between 445 million years ago and 385 million years
ago for evaporites to be deposited instead of fossiliferous limestone? Explain
your reasoning. (4 points)
Part 4
Your friend has just returned from a backpacking trip in the mountains, and is very
excited to see you.
“I think I saw some of those metamorphic rocks you’re always talking about!” he
says. “How did the rocks along my trail form?”
You explain that metamorphic rocks are formed when other rocks are heated and put
under pressure, but don’t get hot enough to melt. He is impatient.
“Yes, yes, heat and pressure, I know. What I mean is, how did those rocks get
there?”
“There are lots of ways to make metamorphic rocks,” you say. “They could be from
heating by a nearby igneous intrusion, or from pressure in a subduction zone, or
from hot water acting on rocks on the sea floor, or when the margins of continents
collide. Tell me more about what you saw, and I’ll see if I can narrow it down for
you.”
“They were strange, actually. In some of them it looked like all of the minerals were
lined up parallel to each other.”
“Well then,” you think to yourself, “we can safely eliminate contact metamorphism
and sea floor metamorphism.”
1.
Why can you conclude that those two kinds of metamorphism did not affect the
rocks along your friend’s hiking trail? (4 points)
Your friend looks puzzled.
“Just how do those minerals get lined up anyway? Does it have something to do
with the shape of the minerals? Does it have something to do with what happens
to the rock? And how can some minerals in the rock be lined up and others not?”
He pulls out his phone and shows you the close-up picture in Figure 1-4.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
12
Figure 1-4: Close-up view of a striped metamorphic rock. Source: Karla Panchuk.
You realize that he is asking about how foliation develops in a metamorphic rock, and is
confused by why some minerals make a foliated texture, and others a granoblastic
texture.
2.
How do you explain to him how minerals get lined up, and why a rock can have
some minerals that are lined up, and others not? (4 points)
“Oh I see,” he says, “that makes sense now.”
"Did you bring any samples back?” you ask him.
“Why yes,” he says. “I found this one at the eastern end of trail.”
He hands you a flat, dull, dark rock that appears to be coming apart in flat layers.
“It isn’t very impressive - no crystals to look at,” he points out.
Next he hands you a striped rock. It has alternating layers of black and light-coloured
minerals, similar to the photograph.
“This one is much better. It sparkles. It was at the western end of the trail.”
You look at the striped rock and see something remarkable: It has the minerals
staurolite, kyanite, and sillimante. After quickly consulting the table of minerals and
metamorphic facies on page 161 of your textbook, and then glancing at the metamorphic
facies figure on page 162, you are quite pleased with yourself.
“I know exactly what happened. The rocks on your trail were formed when the
tectonic plate they were on was hit by another plate that came from the west. The
collision folded the rocks up into a belt of mountains, and the rocks along your
trail underwent regional metamorphism.”
“How on Earth do you get all of that from a boring black rock and a nice striped
one?” your friend asks, incredulous.
3.
How would you explain your reasoning to your friend? (8 points)
Total: 82 points
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How It Works
Assignment 2
Part 1
Each of statements a through f contains one factual error. For each statement,
1. identify the error, and
2. explain the reason or reasons why the statement is wrong.
Questions a through f are worth 5 points each.
a. The Great Rift Valley in Africa is an example of how a divergent plate
boundary can form inside a continent and begin to split the continent apart. A
divergent plate boundary is the only kind of plate boundary that can make
gaps in the Earth’s crust.
b. Textbooks only show basaltic lava forming pahoehoe, aa, and pillow lavas.
In fact, these features can also be formed by andesitic and rhyolitic lavas.
c. The shaking during an earthquake happens because rocks are sliding past
each other along a fault and grinding against each other.
d. Volcanic ash consists of tiny fragments 2mm or smaller that result from
volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash is formed when lava burns vegetation
surrounding a volcano.
e. Volcanic activity along mid-ocean ridges means that very hot rocks form, and
seawater that flows through them is heated to well above the point at which
water usually boils. The seawater is pumped out of the rocks through
chimney-like structures that are sometimes called black smokers because of
the smoky appearance of the water that comes out of them. That appearance
is caused by dissolved minerals in the water. Because of the temperature
conditions and the minerals dissolved in the water, mid-ocean ridges are
regions devoid of life.
f.
The term stress is another way of referring to the force that is acting on a
material. The term strain means the same thing.
Assignment 3
2
Part 2
1.
Where there is a fault, you can also find a particular set of fault rocks. One type
of fault rock, cataclastic rocks, are formed from the rocks on either side of the
fault grinding past each other, producing fragments that range in size from large
angular blocks to a flour-like powder called fault gouge. In other types of rocks,
crystals become progressively more deformed, and can eventually be stretched
into long thin ribbons within a rock. This kind of rock is a mylonite. Whether you
get one type of rock or the other depends on how deep down along the fault the
rock is. Cataclastites form above 20 km, and mylonites form below. Why? What
is different about the conditions above and below 20 km, and what effect do
these differences have on how the rocks deform? (4 points)
2.
In Figure 2-1, a fault is marked with the dashed line.
Figure 2-1: A faulted outcrop. Source: Karla Panchuk with
photo courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey.
a.
Why is this classified as a fault rather than as a joint? (2 points)
b.
Which side of the fault, A or B, is the hanging wall? (1 point)
c.
Which side of the fault moved up? Hint: pick a bed (a layer) on one side of
the fault and then look for one that matches it on the other side. (1 point)
d.
This is a dip-slip fault. What kind of dip-slip fault is it? (1 point)
e.
What kind of force (compression, tension, or shearing) made this fault? (1
point)
f.
As a result of the fault, was the Earth’s crust in that location stretched or was
it shortened? (1 point)
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
3.
3
g.
What are the plate boundaries called where this kind of faulting happens on
a large scale? (1 point)
h.
Is this an example of brittle or ductile deformation? (1 point)
The fence in Figure 2-2 is offset by a fault (dashed line).
Figure 2-2: A fence broken by a fault. Source: Karla Panchuk with photo
courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey.
4.
a.
What kind of fault is it? (1 point)
b.
What kind of force (compression, tension, or shearing) made this fault? (1
point)
c.
Could a fault like this cause shortening or stretching of Earth’s crust? (1
point)
d.
What are the plate boundaries called where this kind of faulting happens on
a large scale? (1 point)
Figure 2-3 shows folds in the Zagros Mountains of Iran.
a.
What kind of fold is shown in A? (1 point)
b.
Are the folds in the Zagros Mountains horizontal or plunging? (Consider the
curved outcrop pattern in B). (1 point)
c.
What kind of force (compression, tension, or shearing) made this fold? (1
point)
d.
As a result of the folds, was the Earth’s crust in the Zagros Mountains
stretched or was it shortened? (1 point)
e.
Is it possible that the rocks were folded while they were at or near Earth’s
surface? Explain your reasoning. (2 points)
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
4
Figure 2-3: Folds in the Zagros Mountains. Source: Karla Panchuk with photographs
courtesy of NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center.
Part 3
You and a friend are on a geology-themed vacation in Hawaii. As you are planning a day
trip to visit a volcano, your friend says,
“I’m a little confused about Hawaii. Hawaii is in the middle of the Pacific Plate.
How can it have volcanoes?”
1.
How do you explain the existence of the Hawaiian Islands to your friend?
(4 points)
Your friend then says, worried,
“I know you are excited about getting close to a lava flow, but are you sure that’s
safe?”
You say,
“I’ve seen it done on YouTube. If you poke a lava flow with a shovel, lava will
stick to it and you get a free sample.”
Your friend says,
“Oh, I’m not concerned about that; if they do it on YouTube, it’s very likely safe.
But if the volcano is erupting lava, doesn’t that mean it’s going to explode? Could
there be a pyroclastic flow? You can’t outrun those, you know.”
You glance out the window of your hotel room and admire the gentle shape of the
volcano - more like a low, round hill than the cone shape you might expect. It’s as
though a giant warrior has laid his shield on the ground.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
5
You say,
“No, we don’t have to worry about pyroclastic flows here. You can tell just from
the shape of the volcano.”
Your friend now accuses you of making things up, because you’re a geologist and she’s
not.
2.
How do you explain to her why you can conclude from the shape of the volcano
that there is no danger of a pyroclastic flow if it erupts? (4 points)
Part 4
1.
Charles Richter, the seismologist who invented the Richter magnitude scale for
earthquakes, once said “Only fools, charlatans and liars predict earthquakes.” In
contrast, scientists are so confident that an earthquake will happen on Canada’s
west coast that considerable expense has gone into earthquake preparedness.
Nevertheless, the point made by Charles Richter, that it is next to impossible to
predict earthquakes, is something that the scientists predicting the west coast
earthquake would likely agree with. Why is it reasonable for the scientists to
agree with Charles Richter yet still predict a catastrophic earthquake on
Canada’s west coast? (4 points)
2.
When describing where an earthquake originated, news media often report the
epicenter of the earthquake. Technically, this is inaccurate. Why? (2 points)
3.
The Australian government has produced a pamphlet called “Tsunami
Information for Recreational Boaters.” In it, they say, “If your boat is at sea or in
the deep ocean and a tsunami warning is issued, maintain your position and do
not return to port until further advised.” [original emphasis] Tsunamis are large
and devastating waves. Why would the Australian government advise boaters to
stay out at sea where the waves are rather than seek shelter on land? (4 points)
4.
Imagine that you are a seismologist monitoring earthquakes. You are in the
office when your colleague at another location calls and says, “It was the Big
One! I’ve never seen an earthquake that big before!” You rush over to your
seismograph and see . . . not what you were expecting. The traces for the
surface waves are there, but not for the P-waves and the S-waves.
a.
What is the main difference between surface waves, and P-waves and Swaves? (2 points)
b.
Does it make sense to conclude that the P-waves and S-waves are on their
way, but just haven’t arrived yet? Why or why not? (2 points)
You then ask your colleague where the earthquake originated. When he tells
you, you are relieved because it means that your seismograph isn’t broken.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
5.
6
c.
If your seismograph isn’t broken, what other reason could there be for
surface waves to arrive at your seismograph, but not P-waves and Swaves? Hint: Why does it matter where the earthquake started? (2 points)
d.
What happened to the P-waves and S-waves within the Earth to prevent
them from getting to your seismograph? (4 points)
The Earth is arranged in layers, and tectonic plates are the outermost layer,
consisting of the crust and a small part of the uppermost mantle. (As a package
this is referred to as the lithosphere.) Tectonic plates are very rigid. Seismic
studies have shown that seismic waves (P-waves and S-waves) move more
slowly in the part of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere that is
immediately beneath the lithosphere. This tells us something about the character
of the asthenosphere that explains how tectonic plates can move.
a.
How is the behaviour of the material in the asthenosphere different from that
of the rigid lithosphere? (2 points)
b.
Why is it different? (2 points)
Before plate tectonics became widely accepted, critics scoffed at it because they
thought it meant that immense blocks of continent would have to slide along the
ocean floor in order to move. One critic, an Austrian paleoclimatologist named
Fritz Kerner-Marilaun, went so far as to call the idea, then known as continental
drift, the “delirious ravings of people with bad cases of moving crust disease and
wandering pole plague.”
c.
What did the critics have wrong about the way in which continents move?
(2 points)
d.
Given what you know about the asthenosphere, how does it explain why
plates can move? (4 points)
Total: 91 points
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How It Works
Assignment 3
Part 1
Each of statements a through g contains one factual error. For each statement,
1. identify the error, and
2. explain the reason or reasons why the statement is wrong.
Questions a through g are worth 5 points each.
a. The ocean transports heat around the Earth using thermohaline circulation.
Thermohaline circulation works because cold, salty water is more dense than fresh,
warm water, so the cold salty water sinks and drives the ocean "conveyor belt." This
means that adding fresh water to the ocean by melting ice sheets (such as on
Greenland) won't affect the way heat moves around Earth.
b. There is no way to know for sure whether the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
is a consequence of humans burning fossils fuels.
c. When carbon dioxide goes into the atmosphere, it does not affect any part of the
Earth system other than the atmosphere.
d. Adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere can warm the Earth through the
greenhouse effect. The amount of warming we get increases at the same rate as the
increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. (For example, increasing carbon
dioxide by 1.5 times means 1.5 times more warming.)
e. Water is considered potable as long as it is safe to drink.
f.
In order for a water well to go dry, the aquifer that supplies the well must go dry.
g. The only way to increase oil reserves is to discover more oil.
Assignment 3
8
Part 2
1.
Your friend is thinking about purchasing property and building a new house. She
takes you out to the site (Figure 3-1) to get your opinion.
Future home of !
Hilltop Acres!
New hill profile after
the yard is made
bigger
Figure 3-1: Block diagram of a slope. Source: Karla Panchuk.
Immediately you are apprehensive. She senses that you are not thrilled with the
property.
"I know it doesn't look like much now," she says, "but we're going to dig out
some of the hill to make the yard bigger. Unfortunately, we will have to dig up
those trees with the neat curvy trunks, but I won't be sad to get rid of that ugly
old fence. I wonder why it's leaning over like that?"
She then points to another property at the top of the hill.
"A new housing development will be built up there. We will have lots of new
neighbours to visit. So what do you think?"
You say,
"I'm afraid I don't have good news for you.”
2.
a.
How would you explain to her what is happening to make the trees curvy and
the fence tip over? (3 points)
b.
How would you explain the problems with her plan to make the yard bigger? (3
points)
c.
What would you tell her about the problems that putting a housing development
at the top of the hill could cause for the slope? (3 points)
d.
Why does the stream pose a problem for the stability of the slope? (3 points)
You are at the beach watching your four-year-old nephew build sand castles. His
attempts to use dry sand and very wet sand are met with failure. Eventually he
figures out how to make the sand in his bucket keep its shape.
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
9
Your sister notices you watching and asks,
"Are you remembering the good old days?"
"Actually," you respond, "I was just thinking that this is a great illustration of
the effect of moisture content on the angle of repose."
How would you explain what your nephew's experiments in sand-castle building have
demonstrated? (5 points)
Part 3
1.
2.
The box below contains a list of features formed by glaciers.
arête
hanging valley
outwash
cirque
horn
roches moutonnées
drumlin
kame
striation
esker
kettle
till
fjord
moraine
U-shaped valley
a.
Organize the features into two lists, according to whether they are formed by
valley glaciers or continental glaciers. Some of the structures might go on both
lists. (5 points)
b.
In each list, indicate which features result from the glacier depositing material,
and which result from material being removed. Do you think one kind of glacier
would be easier to identify in the rock record than another? Why? (5 points)
The first people to arrive in North America did so by crossing from Siberia to North
America over what is now the Bering Strait. They did so at some point after 25,000
years ago, and before 14,000 years ago, but the specifics of the dates are hotly
debated. Also hotly debated is whether they crossed on foot by a land bridge, or by
sea. Today the shallowest water in the Bering Strait is between 30 m and 50 m deep.
How could it be possible for them to cross on foot? (4 points)
Part 4
1.
Some people view the choice between the terms "tar sands" and "oil sands" as an
indication of whether you support the exploitation of this resource or not. Those
people would view "tar sands" as a pejorative term.
a.
One of these terms is more accurate than the other to describe the nature of this
resource. Which is more accurate? What is the hydrocarbon product that is
present in tar sands/oil sands? (2 points)
b.
What is the difference between how conventional oil resources are formed and
how tar sands/oil sands hydrocarbons are formed? (4 points)
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works
Assignment 3
c.
10
Why are oil traps necessary for the existence of reservoirs of conventional oil,
but not for tar sands/oil sands hydrocarbons? (2 points)
2.
On a very cold day you will often hear people remark, "So much for global warming!"
What is wrong with concluding that a cold snap proves that climate change is not
happening? (3 points)
3.
One objection to climate modeling is that climate models are inaccurate, and
therefore conclusions that our climate will warm should not be trusted. On page 662
of your textbook, Figure 23.27 shows projected levels of three greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere for three scenarios. The scenarios are continued use of fossil fuels at
high levels (A), stabilization of fossil fuel use by 2100 (B), and a rapid change to
nonfossil fuels (C). Figure 23.28 shows the predicted change in global surface
temperatures for the three scenarios.
4.
a.
In Figure 23.28, the uncertainty in the models is shown by the coloured shading.
How do the predicted changes in global surface temperatures (predictions begin
after the year 2000) compare to the range of uncertainty? Given that range,
what would you tell someone who believed that climate models are too uncertain
to be useful? (2 points)
b.
If we had adopted scenario C in the year 2000, could we expect temperatures to
decrease over the next 50 years to reward our efforts? What effect does the
uncertainty have on your conclusion, and why? (2 points)
Imagine that you have been given the job of planning Canada's transition to nonfossil
fuels. You can't stop using fossil fuels immediately, because sufficient capacity for
energy generation though nonfossil fuels does not exist yet. What would be your
strategy? In your answer, comment on:
a.
Which fossil fuels you would phase out first, which you would continue to use the
longest, and why. Consider the benefits and risks of the different fossil fuels, as
well as their abundances.
b.
Which alternative energy sources you would phase in first, and why. Keep in
mind that there are practical considerations, like construction of plants and
infrastructure.
(15 points)
Total: 96 points
GEOL 108.3 – The Earth and How it Works