1. business and industrial
2. energy
3. nuclear power

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Message from the President........................................... 2
Executive Summary......................................................... 3
History of Nuclear in Canada.......................................... 4
List of Acronyms.............................................................. 6
Nuclear Around the World.............................................. 7
Nuclear and the Environment....................................... 18
Nuclear Science & Technology..................................... 29
Nuclear and the Economy............................................. 38
How Nuclear Works...................................................... 45
Is Radiation Safe?.......................................................... 60
Other Resources............................................................ 67
SUMMARY
The information in this book is based on data available as of November 2014.
1
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Canada’s nuclear technology
delivers value in many ways.
Low-carbon nuclear-generated
electricity is essential to slowing,
even stopping, climate change.
Nuclear imaging and radiation
therapies have saved millions
of lives. Radioisotopes enable
advanced manufacturing
techniques that deliver
better products.
./ 2
Our innovative nuclear
technology gives Canada
a leading position in the global knowledge economy.
Very few countries match Canada’s ability to mine
uranium, produce nuclear fuel, design and operate
world-leading nuclear reactors, advance nuclear
science – all the while managing nuclear operations
safely and reliably.
Nuclear technology supports some 60,000 Canadian jobs.
Its benefits improve all of our lives. Yet the value of our
technology is not well understood by the public. It should be.
This fact book concisely describes our nuclear industry
– its origins, development, and current operations.
Its convenient size enables its use anywhere, anytime.
Its contents will help inform your understanding.
I hope you find this book useful, and that you will
contact the Canadian Nuclear Association if you
need further information.
John Barrett, PhD
President and CEO
Canadian Nuclear Association
This edition of the Canadian Nuclear Factbook,
published in 2015, is packed full of up-to-date
information on nuclear in Canada and around
the world. Some of the highlights include:
There are currently 434 operable nuclear reactors
worldwide, providing 11.94% of global electricity.
Canada is home to 19 reactors, making nuclear
Canada’s second-largest clean power source
at 16.15%.
72 reactors are currently under construction
worldwide, with 92 more planned to begin in
the coming decade.
Nuclear power helps reduce global CO2 emissions,
which hit a record high of 37.0 billion tonnes in
2014. By displacing fossil fuels, nuclear prevents
as much CO 2 emissions as are generated by half
the world’s cars.
Nuclear in Canada is a greater-than $5B industry.
It directly employs over 60,000 Canadians, and is
a leader in the global supply of uranium and
medical isotopes.
Canada’s nuclear industry is among the most highly
monitored and regulated industries in the world.
RICHEST GLOBAL RESERVES!
WORLD LEADER!
THREE NOBEL
PRIZES!
GLOBAL PIONEER!
30,000 DIRECT +
30,000 INDIRECT!
SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
3
2012
2012
2002
2002
1994
2015
2015
2010
2010
2000
2000
1990
1990
1980
2014
2011
AECL’s Commercial
AECL’s Commercial
operations
operations
acquiredacquired
by CandubyEnergy.
CanduAECL
Energy.
remains
AECL remains
a federala federal
crown corporation.
crown corporation.
CanadianCanadian
Nuclear Nuclear
Laboratories
Laboratories
(CNL) created
(CNL) as
created
a subsidiary
as a subsidiary
of AECL.of AECL.
SUMMARY
2000
1973
2000
1982
1973
1980
1982
2011
1972
All four units
All four
at Pickering
units at Pickering
A come A come
CanadianCanadian
Nuclear Nuclear
Safety Commission
Safety Commission
(CNSC) (CNSC)
online atonline
2060 MWe,
at 2060
making
MWe, itmaking
then it then replacesreplaces
the Atomic
theEnergy
AtomicControl
EnergyBoard
Control
asBoard as
the largest
thenuclear
largest generating
nuclear generating
Canada’sCanada’s
nuclear regulator.
nuclear regulator.
station instation
the world.
in the world.
2014
1968
1968
1972
1957
1957
1947
1952
1945
1952
1941
1945
1947
The National
The National
ResearchResearch
Experimental
Experimental
(NRX) reactor
(NRX)–reactor
then the
– then
mostthe most
The National
The National
ResearchResearch
powerfulpowerful
reactor in
reactor
the world
in the
– world –
UniversalUniversal
(NRU) reactor
(NRU) reactor
comes into
comes
operation
into operation
at Chalk at
River.
Chalk River.
comes into
comes
operation
into operation
at
at
First CANDU
First outside
CANDU outside
Chalk River.
Chalk River.
ZEEP (Zero
ZEEP
Energy
(ZeroExperimental
Energy Experimental
Pile)
Pile)
Canada comes
Canadaonline
comes online
makes Canada
makes the
Canada
second
thecountry
second to
country to
at Rajasthan-1
at Rajasthan-1
in India. in India.
control acontrol
nucleara fission
nuclearreaction.
fission reaction.
Atomic Energy
AtomicofEnergy
Canada
of Canada
Douglas Douglas
Point – Canada’s
Point – Canada’s
first full-scale
first full-scale
George C.
George
Laurence
C. Laurence
designs one
designs
of the
one of the
Limited (AECL)
Limitedcreated.
(AECL) created.
power reactor
power–reactor
comes –online
comes
inonline
Kincardine,
in Kincardine,
world’s first
world’s
nuclear
first reactors
nuclear reactors
at the at the
producing
producing
220 MWe.220 MWe.
NationalNational
ResearchResearch
Council in
Council
Ottawa.
in Ottawa.
BertramBertram
N. Brockhouse
N. Brockhouse
awardedawarded
Refurbishments
Refurbishments
to Bruceto
A Bruce A
Nobel Prize
Nobel
forPrize
neutron
for scattering
neutron scattering
complete,
complete,
making the
making
Bruce
the Bruce
researchresearch
conducted
conducted
at Chalk at
River.
Chalk River.
Power facility
Powerthe
facility
largest
thenuclear
largest nuclear
Nuclear Nuclear
Fuel Waste
Fuel
Act
Waste
passed,
Act passed,
generating
generating
station instation
the world.
in the world.
mandating
mandating
the creation
the creation
of the Nuclear
of the Nuclear
Waste Management
Waste Management
Organization
Organization
Point Lepreau
Point Lepreau
(New Brunswick)
(New Brunswick)
and
and
(NWMO).(NWMO).
In 2007, the
In 2007,
federal
thegovernment
federal government
Gentilly-2
Gentilly-2
(Quebec)(Quebec)
come online
come
atonline at
approvedapproved
the NWMO’s
the NWMO’s
“Adaptive“Adaptive
Phased Phased
635 MWe635
each
MWe
as the
each
first
as Canadian
the first Canadian
Management”
Management”
approachapproach
for the long-term
for the long-term
stations stations
outside Ontario.
outside Ontario.
storage of
storage
spent of
nuclear
spent fuel.
nuclear fuel.
1994
1964
1964
1970
1962
1970
1960
1950
1950
AECL develops
AECL develops
the
the
first commercial
first commercial
cobalt-60cobalt-60
sterilizersterilizer
for food and
for food and
medical medical
supplies.supplies.
The Nuclear
The Nuclear
Power Demonstration
Power Demonstration
(NPD) – (NPD) –
Canada’sCanada’s
first electricity-producing
first electricity-producing
reactor reactor
and the prototype
and the prototype
for the CANDU
for thedesign
CANDU
– design –
comes online
comes
at online
a capacity
at a of
capacity
22 MWe.
of 22 MWe.
1960
Teams left
Teams
by Harold
left byE.Harold
JohnsE.
and
Johns
Roy and
Errington
Roy Errington
build thebuild
world’s
thefirst
world’s
Cobalt-60
first Cobalt-60
radiationradiation
therapy therapy
unit. Theunit.
first The
external
first external
radiationradiation
treatment
treatment
is
is
delivereddelivered
in London,
in London,
ON.
ON.
1962
1954
Wilfrid B.Wilfrid
LewisB.
initiates
Lewis initiates
the development
the development
of the CANDU
of the reactor
CANDUin
reactor
collaboration
in collaboration
with AECL,
with
Ontario
AECL,Hydro,
Ontarioand
Hydro,
Canadian
and Canadian
General General
Electric Company.
Electric Company.
1951
1951
1946
Atomic Energy
AtomicControl
EnergyBoard
Control
established
Board established
as Canada’s
as Canada’s
federal nuclear
federal regulator.
nuclear regulator.
1940
1940
1941
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
./ 4
1954
NRC builds
NRC
nuclear
builds research
nuclear research
facility infacility
Chalk in
River,
Chalk
ON.
River, ON.
1944
1946
1944
HISTORY OF NUCLEAR IN CANADA
5
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
LIST OF ACRONYMS
./ 6
AECB
Atomic Energy Control Board
AECL
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
CANDU
CANada Deuterium Uranium
CNL
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
CNSC
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission
CO2eq
Carbon dioxide and carbon dioxideequivalent emissions
DGR
Deep Geologic Repository
GHG
Greenhouse gases
GWe
Gigawatts-electrical
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
kWh
Kilowatt-hour (unit of electricity
consumed)
mSv
Millisievert (unit of effective
radiation dose)
MWe
Megawatts-electrical (unit of power
production – how much is actually added
to the grid, after losses from inefficiencies)
NGS
Nuclear Generating Station
NWMO
Nuclear Waste Management Organization
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development
OPG
Ontario Power Generation
Solar CSP Concentrated Solar Panels
Solar PV
Photo Voltaic Solar
./NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
Nuclear power is the largest non-hydro
source of low-carbon, clean energy worldwide.
In 2011, 11.94% of global electricity was
generated by nuclear power.
Fossil fuels, including coal, natural gas,
diesel, and others, provide a combined
67.28% of global electricity.
Currently there are 434 operable reactors
worldwide, with a net generating capacity
of approximately 372 GWe.
This includes 48 Japanese reactors which were
taken offline shortly after the 2011 Fukushima
accident, but which are being reintroduced to
the grid starting in 2015.
72 new reactors are under construction
worldwide, offering new capacity of 69 GWe.
92 additional new reactors are planned
worldwide, totaling 94 GWe.1
GLOBAL SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Nuclear 11.94%
Wind 2.12%
Hydro 16.36%
Geothermal 0.32%
Coal & other Fossil Fuels 45.68%
Solar, Tidal, & Wave 0.28%
Natural Gas 21.60%
Biomass and Waste 1.70%
SOURCE: US Energy Information Administration,2 The World Bank.3
NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
NUCLEAR POWER AROUND THE WORLD
8
CURRENTLY OPERABLE NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS
CHINA 20
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
UNITED
STATES
100
JAPAN 48
SPAIN
7
INDIA
21
SOURCE: International Atomic Energy Agency.1
./ 9
Nuclear is among the world’s fastest-growing
electricity technologies, with over 30% projected
growth in the total number of reactors over the
next decade.
There are 72 new nuclear reactors under
construction in 16 different countries.
There are 92 new nuclear reactors planned
for construction in eight different countries.
Because nuclear quickly provides large volumes
of clean electricity, it is a choice technology for
growing economies like India and China that want
affordable power with better air quality.
GLOBAL GROWTH OF NUCLEAR CAPACITY
ARGENTINA
ARMENIA
BELARUS
BELGIUM
BRAZIL
BULGARIA
CANADA
CHINA
CZECH REPUBLIC
FINLAND
FRANCE
GERMANY
Operable reactors
HUNGARY
INDIA
Reactors in construction
IRAN
JAPAN
Planned reactors
MEXICO
NETHERLANDS
NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
NEW NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
PAKISTAN
ROMANIA
RUSSIA
SLOVAKIA
SLOVENIA
DID YOU KNOW?
SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH KOREA
SPAIN
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN CHINA HAS GROWN BY OVER
FOUR TIMES SINCE 2000? THAT’S LIKE ADDING SIX
NEW CANADAS TO THE GLOBE!
SWEDEN
SWITZERLAND
TAIWAN
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
UNITED KINGDOM
UKRAINE
UNITED STATES
VIETNAM
0
25
50
75
100
120
10
GLOBAL NUCLEAR POWER IN CONTEXT
Nuclear generates 11.94% of global electricity.
Fossil fuels are the most widely used electricity
source by far, at 67.28%, and also remain the
fastest growing source in total power.
Hydroelectric power continues to be the largest
source of low-carbon electricity globally.
Renewable sources including wind, solar,
tidal, geothermal, and biomass, generate
4.42% combined.
GLOBAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION SINCE 1980
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
./ 11
Nuclear
Wind
Geothermal
Hydro
Biomass & waste
Natural gas
Solar, tide, & wave
Coal & other fossil fuels
SOURCE: U.S. Energy Information Administration,2 The World Bank.3
20
10
20
11
06
08
20
04
20
02
20
20
98
00
20
96
19
94
19
19
90
92
19
19
86
88
19
84
19
19
80
82
0
19
IT IS ESTIMATED THAT IN 2030 THE WORLD WILL
DEMAND NEARLY TWICE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRICITY
WE USE TODAY.
19
DID YOU KNOW?
ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN CANADA IN 2014
There are 19 power reactors currently operating
at 4 nuclear power generating stations in Canada.
Nuclear power provided approximately 16.15% of
Canada’s electricity in 2014.
Hydro power is the most utilized source of
electricity in Canada, generating approximately
63.32% in 2014.
While coal was phased out in Ontario in 2014,
it continues to be widely used elsewhere in the
country, particularly in Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Wind, solar, and tidal power combined to provide
approximately 1.45% of Canada’s electricity in 2014.
Hydro 63.32%
Coal 14.65%
Nuclear 16.15%
Diesel 0.19%
Natural gas 4.23%
Wind 1.40%
Solar 0.05%
DID YOU KNOW?
IN 2014, ONTARIO BECAME THE FIRST JURISDICTION IN
NORTH AMERICA TO COMPLETELY PHASE OUT THE USE OF
COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS.
SOURCE: Statistics Canada.4
NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
NUCLEAR IN CANADA BY THE NUMBERS
12
CANADA’S NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS
Canada was one of the first countries to produce
power from nuclear. In 1962, the Nuclear Power
Demonstration (NPD) reactor came online,
producing 22 MWe.
Douglas Point, Canada’s first full-scale power
reactor came online in 1968, producing 220 MWe.
Today, 19 CANDU reactors are in service at four
different sites in Ontario and New Brunswick,
supplying over 16% of Canada’s electricity.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
DID YOU KNOW?
./ 13
IN TOTAL, CANADA’S NUCLEAR FLEET PROVIDES
ENOUGH ELECTRICITY FOR ALMOST 9 MILLION OF
CANADA’S 13.3 MILLION HOUSEHOLDS.
FACILITY
Bruce A: Unit 1
Bruce A: Unit 2
Bruce A: Unit 3
Bruce A: Unit 4
Bruce B: Unit 5
Bruce B: Unit 6
Bruce B: Unit 7
Bruce B: Unit 8
Darlington: Unit 1
Darlington: Unit 2
Darlington: Unit 3
Darlington: Unit 4
Pickering A: Unit 1
Pickering A: Unit 4
Pickering B: Unit 1
Pickering B: Unit 2
Pickering B: Unit 3
Pickering B: Unit 4
Point Lepreau
NET CAPACITY
(MWe)
772
772
730
730
817
817
817
817
878
878
878
878
515
515
516
516
516
516
635
OPERATING STATUS
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
START
YEAR
1977
1977
1978
1979
1985
1984
1986
1987
1992
1990
1993
1993
1971
1973
1983
1984
1985
1986
1983
Bruce Power NGS is the largest operating nuclear
power facility in the world. It is located on the shore
of Lake Huron, 190 km from downtown Toronto,
Ontario, and first sent energy to the grid in 1977.
Currently operating at 6,272 MWe from eight reactors,
Bruce Power can generate almost 55 billion kWh
per year – enough electricity to power 4.9 million
Canadian households. (An average Canadian
household consumes about 11,100 kWh per year.8)
FACILITY
Bruce A: Unit 1
Bruce A: Unit 2
Bruce A: Unit 3
Bruce A: Unit 4
Bruce B: Unit 5
Bruce B: Unit 6
Bruce B: Unit 7
Bruce B: Unit 8
NET CAPACITY
(MWe)
772
772
730
730
817
817
817
817
OPERATING STATUS
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
START
YEAR
1977
1977
1978
1979
1985
1984
1986
1987
6,272 MWe OUTPUT
POWERS 4.9 MILLION CANADIAN HOMES
FIRST POWER TO GRID IN 1977
CURRENTLY THE LARGEST OPERATING NGS IN THE WORLD!
NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
BRUCE POWER
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION (NGS)
14
DARLINGTON
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION (NGS)
Darlington NGS is Canada’s second-largest nuclear
facility. It is located on the shore of Lake Ontario,
60 km from downtown Toronto, Ontario.
Currently operating at 3,512 MWe from four reactors,
Darlington NGS is capable of producing up to 31
billion kWh annually – or enough to power over
2.7 million Canadian households.
FACILITY
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Darlington: Unit 1
Darlington: Unit 2
Darlington: Unit 3
Darlington: Unit 4
./ 15
NET CAPACITY
(MWe)
878
878
878
878
OPERATING STATUS
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
START
YEAR
1992
1990
1993
1993
3,512 MWe OUTPUT, POTENTIALLY UP TO 5820 MWe
POWERS 2.7 MILLION CANADIAN HOMES
FIRST POWER TO GRID IN 1990
When Pickering A was completed in 1973, it was
the world’s largest nuclear generating station.
It is located 30 km from downtown Toronto.
Now with a combined six units at Pickering A and
B producing 3,094 MWe, Pickering NGS is currently
capable of producing up to 27 billion kWh per year,
or enough to power 2.4 million Canadian homes.
Pickering NGS had 8 reactors in total until Pickering
2 and 3 were put into cold storage in 2005.
FACILITY
Pickering A: Unit 1
Pickering A: Unit 4
Pickering B: Unit 1
Pickering B: Unit 2
Pickering B: Unit 3
Pickering B: Unit 4
NET CAPACITY
(MWe)
515
515
516
516
516
516
OPERATING STATUS
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
Operating
START
YEAR
1971
1973
1983
1984
1985
1986
3,094 MWe OUTPUT
POWERS 2.4 MILLION CANADIAN HOMES
FIRST POWER TO GRID IN 1971
NUCLEAR AROUND THE WORLD
PICKERING
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION (NGS)
16
POINT LEPREAU
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION (NGS)
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Point Lepreau NGS is located in New Brunswick,
approximately 30 km southwest of Saint John,
and was the first CANDU 6 unit to generate
electricity commercially.
Point Lepreau recently underwent refurbishment
to extend its operational lifespan, and returned to
service in November 2012 to provide approximately
25% of New Brunswick’s electricity.4
Point Lepreau operates at 635 MWe, producing
5.5 billion kWh per year, or enough to power
500,000 Canadian homes.
./ 17
635 MWe OUTPUT
POWERS 500,000 CANADIAN HOMES
FIRST POWER TO GRID IN 1983
./NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
DID YOU KNOW?
NEXT TO HYDROPOWER, NUCLEAR ENERGY IS THE
LARGEST SOURCE OF LOW-CARBON ELECTRICITY
IN THE WORLD.
CLEAN AIR
(LOW GHGs)
DIRTY AIR
(HIGH GHGs)
NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The average temperature of the world is
slowly rising, much of which can very likely
be attributable to human activities, such as
air pollution.
This occurs because the earth’s temperature
is regulated by the energy it receives from
the sun and reflects back out into space.
With increasing concentrations of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the air, more and more of that
energy is absorbed, rather than released.
This results in melting polar ice caps, rising sea
levels, and inclement weather conditions that
pose serious threats to our well-being.
19
COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE
WITH CLEAN ENERGY
CO2 EMISSIONS BY ENERGY SOURCE
To curb climate change, we need to use low-carbon
technologies wherever possible.
In the energy sector, nuclear is among the cleanest
options. It generates zero CO2eq during operation,
with its only carbon footprint attributable to
construction and mining activities.
Wind
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
./ 20
4
8
12
Nuclear
16
Biomass
18
Solar CSP
WHY NOT RENEWABLES ALONE?
A grid powered entirely on an intermittent source
such as wind would rely on back-up sources 80%
of the time.6
With this backup most often coming from natural
gas, building wind capacity essentially means
building in reliance on fossil fuels. This combination
of wind and gas emits much more carbon than
either hydro or nuclear.
A comprehensive technology mix with various
clean sources including nuclear offers the most
reliable clean energy system.
Hydro
Tidal and wave
22
Geothermal
45
Solar PV
46
Wind + gas backup
385
Natural gas
469
Oil
Coal
Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2 equivalent/kWh)
SOURCE: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.7
840
1,001
COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE
WITH CLEAN ENERGY
GLOBAL GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY SOURCE
Energy production is the single-largest contributor
to greenhouse gas emissions globally, at 35%.
This includes electricity, heat, and fuel
production/refining.
Advancing technologies such as electric vehicles
will allow low-carbon electricity to mitigate other
sectors’ emissions as well.
Energy supply 35%
Transport 14%
Residential &
commercial
buildings 6%
Industry 21%
IF ALL THE WORLD’S FOSSIL FUEL ELECTRICITY
DEMANDS WERE INSTEAD MET BY NUCLEAR,
ENERGY SUPPLY WOULD DECREASE FROM 35%
OF GLOBAL GHG EMISSIONS TO 14%, ALMOST
NONE OF WHICH WOULD BE FROM ELECTRICITY.8
Forestry 13%
SOURCE: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.9
NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Agriculture 11%
DID YOU KNOW?
21
HISTORICAL CO2 EMISSION TRENDS
Today, by displacing coal and natural gas, nuclear
helps avoid about 2.5 billion tonnes of CO 2 eq
emissions annually. That’s the same as taking
about 520,000,000 cars off the road – or over half
of all the cars in the world!
Global CO2 emissions reached a record high of
37.0 billion tonnes in 2014 – the fifth year in a
row in which a new record has been set.10
If we replaced all the world’s coal and natural
gas plants with clean, low-carbon nuclear,
we would reduce global CO2 emissions by 22.2%.
GLOBAL CO2 EMISSIONS SINCE 1990
40
REPLACING COAL AND NATURAL GAS
WITH NUCLEAR WOULD TURN BACK
THE CLIMATE CLOCK OVER A DECADE!
./ 22
30
SOURCE: European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands
Environmental Assessment Agency.11
4
20
1
0
12
20
08
06
20
1
20
04
20
02
20
20
00
20
19
98
94
19
96
92
19
19
20
90
25
19
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
35
Nuclear, wind, solar, and hydropower are considered
low-carbon sources of electricity, as their lifetime
emissions are only about 20 grams of CO2eq per kWh.7
These low-carbon electricity sources produce zero
CO2eq emissions during generation, but indirectly
produce small amounts due to dependence on fossil
fuels during secondary activities such as mining
uranium, or constructing windmills.
Emissions from low-carbon sources are
dramatically lower than those which burn
fossil fuels directly.
HOW MUCH CO2 DO I GENERATE?
As the average Canadian household consumes
approximately 30 kWh of electricity each day,5
using electricity from low-carbon sources greatly
reduces the impact of your home activities on
the climate.
MASS OF CO2 RELEASED DAILY PER CANADIAN
HOUSEHOLD BY SOURCE
Coal
30,030 g/day
65” HDTV IN BOX
Natural gas
14,070 g/day
ADULT HOCKEY
EQUIPMENT
Low-carbon sources,
such as nuclear
~ 600 g/day
LARGE COFFEE
NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
CLEAN ELECTRICITY AND YOUR HOME
23
NUCLEAR’S SMALL
GEOGRAPHIC FOOTPRINT
To power our growing world, we will need to double
our electricity production by 2030, which will only
be possible with extreme efficiency.12
Nuclear is the most land-efficient means of
electricity production. Even when including all
aspects of production, such as mining and fuel
fabrication, look how nuclear compares against
other clean options:
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
ELECTRICITY PER KM2
Nuclear
47.6 MWe/km2
Solar
3.1 MWe/km2
Wind
1.6 MWe/km2
./ 24
SOURCE: McDonald et al.13
If we were to produce 100% of global electricity
in 2030 with only one source, nuclear could do it
entirely within the borders of Nepal. Meanwhile
solar would need all of Greenland, and wind
would occupy the entire European Union!
NUCLEAR
NEPAL
SOLAR
GREENLAND
WIND
THE ENTIRE
EUROPEAN UNION
Used nuclear fuel is the spent fuel that is removed
from a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear fuel bundles are removed from reactors
when the concentration of the Uranium-235 inside
becomes too low to sustain the fission reaction at
the desired power level.
Once removed, used fuel is stored in water-filled
pools for seven to ten years, giving it time to cool
down and reduce its radioactivity.
After about a year, nuclear fuel bundles emit less
than 0.1% of the heat generated in the reactor.
Once the bundles have cooled down sufficiently,
they are put into dry storage: large concrete
containers that protect and cool the bundles,
and contain the remaining radiation.
Used nuclear fuel may be recycled to become
usable again. Although this is not currently
practised in Canada, fuel recycling is a part
of several successful nuclear programs,
including France.
DID YOU KNOW?
ONLY ABOUT 1% OF THE TOTAL ENERGY IN THE URANIUM
IS USED BEFORE THE BUNDLES ARE REMOVED FROM THE
REACTOR. USED FUEL MAY BE RECYCLED TO BECOME
USABLE AGAIN, AS IS DONE IN SOME COUNTRIES. THAT’S
WHY SCIENTISTS PREFER TO NOT REFER TO IT AS “WASTE”.
NUCLEAR FUEL BUNDLE
NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
WHAT IS USED NUCLEAR FUEL?
25
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
WHAT IS USED NUCLEAR FUEL?
./ 26
All of Canada’s used nuclear fuel is safely
managed at licensed storage facilities at
nuclear generating stations.
There are strict security measures in place to
ensure there is no threat to public health from
stored used fuel bundles.
The storage of used nuclear fuel is managed
by the utilities that own the fuel, and is closely
monitored, regulated, and licensed by the
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC),
in direct cooperation with the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The long-term care of Canada’s used nuclear fuel
is managed by the Nuclear Waste Management
Organization (NWMO).
Nuclear is the only energy source that produces
most of its waste in solid form. Fossil fuels
discharge most of their waste into the environment.
DID YOU KNOW?
NUCLEAR PRODUCES VERY LITTLE WASTE. SO LITTLE,
IN FACT, THAT IF ALL THE POWER YOU EVER USED CAME
FROM NUCLEAR, YOUR LIFETIME WASTE WOULD FIT IN
A SODA CAN.
In 2002, the Nuclear Waste Management Organization
(NWMO) was established to develop a management
approach for the long-term care of Canada’s used
nuclear fuel.
In 2007, the Government of Canada accepted the
NWMO’s recommendation for an Adaptive Phased
Management approach now being implemented
by the NWMO.
The Adaptive Phased Management approach end
point is the centralized containment and isolation
of used nuclear fuel in a suitable rock formation.
The process for selecting a site for a deep geological
repository (DGR) has been designed to ensure,
above all, that the site chosen is safe and secure.
The site will be located in an informed and willing
host community.
The goal will be reached through steps and decision
points that can be adapted as required:
Citizens will be involved throughout implementation
and have the opportunity to provide input.
The facility will allow for access if necessary.
Adaptive Phased Management includes the provision
of financial surety – as required by law – and longterm program funding to ensure sufficient funds will
be available for the long-term care of the used fuel.
For more information about the Adaptive Phased
Management approach and the safe, long-term
management of used nuclear fuel in Canada,
please visit www.nwmo.ca.
DID YOU KNOW?
THE MANAGEMENT OF FUTURE NUCLEAR WASTE IS ALREADY PAID FOR AS IT IS GENERATED. PRODUCERS OF USED FUEL
ARE REQUIRED BY THE NUCLEAR FUEL WASTE ACT TO CONTRIBUTE TO TRUST FUNDS THAT ENSURE THE LONG-TERM
MANAGEMENT OF CANADA’S USED NUCLEAR FUEL.
NUCLEAR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
NUCLEAR WASTE
MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION
27
DEEP GEOLOGICAL REPOSITORY
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
./ 28
0.5 m
SURFACE FACILITIES
2
MAIN SHAFT COMPLEX
4m
500 m
1
Used nuclear fuel stored in a DGR will be placed
in secure containers 500 metres underground.
Advanced containers and secure geology will
ensure there is no radiation exposure to the
public or environment from used nuclear fuel.
BENTONITE
CLAY
ROCK
3
PLACEMENT ROOMS
0.1 m
FUEL
BUNDLES
1.2 m
USED FUEL
CONTAINERS
PLACEMENT
ROOM VERTICAL
IN-FLOOR
BOREHOLE
./NUCLEAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Nuclear science and technology (S&T) is essential to
the health, safety, and prosperity of every Canadian.
That is why the Government of Canada and Canada’s
nuclear industry have a long history of investing in
nuclear S&T.
Research initiatives at our national laboratories,
universities, and research reactors across the
country support affordable electricity, product
improvements, medical services, training, and
other activities.
Canada is a historic leader in nuclear research,
and is home to three Nobel prizes related to
nuclear S&T:
Ernest Rutherford in 1908 for his work at McGill
on radioactive decay.
Richard E. Taylor in 1990 for early understandings
of quarks in particle physics.
Bertram N. Brockhouse in 1994 for developing
new neutron scattering techniques.
Nuclear technology plays an important role in almost
every technical field across Canada, including:
Advanced electronics
Advanced material development
Aerospace and automotive technology
Earth science & archaeology
Environmental technology
Food processing
Mining and natural resources
Nuclear medicine
Pharmaceutical and medical devices
NUCLEAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
NUCLEAR S&T OVERVIEW
30
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
One of the most valuable applications of nuclear
technology is the use of radioactive substances
(called radioisotopes) for the diagnosis of various
diseases and the treatment of certain cancers.
Over 40 million nuclear medicine procedures
are performed annually, with 30-40% of the
radioisotopes originating from Canadian reactors.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
HOW DOES NUCLEAR MEDICINE WORK?
./ 31
Diagnostic
Radioisotopes injected into the patient collect in
important tissues, such as organs, or a tumor,
and emit radiation which is picked up by a detector
outside the body to help produce a diagnosis.
Therapeutic
Radioisotopes injected into the patient collect in
the tumor and emit radiation into it, destroying the
cancerous cells, and allowing the healthy tissue to heal.
RADIOISOTOPES ARE OFTEN CHEMICALLY ATTACHED TO
OTHER COMPOUNDS TO TRANSPORT THEM TO A SPECIFIC
PLACE IN THE BODY. FOR EXAMPLE, SUGAR-BOUND
ISOTOPES COLLECT READILY IN CANCER TISSUE AS
WELL AS THE BRAIN!
NUCLEAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
DID YOU KNOW?
32
WHAT’S A RADIOISOTOPE?
Atoms exist in various versions of themselves
called isotopes, some of which have either too
few or too many neutrons.
In some cases, this neutron imbalance causes the
atom to be unstable, and it will undergo a change
(or “decay”) to become stable, emitting radiation
while doing so. These are called radioisotopes.
Some radioisotopes decay faster than others.
Radioisotopes with short half-lives decay
more quickly.
RADIOISOTOPES COMMONLY
USED IN MEDICINE
RADIOISOTOPE
Iodine-131
Fluorine-18
Technetium-99m
Cobalt-60
NUCLEAR DECAY PROCESS
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Unstable Radioisotope
./ 33
Stable isotope
RADIATION
HALF-LIFE
8.02 days
COMMON USES
Diagnosis and treatment of thyroid
disorders and cancers
109.77 minutes Used to detect cancers in PET
scans when incorporated as FDG
(fluorodeoxyglucose)
6.0058 hours
5.27 years
Bone scan, functional heart or
brain imaging, cancer detection.
Tc-99m is very diverse and the
most widely used radioisotope.
Powerful cancer treatment
delivered from outside of the body.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
OF NUCLEAR S&T
APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR IMAGING
RADIATION
SOURCE
DETECTOR
EXAMPLE OF NUCLEAR GAUGE
Automotive
Reduces defects and improves road safety
and vehicle reliability.
Natural Resources
Prevents defective pipe use and prevents
oil spills or gas leaks.
Medical Devices
Detects surface irregularities on devices
like pacemakers prior to implantation.
Advanced Pharmaceuticals
Neutron scattering makes it possible to
develop sophisticated delivery systems
for pharmaceuticals that can reduce side
effects and improve effectiveness.
NUCLEAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Nuclear technology also offers various techniques
used in industry to ensure the integrity of important
mechanical components without damaging them.
This is a form of “non-destructive testing”.
High-power neutrons can penetrate solid steel to
a depth of about half a meter to image thick pipes
and even entire engines, or simulate their response
to stress. This type of testing is critical to ensure the
safety of many common items.
Nuclear imaging can also be used in a gauge, for
example, to detect how full a pipe or canister is.
Aerospace
Detects microscopic flaws in wings, rotors,
and landing gear before assembly.
34
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
AGRICULTURE, FOOD, AND HEALTH
./ 35
Radiation from nuclear sources is also widely
used to sterilize much of the food and products
we consume today.
Gamma rays from powerful sources are used to
kill bacteria and other threats while leaving the
product safe and unchanged.
Cobalt-60 is the primary source used for
sterilization. It is also used for radiation therapy
treatments, although this use is being gradually
replaced by linear accelerators.
Cobalt-60 is manufactured by exposing ‘pencils’ of
cobalt-59 – the non-radioactive isotope of cobalt –
to high doses of neutron radiation inside a nuclear
power reactor.
DID YOU KNOW?
ALMOST ALL OF GLOBAL COBALT-60 SUPPLY IS PRODUCED
BY CANDU REACTORS, INCLUDING THE PICKERING AND
BRUCE POWER NUCLEAR GENERATING STATIONS.
APPLICATIONS OF STERLIZATION WITH RADIATION
Food
Eliminates dangerous pathogens to reduce
food poisoning and delay spoilage.
Agriculture
Increases yield and pest-resistance of crops.
This has saved hundreds of millions of lives.
Health and Beauty Supplies
Ensures safety of contact lenses and other
personal items.
Cancer Treatment
Since cancer cells are more sensitive to
radiation than healthy cells, gamma rays
from cobalt-60 are used to treat cancer.
Cobalt-60 treatment units are among the
most common technologies for external
beam radiation therapy worldwide.
Medical Supplies
Ensures the sterility of one-use items such
as syringes, gloves, tubes, and sutures.
Nuclear research centres are key facilities for
promoting nuclear S&T.
There are twelve major nuclear research centres
in Canada. Seven of them use research reactors,
and five are based on cyclotron technology.
The NRU is Canada’s most powerful research
reactor, and the third-most powerful research
reactor in the world.14 It generates neutrons for
neutron scattering, and produces cobalt-60 and
other radioisotopes for the imaging and treatment
of diseases.
TRIUMF operates the world’s most powerful
cyclotron, enabling leading research in atomic
physics as well as new methods of producing
radioisotopes.
DID YOU KNOW?
THREE NOBEL PRIZES HAVE BEEN AWARDED FOR
CANADIAN NUCLEAR RESEARCH.
NOBEL-WINNING CANADIAN
NUCLEAR RESEARCH
1908 1990
1994
Ernest Rutherford discovered the concept of
radioactive half-life, and differentiated alpha
and beta particles at McGill University.
Alberta-born Richard E. Taylor discovers
essential concepts to the understanding of
quarks in particle physics.
McMaster University’s Bertram N. Brockhouse
develops neutron scattering techniques for
studies of condensed matter.
NUCLEAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
NUCLEAR RESEARCH CENTRES
36
LOCATION OF NUCLEAR RESEARCH CENTRES IN CANADA
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
MEDICAL ISOTOPE AND
CYCLOTRON FACILITY
(start date: 2013)
./ 37
TRIUMF
500 MeV CYCLOTRON
Reactor (start date: 1974)
CENTRE FOR
CYCLOTRON SCIENCES
24 MeV CYCLOTRON
Reactor (start date: 2014)
CENTRE HOSPITALIER
UNIVERSITAIRE DE
SHERBROOKE (CHUS)
24 MeV CYCLOTRON
Reactor (start date: 2012)
CENTRE FOR PROBE DEVELOPMENT
AND COMMERCIALIZATION
(start date: 2008)
./NUCLEAR AND THE ECONOMY
JOBS SUPPORTED BY NUCLEAR IN CANADA
Nuclear technology is an integral part of any
advanced economy. It supports medicine, materials
science, advanced manufacturing, food safety,
and energy production.
Nuclear in Canada is a GREATER THAN $5B
industry with reliable well-paid employment.
Nuclear power generation directly and indirectly
supports a total of 60,000 Canadian jobs.
Over 4,000 of these jobs are held by highly qualified
personnel who form a large and integral part of
Canada’s innovative capacity.
SOURCE: Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters15
Power
generation
25,000
Mining
5,000
Indirect
30,000
NUCLEAR AND THE ECONOMY
NUCLEAR AND THE CANADIAN ECONOMY
39
AFFORDABLE POWER
Nuclear remains one of the most affordable
electricity sources worldwide.
While nuclear generating stations require high
up-front capital investment, their long life and low
costs for fuel, operations, and maintenance lead
to low power costs in the long run.
Even without carbon-pricing, nuclear is among
the most affordable electricity options. When you
add in carbon pricing of up to $30 USD/tonne,
nuclear compares even more favorably.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
DID YOU KNOW?
./ 40
ABOUT 60% OF THE COST OF NUCLEAR IS ATTRIBUTABLE
TO FACILITY CONSTRUCTION. ONCE BUILT, NUCLEAR HAS
TREMENDOUSLY LOW FUEL AND MAINTENANCE PRICES,
PROVIDING STABLE ELECTRICAL PRICES DURING THE
PLANT LIFETIME OF UP TO 60 YEARS OR MORE.
COSTS IN ¢ USD PER kWh
onshore wind
cost in ¢USD/kWh
5.8
nuclear
6.2
natural gas
6.4
hydro
7.3
biopower
7.6
coal
enhanced
geothermal
offshore wind
extra cost from carbon pricing up to $30/tonne
8.3
9.0
12.2
solar pv
SOURCE: OpenEI Transparent Cost Database.16
30.1
CLEAN GDP GROWTH
AVERAGE GDP
GROWTH FROM
2003-201317
7.6%
10.3%
3.7%
1.8%
REGION
North
America
# NEW/UNDER
CONSTRUCTION
NUCLEAR
PLANTS
5
1
10
12
(5,633 MWe) (1,245 MWe) (4,308 MWe) (10,048 MWe)
CO2 OFFSET
ANNUALLY
(MTONNES)
48.6
Brazil
10.7
SOURCE: International Monetary Fund.17
India
37.2
China
86.7
These three countries, which represent over 39% of
the world’s population, have economies growing at
between two to six times the rate of North America.
This is creating an enormous amount of new
demand for electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?
IN BRAZIL, INDIA, AND CHINA, NUCLEAR GENERATING
STATIONS BUILT OR BEING BUILT SINCE 2003 OFFSET
135 MILLION TONNES OF CO2 ANNUALLY.
NUCLEAR AND THE ECONOMY
Countries with quickly growing economies
depend on rapid expansion in base load electrical
generation. The world’s fastest growing large
economies of Brazil, India, and China have
depended heavily on nuclear to fuel their growth.
Nuclear and coal tend to be the most popular
power options in these growth scenarios, and the
choice between them has huge implications for
the environmental footprint of economic growth.
41
URANIUM AND THE CANADIAN ECONOMY
Canada is the second-largest uranium producer in
the world, with Cameco Corporation and AREVA
Resources Canada as its two primary uranium
mining companies.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
2013 ACTIVE GLOBAL URANIUM MINE PRODUCTION
./ 42
Canada
McArthur River
Rabbit Lake
Kazakhstan
Australia
Niger
Namibia
Russia
Uzbekistan
United States
China
TONNES U
PRODUCED
% OF GLOBAL
9,331
7,744
1,587
22,451
6,350
4,518
4,323
3,135
2,400
1,792
1,500
16%
13%
3%
38%
11%
8%
7%
5%
4%
4%
3%
SOURCE: World Nuclear Association.18
Uranium mining and fuel processing in Canada
generates over $700M in salaries and benefits
to contractors and employers.
Uranium exports add $1.2B to the Canadian economy.
Uranium mining is the leading industrial employer
of Aboriginal people in Saskatchewan.
DID YOU KNOW?
CIGAR LAKE, ONE OF THE WORLD’S LARGEST HIGHGRADE URANIUM DEPOSITS BEGAN PRODUCTION IN 2014.
IT IS EXPECTED TO ADD APPROXIMATELY ANOTHER 8000
TONNES TO CANADA’S ANNUAL PRODUCTION BY 2018.
WHERE DOES URANIUM IN CANADA
COME FROM?
MCCLEAN LAKE
RABBIT LAKE
COBOURG
SPECIAL METAL
FABRICATION
PLANT
KEY LAKE
CIGAR
LAKE
PORT HOPE
CONVERSION
FACILITY
CAMECO FUEL
MANUFACTURING
BLIND RIVER
URANIUM
REFINERY
MCARTHUR
RIVER
MINE LEGEND
ACTIVE MINE
ACTIVE MILL ONLY
TORONTO NUCLEAR
FUEL FACILITY
PETERBOROUGH
FUEL BUNDLE
PRODUCTION
FACILITY
NUCLEAR AND THE ECONOMY
Uranium is mined and milled in Saskatchewan
at five different sites.
Blind River, Ontario, is home to Canada’s only
uranium refining facility. Owned and operated by
Cameco, it is the largest such facility in the world.
Port Hope is home to Canada’s only uranium
conversion facility, also owned and operated
by Cameco.
Plants that process natural uranium powder,
and assumble CANDU fuel bundles are located
in Port Hope (Cameco), as well as Toronto and
Peterborough (GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Canada).
43
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND
THE CANADIAN ECONOMY
./ 44
The global medical isotope market is worth
approximately $4B USD in 2014. It is expected
to grow to $7-8B by the end of the decade.
The most commonly used diagnostic isotope is
Molybdenum-99, used in over 30 million medical
procedures annually. It has a global market valued
at approximately $550M USD. Canada is the leading
supplier of this isotope, at 30-40%, adding an
estimated $200M to the Canadian economy.
The two primary methods for isotope production
use reactors or cyclotrons. Canada is one of few
countries with expertise in isotope development
with both methods, and is well-positioned to
remain a global leader in isotope production.
Over 10,000 hospitals worldwide use radioisotopes
for medicine.
./HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
Uranium is a heavy metal, and one of many
naturally occurring radioactive elements.
It exists in most rock concentrations at
approximately two to four parts per million –
about the same amount as tin.
Similar to other elements, uranium occurs in
several different forms, known as “isotopes.”
The most common isotope of uranium is U-238
(99.28 of uranium atoms), followed by U-235 (0.71%).
The number following the “U” indicates the atomic
weight of the isotope, in atomic mass units (amu).
U-235 is the primary isotope of uranium that is
used to generate electricity, because it is fissile
(i.e., can be easily “fissioned”). Fission splits
the U-235 into smaller fragments and releases
100 million times more energy than splitting a
chemical bond during combustion.
DID YOU KNOW?
CANDU REACTORS USE U-235 IN ITS NATURAL
CONCENTRATION, WHEREAS OTHER REACTOR
DESIGNS USE U-235 ENRICHED IN CONCENTRATION
TO ABOUT 3% OR HIGHER.
ATOMIC NUMBER
ATOMIC MASS
ATOMIC
SYMBOL
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
WHAT IS URANIUM?
46
CANDU REACTOR SCHEMATIC
SCHEMATIC OF A CANDU REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is a highly sophisticated steam engine turning an electrical
generator. The heat used to generate the steam comes from the energy
produced from the fission reaction (see page 54).
1 Energy released from fission heats
water in this primary sealed cycle.
2 That heat then boils the water in
the steam generator, creating
pressurized steam.
3 That steam turns a turbine which is
connected to a generator, sending
power straight to the grid.
4 An outside source of water cools
the steam, condensing it back
into water, allowing the system
to repeat.
STEAM
GENERATOR
(BOILER)
2
SHIELDING
STEAM
TRANSFORMER
WATER
CONTROL ROOM
REACTOR
CORE
STEAM
TURBINE
1
3
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
USED FUEL
MANAGEMENT
./ 47
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
4
COOLANT
(HEAVY
WATER)
CONTROL
RODS
FUEL
(URANIUM)
FUELING
MACHINE
MODERATOR
(HEAVY WATER)
CONDENSER
CONDENSER
COOLING WATER
ELECTRICAL
GRID
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
HOW REACTORS WORK
48
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
HOW FISSION WORKS
./ 49
Uranium, in both of its main isotopes, U-235
and U-238, is relatively stable before entering
the reactor, meaning it does not emit very much
radiation – so little that unused fuel bundles are
safe to handle.
When a U-235 atom is bombarded with a neutron,
however, it undergoes fission, splitting into several
pieces, including two or three extra neutrons, and
released heat which is converted into electricity
in a power reactor.
These neutrons interact with other nearby U-235
atoms and allow the effect to continue, similar to
how heat from a candle wick allows it to continue
burning. Nuclear reactors control this “chain
reaction” to the desired stable state.
This process produces smaller isotopes as useful
byproducts – such as iodine-131, cesium-137, and
molybdenum-99 – for use in medicine and industry.
FISSION
NUCLEAR FISSION
NEUTRON
131
53
I
PROTON
NEUTRON
ENERGY
235
92
U
99
42
Mo
DID YOU KNOW?
THE NEUTRONS PRODUCED DURING FISSION GO
ON TO PRODUCE FURTHER FISSION REACTIONS
IN OTHER NEARBY URANIUM ATOMS.
NEUTRON
URANIUM AS NUCLEAR FUEL
Nuclear fission is a very efficient source of energy,
so a nuclear reactor requires very little fuel.
Uranium pellets are approximately 20 grams each,
and less than ten are needed to power the average
Canadian household for a year.
To provide the same amount of electricity as one
20 g uranium pellet, one would have to burn:
400 kg of coal
410 l of oil
350 m3 of natural gas
ONE 20 G URANIUM PELLET IS EQUIVALENT TO
THE ENERGY PROVIDED BY:
400 KILOGRAMS OF
COAL
OR
410 LITRES OF
OIL
THE AMOUNT OF URANIUM NEEDED TO
POWER YOUR HOME FOR A YEAR CAN
FIT IN THE PALM OF YOUR HAND!
OR
350 CUBIC METRES OF
NATURAL GAS
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
DID YOU KNOW?
50
CONVERTING URANIUM INTO NUCLEAR
FUEL FOR CANDU REACTORS
2
1 Uranium dioxide (UO2) powder is delivered to a
fuel fabrication facility by truck. The material is
put into processing containers and then blended
to condition the powder.
1
3
2 UO2 powder is compressed in a die to produce
cylindrical pellets.
3 Pellets pass through a high-temperature electric
sintering* furnace with a hydrogen atmosphere to
harden them.
4
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
4 Pellets are loaded into a fuel tube which is sealed
by welded end caps.
./ 51
5 Fuel tubes are assembled into bundles and zircaloy
end plates are attached by resistance welding.
6 After inspection and cleaning, the fuel bundles
are packaged for shipment.
* Sintering is a process by which powder is turned into solid objects.
5
WHAT IS A CANDU REACTOR?
CANDU stands for CANada Deuterium Uranium,
because it was invented in Canada, uses deuterium
oxide (also known as “heavy water”) as a moderator,
and uranium as a fuel.
WHY USE CANDU REACTORS?
CANDU reactors are unique in that they use natural,
unenriched uranium as a fuel, and with some
modification can also use enriched uranium,
mixed fuels, and even thorium.
CANDU reactors can be refuelled while operating at
full power, while most other designs must be shut
down for refuelling.
CANDU reactors are ideally suited for using
material from nuclear weapons as fuel, helping
to reduce the global stockpile of nuclear weapons.
BRUCE A UNIT 2 IS A 480-CHANNEL CANDU REACTOR PRODUCING
772 MWE OF ELECTRICITY. EACH CHANNEL HOLDS 13 FUEL BUNDLES.
Photo credit: Bruce Power
CANDU reactors are exceptionally safe. The safety
systems are independent from the rest of the plant,
and each key safety component has three backups.
This multiplication of safety measures is often referred
to as ‘redundancy’ or ‘defence in depth’. Not only does
this increase the overall safety of the system, but it
also makes it possible to test the safety system
while the reactor is operating under full power.
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
Since natural uranium does not require enrichment,
fuel costs for CANDU reactors are very low.
52
WHICH COUNTRIES USE
CANDU REACTORS?
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Canada has exported CANDU reactors
to Argentina, China, India, Pakistan,
Romania, and South Korea. In total,
there are 31 CANDU reactors in
operation globally, not including
16 reactors built in India which are
based on the CANDU design but
are not technically CANDUs.
./ 53
MAP OF CANDU REACTORS WORLDWIDE
CANDU AND CANDU-DERIVED REACTORS
AROUND THE WORLD
8 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 6,272 MWe
DARLINGTON, CANADA
4 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 3,512 MWe
PICKERING, CANADA
6 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 3,094 MWe
POINT LEPREAU,
CANADA
1 operating CANDU Reactor
Net Capacity: 635 MWe
EMBALSE, ARGENTINA
KAIGA, INDIA
TARAPUR, INDIA
1 operating CANDU Reactor
Net Capacity: 600 MWe
4 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 808 MWe
2 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 980 MWe
KAKRAPAR, INDIA
QINSHAN, CHINA
2 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 404 MWe
2 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 1,280 MWe
CERNAVODA, ROMANIA
2 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 1,305 MWe
KARACHI, PAKISTAN
1 operating CANDU Reactor
Net Capacity: 125 MWe
RAJASTHAN, INDIA
2 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity: 277 MWe
4 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 480 MWe
DID YOU KNOW?
60% OF OPERATING CANDU-TECHNOLOGY REACTORS
WORLDWIDE ARE LOCATED OUTSIDE OF CANADA.
MADRAS, INDIA
2 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 404 MWe
WOLSONG,
SOUTH KOREA
4 operating CANDU Reactors
Net Capacity 2,579 MWe
NARORA, INDIA
2 operating CANDUderived Reactors
Net Capacity: 404 MWe
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
BRUCE POWER,
CANADA
54
REACTOR DESIGNS IN USE TODAY
POWER REACTOR TYPES USED AROUND THE WORLD
CANDU reactors are one of many power reactor
designs currently used worldwide.
Different designs use different concentrations
of uranium for fuel, and different moderators
in the reactor core.
The most common reactor type worldwide is the
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), representing
273 of the world’s 434 currently operable nuclear
power reactors.
PWR: 273 (63%)
BWR: 81 (19%)
GCR: 15 (3%)
PHWR: 48 (11%)
LWGR: 15 (3%)
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
FBR: 2 (1%)
./ 55
CANDU and
CANDU-derived!
PWR
Pressurized water reactor
BWR
Boiling water reactor
GCR
Gas-cooled reactor
SOURCE: International Atomic Energy Agency.1
PHWR Pressurized heavy
water reactor
LWGR Light water graphite reactor
FBR
Fast breeder reactor
Pressurized heavy water reactors | Also known as
CANDU reactors, PHWRs use heavy water as both
coolant and moderator, and use natural uranium
as fuel. The coolant is used to boil ordinary water in
a separate loop. CANDU reactors can be refuelled
without shutting the reaction down.
Pressurized water reactors | PWRs use ordinary
(or “light”) water as both coolant and moderator.
The coolant is pressurized to keep it liquid during
operation. Pumps circulate the water through
pipes, transferring heat that boils water in a
separate loop.
Boiling water reactors | In a BWR, light water
acts as both coolant and moderator. The coolant is
kept at a lower pressure than in a PWR, allowing it
to boil. The steam is passed directly to the turbine
generators to produce electricity. While the absence of
a steam generator simplifies the design, radioactivity
can contaminate the turbine.
Gas-cooled reactors | The two types of GCRs,
the Magnox and the advanced gas-cooled reactor
(AGR), both use carbon dioxide as the coolant and
graphite as the moderator. The Magnox uses natural
uranium as fuel, while the AGR uses enriched
uranium. Like CANDU reactors, these designs
can be refueled while operating.
Light water graphite reactors | LWGRs use light
water as coolant and graphite as the moderator.
The coolant boils as it passes through the reactor
and the steam is fed directly to turbine generators.
Some early LWGR designs were built and operated
without the safety features required elsewhere.
The well-known 1986 accident at Chernobyl
(Ukraine) happened to a reactor of this type.
Fast breeder reactors | FBRs use fast neutrons
to convert materials such as uranium-238 and
thorium-232 into fissile materials, which then fuel
the reactor. This process, combined with recycling,
has the potential to increase available nuclear fuel
resources in the very long term.
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
DIFFERENCES AMONG REACTOR DESIGNS
56
SMALL MODULAR REACTORS
SCHEMATIC OF WESTINGHOUSE SMR CONCEPT
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Small modular reactors (SMRs) are modern
reactors designed to be built economically
in factory-like conditions (rather than fully
constructed on site), with capacities ranging
from approximately 10 MWe to 300 MWe.
There is growing interest in SMRs to provide
electricity to smaller and/or remote communities,
and to provide process heat for resource industries
such as mining, or Alberta’s oil sands.
Currently there are more than 45 SMR designs
under development, including four already under
construction in Argentina, Russia, and China.
The IAEA estimates that as many as 96 SMRs
could be operational worldwide by 2030.19
./ 57
DID YOU KNOW?
TWO SMR UNITS UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA WILL
BE FLOATING ABOARD THE AKADEMIK LOMONOSOV, DUE
FOR COMPLETION IN 2016. THE FLOATING POWER PLANT
WILL PRODUCE ENOUGH POWER FOR 200,000 HOMES.20
© Westinghouse Electric Company, LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Ongoing innovation ensures that nuclear remains among
our best options for safe, reliable, affordable power.
Advanced reactor designs (which offer either
evolutions over predecessors, or new concepts
entirely) are becoming increasingly available,
with 59 either under design, under construction,
or in operation at the end of 2014. These new
designs offer many improvements, such as
output flexibility, fuel options, and greatly
reduced waste streams.21
Advanced fuel cycles are another innovative method
of improving nuclear technology currently under
development. Advances in fuel processing allow for
the recycling of spent fuel, decommissioned militarygrade uranium and plutonium, and new fuels such
as thorium to be used to power existing reactors.
Existing CANDU reactors are already capable
of using various alternative fuels.
EXAMPLES OF ADVANCED FUELS
MOX
“Mixed Oxide Fuel” is manufactured from
plutonium recovered from used nuclear fuel,
and provides almost 5% of the nuclear fuel
used today.
REPROCESSED
URANIUM
Used nuclear fuel which is reprocessed to
remove elements which interfere with the
fission process and bring the concentration
of U-235 back up to the needed level.
THORIUM
A naturally occurring element more abundant
in nature than uranium that can be used in
various kinds of reactors.
DID YOU KNOW?
FROM 1993-2003, THE MEGATONS TO MEGAWATTS
PROGRAM WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR CONVERTING THE
EQUIVALENT OF 20,008 NUCLEAR WARHEADS TO LOW
ENRICHED URANIUM THAT SUPPLIED APPROXIMATELY
10% OF ELECTRICITY IN THE USA OVER THIS PERIOD.22
HOW NUCLEAR WORKS
ADVANCED REACTORS AND FUEL CYCLES
58
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
FUSION
./ 59
Fusion is a form of nuclear energy with the
potential to create massive amounts of heat
by forcing atomic nuclei together. It is essentially
the opposite of fission, which involves splitting
atoms apart.
In the sun, gravity creates the conditions for fusion.
Here on earth, the challenge is to create these same
conditions by using magnetic fields and inertia.
One of the most efficient fuels for fusion power is
a mix of heavy hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and
tritium), which means that water could become a
primary fuel source.
In addition to having an abundant fuel source,
fusion has the potential for relatively clean
operation and relatively short-lived
radioactive waste.
Fusion research has been underway for many
decades, with a lot of exciting progress in recent
years, including at Canadian institutions.
Once commercialized, this technology holds the
potential to revolutionize the efficiency with which
humanity is capable of generating electricity, far
FUSION
beyond even what fission has already achieved.
DEUTERIUM
PROTON
HELIUM
ENERGY
TRITIUM
NEUTRON
./IS RADIATION SAFE?
WHAT IS RADIATION?
WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION?
Radiation is energy that travels in the form of
waves or particles. It can be found everywhere
in the universe, including rocks on the earth
and in deep space.
Ionizing radiation is released when atoms ‘decay,’
as they do during fission reactions in a nuclear
reactor. Ionizing radiation is a highly energetic type
of radiation that can detach electrons from atoms.
Some types of radiation that can be directly
observed by humans are sound, light, and heat.
Other types can only be observed indirectly, including
microwaves, radio waves, and ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation occurs naturally, and can be
found everywhere in the universe. The normal
level of radiation at any given location is called
background radiation.
When radiation is discussed in the context
of nuclear energy, it is typically referring to
ionizing radiation.
Within the context of nuclear safety and human
health, the most relevant types of radiation are
alpha and beta particles and gamma rays.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
103
102
101
1
10-1
10-3
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
LONGER
10-12
SHORTER
RADIO WAVES
INFRARED
MICROWAVES
VISIBLE
Common
name of wave
ULTRAVIOLET
“SOFT” X RAYS
“HARD” X RAYS
GAMMA RAYS
Sources
AM
RADIO
FM
RADIO
MICROWAVE
OVEN
RADAR
PEOPLE
LIGHT
BULB
X-RAY RADIOACTIVE
MACHINES ELEMENTS
* X-rays and gamma rays are defined by coming from man-made devices (x-rays) or from radioactive elements (gamma-rays). X-rays can have energies in the indicated gamma
range, but tend not to except in high-power radiation therapy treatments.
*
IS RADIATION SAFE?
Wavelength
(in meters)
61
IS IONIZING RADIATION DANGEROUS?
There are many different ways of measuring
radiation. Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation can
be counted with a Geiger counter. Accumulated
radiation dose can be measured over time with
a personal dosimeter.
Ionizing radiation cannot make non-radioactive
material radioactive. This makes it possible to
use in sterilizing food and medical supplies.
Different types of ionizing radiation have different
biological effects. To account for these differences,
the biological effects of ionizing radiation are generally
measured in units called millisieverts (mSv).
While a safe level of radiation has not been
conclusively established, research shows that
radiation doses of up to 100 mSv/year have no
measureable health effects in humans.
High doses of ionizing radiation, however, can
damage healthy tissues and cause serious illness.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
./ 62
RADIATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES IS EASILY PROTECTED
AGAINST WITH COMMON MATERIALS. LEAD AND CONCRETE
ARE COMMON EFFECTIVE SHIELDS FOR X-RAYS, GAMMA
RAYS, AND NEUTRONS, BETA PARTICLES ARE EASILY
STOPPED BY PLASTIC, AND ALPHA PARTICLES CAN’T
EVEN GET PAST YOUR OUTER LAYER OF SKIN.
LEAD
DID YOU KNOW?
ALPHA
BETA
GAMMA, X-RAYS
NEUTRONS
CONCRETE
HOW IS RADIATION MEASURED?
While natural background radiation worldwide is
on average 2.4 mSv/year,20 local variations can be
significant. In some places, such as Ramsar, Iran,
natural radiation levels can reach 260 mSv/year –
thirteen times more than allowed for workers in
Canadian nuclear facilities.21
RADIATION SOURCES IN CANADA
0.07%
Canadian nuclear
power plants
External 8%
Cosmos 12%
Canadians on average are naturally exposed to
about 2.1 mSv/year. Local levels vary significantly,
from about 1.6 mSv in Toronto to about 4.1 mSv in
Winnipeg. Most of this radiation comes from rocks
in the ground and naturally occurring radon gas.
Medical radiological procedures account for an
additional estimated 1.4 mSv.
Radiation from nuclear power reactors generally
adds less than 0.1% to the background radiation
around nuclear facilities in Canada.
DID YOU KNOW?
WE RECEIVE OVER 100 TIMES MORE RADIATION
DOSE NATURALLY THROUGH THE FOOD WE EAT
THAN FROM CANADA’S NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS.
Internal (food or
beverages) 8%
Inhalation (primarily
radon inhalation) 31%
Medical 40%
SOURCE: Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission.23
IS RADIATION SAFE?
NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION
63
RADIATION EFFECTS
ON THE BODY
While the low doses we receive
naturally and through medical
procedures pose little risk to
our health, high doses can be
very dangerous if received quickly.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
Doses at these magnitudes occur
only in extreme circumstances,
such as in emergency workers at
Chernobyl. No event producing
doses of this magnitude has ever
occurred in Canada.
./ 64
Low doses of radiation received over
time do not accumulate to produce
these effects. This is because
radiation produces the same
chemical effects within the body
as exercising and breathing (called
“oxidative stress”), which the body
is very adept at responding to.
mSv
10,000
EFFECT
Fatal within weeks
6,000
Average dose to Chernobyl emergency workers who died within a month
5,000
Single dose which would kill half of those exposed to it within a month
1,000
Single dose which would cause radiation sickness, nausea, but not death
400
Maximum hourly radiation levels recorded at Fukushima on March 14, 2011
350
Exposure of Chernobyl residents who were relocated
100
Lowest level linked to increased cancer risk
10
Full-body CT scan
2.4
Natural radiation to which we are all exposed, per year
0.1
Chest x-ray
0.01
0.001
Dental x-ray
Annual public dose due to nuclear power reactors in Canada
The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC)
is an independent regulatory agency that reports
to Parliament through the Minister of Natural
Resources. The CNSC has quasi-judicial powers,
similar to a court of law, and can impose legal
penalties on individuals and organizations.
Canada’s nuclear industry is among the most highly
monitored and regulated industries in the world.
THE CNSC AND CANADA’S NUCLEAR
POWER GENERATING INDUSTRY
The CNSC oversees the ongoing operations of
Canada’s nuclear power facilities, the refurbishment
of existing nuclear power facilities, and is currently
assessing proposed new nuclear projects, including:
a new nuclear power facility at the Darlington site,
a uranium mine in Nunavut, and a deep geologic
repository for nuclear waste at the Bruce Power site.
The CNSC also works collaboratively with the
federal government’s Major Projects Management
Office under Natural Resources Canada in regulating
these major resource projects.
CNSC staff are located on-site at each of Canada’s
four operating nuclear generating stations, as well
as the AECL Chalk River Laboratories, the recently
shut-down Gentilly-2 nuclear generating station,
and across Canada in four regional offices
(Calgary, Saskatoon, Mississauga, and Laval).
IS RADIATION SAFE?
THE CANADIAN NUCLEAR
SAFETY COMMISSION
65
WHAT DOES THE CNSC DO?
The CNSC is mandated to monitor and regulate
the use of nuclear energy and materials to protect
the health, safety, and security of Canadians and
the environment.
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
The CNSC monitors and regulates the entire nuclear
fuel chain and other uses of nuclear material,
including uranium mines, mills, and processing
facilities, fuel fabrication plants, nuclear power
facilities, radioactive waste management facilities,
nuclear research facilities, and nuclear substances
processing facilities.
./ 66
Any person or organization that wants to possess,
use, transport, or store nuclear material; or build,
operate, decommission, or abandon a nuclear facility –
including a nuclear power facility – must first obtain
a license issued by the CNSC.
The CNSC also implements Canada’s international
commitments on the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
The CNSC has a long-standing history of
international bilateral and multilateral cooperation.
International peer reviews and shared practices
are frequently conducted through the International
Atomic Energy Agency and the World Association
of Nuclear Operators (WANO).
DID YOU KNOW?
CNSC STAFF ARE LOCATED ON-SITE AT EVERY CANADIAN
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION.
./OTHER RESOURCES
International Atomic Energy Agency. Power Reactor Information System.
2014. URL: https://prisweb.iaea.org/PRISStatistics/frmChooseReport.
aspx?Menu=STANDARD+REPORTS.
McDonald RI, Fargione J, Kiesecker J, Miller WM, Powell J. Energy Sprawl or
Energy Efficiency: Climate Policy Impacts on Natural Habitat for the United States
of America. PLoS ONE. 2009.
13
1
International Atomic Energy Agency. Research Reactor Database. 2014.
URL: http://nucleus.iaea.org/RRDB/RR/ReactorSearch.aspx?rf=1.
14
U.S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. 2014. URL:
http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=2&pid=2&aid=12.
15
The World Bank. Electricity Production from Natural Gas Sources (% of Total). 2014.
URL: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.NGAS.ZS. 16
2
Canadian Manufacturers & Exporters. Nuclear: A Canadian Strategy for Energy,
Jobs, and Innovation. Ottawa; 2012. 3
Statistics Canada. Electric power generation, by class of electricity producer. 2014.
URL: http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/a26?lang=eng&retrLang=eng&id=1270002.
4
Statistics Canada. Households and the Environment: Energy Use. 2011.
URL: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-526-s/2013002/part-partie1-eng.htm.
5
Hatch. Lifecycle Assessment Literature Review of Nuclear, Wind, and Natural Gas
Power Generation. 2014. URL: http://cna.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/
Hatch-CNA-Report-RevE.pdf.
6
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Renewable Energy Sources and
Climate Change Mitigation. Geneva; 2011.
7
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR),
release version 4.2. 2011. URL: http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu.
8
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Fifth Assessment Synthesis Report.
Geneva; 2014.
9
Global Carbon Project. Carbon Budget 2014. Canberra; 2014.
10
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands
Environmental Assessment Agency. Trends in Global CO2 Emissions: 2013 Report.
The Hague; 2013.
11
International Atomic Energy Agency. Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates
for the Period up to 2050. Vienna; 2013.
12
OpenEI. Transparent Cost Database. 2014. URL: http://en.openei.org/apps/TCDB/.
International Monetary Fund. World Economic Outlook Database. 2014.
URL: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/index.aspx.
17
World Nuclear Association. World Uranium Mining Production. 2014.
URL: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Mining-of-Uranium/
World-Uranium-Mining-Production/.
18
World Nuclear Association. Small Nuclear Power Reactors. 2014.
URL: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/power-reactors/
small-nuclear-power-reactors/.
19
International Atomic Energy Agency. Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology
Developments. Vienna; 2014.
20
International Atomic Energy Agency. Advanced Reactor Information System. 2014.
URL: https://aris.iaea.org/.
21
Centrus Energy. Megatons to Megawatts. 2014. URL: http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/
resources/radiation/introduction-to-radiation/radiation-doses.cfm.
22
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. Radiation Doses. 2014.
URL: http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/resources/radiation/introduction-to-radiation/
radiation-doses.cfm.
23
OTHER RESOURCES
CITATION LIST
68
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
CNA MEMBER AND AFFILIATE RESOURCES
./ 69
AREVA Canada.................................................... www.arevacanada.ca
Natural Resources Canada..................................www.nuclear.nrcan.gc.ca
Bruce Power....................................................... www.brucepower.com
New Brunswick Power.........................................www.nbpower.com
Cameco............................................................... www.cameco.com
Nordion.................................................................www.nordion.com
Canadian Institute for Neutron Scattering........ www.cins.ca
North American Young Generation in Nuclear.....www.naygn.org
Canadian Nuclear Association........................... www.cna.ca
Nuclear Energy Institute......................................www.nei.org
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories........................ www.cnl.ca
Nuclear Industry Association...............................www.niauk.org
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission.............. www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca
Nuclear Waste Management Organization...........www.nwmo.ca
Canadian Nuclear Society.................................. www.cns-snc.ca
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency.............................www.oecd-nea.org
Candian Nuclear Workers Council.................... www.cnwc-cctn.ca
Ontario Power Generation...................................www.opg.com
Candu Energy Inc............................................... www.candu.ca
Organization of Canadian Nuclear Industries.....www.oci-aic.org
CANDU Owners Group....................................... www.candu.org
Power Workers’ Union.........................................www.pwu.ca
Centre for Energy............................................... www.centreforenergy.com
SNC-Lavalin Nuclear...........................................www.snc-lavalin.com
DOE – Energy Information Administration........ www.eia.gov
Statistics Canada..................................................www.statcan.gc.ca
Hydro-Québec..................................................... www.hydroquebec.com
United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation......................www.unscear.org
Independent Electricity Systems Operator......... www.ieso.ca
International Atomic Energy Agency................. www.iaea.org
International Commission on
Radiological Protection...................................... www.icrp.org
International Energy Agency.............................. www.iea.org
Women in Nuclear................................................www.win-canada.org
World Health Organization...................................www.who.int/
.......................................................................ionizing_radiation/en
World Nuclear Association..................................www.world-nuclear.org
CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES WITH
NUCLEAR RESEARCH PROGRAMS
Algonquin College..........................................www.algonquincollege.com
Carleton University........................................www.carleton.ca
DID YOU KNOW?
THE REACTOR CORE AT MCMASTER UNIVERSITY IS
AMONG FEW WORLDWIDE THAT ARE VISIBLE AND
ACCESSIBLE DURING OPERATION.
École Polytéchnique.......................................www.polymtl.ca
McMaster University......................................www.mcmaster.ca
Queen’s University.........................................www.queensu.ca
Royal Military College ...................................www.rmc.ca
University of Guelph . ....................................www.uoguelph.ca
University of New Brunswick.........................www.unb.ca
University of Ontario Institute
of Technology.................................................www.uoit.ca
University of Saskatchewan . ........................www.usask.ca
University of Toronto......................................www.utoronto.ca
University of Waterloo....................................www.uwaterloo.ca
University of Windsor . ..................................www.uwindsor.ca
SHOULD YOUR SCHOOL BE LISTED HERE? IF WE’VE
MISSED A PROGRAM WITH NUCLEAR-RELATED EDUCATION,
LET US KNOW AT [email protected]!
OTHER RESOURCES
University of Western Ontario........................www.uwo.ca
70
ABOUT THE CNA
THE CANADIAN
NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
The Canadian Nuclear Association (CNA) is a nonprofit organization established in 1960 to represent
the nuclear industry in Canada and promote the
development and growth of nuclear technologies
for peaceful purposes.
Our opportunity is to build a better world by applying
nuclear science to a broad range of peaceful
purposes. We are more than 60,000 Canadians,
supporting nuclear medicine, exploring and mining
uranium, generating power, and advancing Canada’s
nuclear advantage worldwide.
Please visit us online at www.cna.ca and follow
us on our TalkNUclear social media channels and
join the conversation.
./ 71
ABOUT THE
CANADIAN NUCLEAR FACTBOOK
The Canadian Nuclear Factbook has been published
regularly since 2004 by the Canadian Nuclear
Association. Every year, 30,000 copies are distributed
to schools, universities, information centres at nuclear
facilities, industry associations, parliamentarians, and
many others. Thousands of copies are distributed free
of charge nationally and internationally to individuals
and organizations on request. If you wish to order one
or more copies of the Canadian Nuclear Factbook free
of charge for yourself, or an organization, or to access
an electronic version, please visit www.cna.ca.
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