1. education
2. english as a second language

Writing Techniques
Editing and Proofreading Guide
How to use this guide
This 23 page guide is not meant for reading, light or deep. It is meant as a
tool. Look through it, see what’s in it, and think how you could make use of it
while editing your papers. As you use the various conventions shown here, you’ll
get used to them little by little, and they will become part of your repertory of
writing skills. You will find you need it less and less. But don’t get rid of it until a
better thing comes to hand.
EDITING SENTENCES
2.23 VARYING SENTENCE OPENINGS, LENGTH, AND STRUCTURE
Many of the examples in this handbook begin with a subject for the sake of
simplicity. When you are writing, however, you will find that always beginning
with a subject makes for a dull style. You can make your writing more varied and
interesting by beginning sentences with adjectives, adverbs, participles—just
about any part of speech—as well as with phrases and clauses. You may have to
reword your sentences slightly as you vary the sentence openings.
GIVEN SENTENCE The werewolves emerge at exactly midnight.
EDITED SENTENCE At exactly midnight, the werewolves emerge.
GIVEN SENTENCE The blind woman reached the summit, defying all
odds.
EDITED SENTENCE Defying all odds, the blind woman reached the
summit.
GIVEN SENTENCE She sat looking in the mirror for long hours and tried
to discover the secret of her ugliness.
EDITED SENTENCE Long hours she sat looking in the mirror, trying to
discover the secret of her ugliness.
Repeated sentences of the same length and structure soon become
monotonous. Use a variety of simple, compound, complex, and compoundcomplex sentences in your writing. Notice that the first passage below,
composed of simple sentences of similar length, soon becomes tedious. The
second, an actual passage from Cervantes's Don Quixote, employs a variety of
sentence structures and is far more interesting.
PASSAGE WITH SIMPLE SENTENCES
He uttered those words. He clapped spurs to Rozinante. He did not
heed the cries of his squire, Sancho. Sancho warned him. He was not
going to attack giants but windmills. He was convinced that they were
giants. He did not hear his squire's shouts. He did not notice what they
were. He was very near them. Instead, he rushed on. . . . He
commended himself most devoutly to his Lady Dulcinea. He begged her
to help him in this peril. He covered himself with his buckler. He couched
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his lance. He charged at Rozinante's full gallop. He rammed the first mill
in his way. He ran his lance into the sail. The wind twisted it violently. It
shivered the spear to pieces. It dragged him and his horse after it. It
rolled him over and over on the ground. He was sorely damaged.
PASSAGE WITH VARIED SENTENCE LENGTH AND STRUCTURE
Uttering those words, he clapped spurs to Rozinante, without
heeding the cries of his squire Sancho, who warned him that he was not
going to attack giants but windmills. But so convinced was he that they
were giants that he neither heard his squire's shouts nor did he notice
what they were though he was very near them. Instead, he rushed on. . .
. Commending himself most devoutly to his Lady Dulcinea, whom he
begged to help him in this peril, he covered himself with his buckler,
couched his lance, charged at Rozinante's full gallop and rammed the
first mill in his way. He ran his lance into the sail, but the wind twisted it
with such violence that it shivered the spear to pieces, dragging him and
his horse after it and rolling him over and over on the ground, sorely
damaged.
—Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote de la
Mancha
2.24 USING THE ACTIVE VOICE
A verb is in the active voice when the subject of the verb performs the action.
It is in the passive voice when the subject of the verb receives the action.
ACTIVE Anna Akhmatova memorized her poem Requiem as she wrote it.
PASSIVE The poem Requiem was memorized by Anna Akhmatova.
A common characteristic of poor writing is overuse of the passive voice. Keep your verbs in the active
voice unless you have a good reason for using the passive voice. In the examples that follow, note how the
active verbs make the writing more natural, interesting, and concise.
WITH PASSIVE VERBS
The European discovery of America may have been made by the Vikings more than five
hundred years before Columbus arrived. According to ancient Norse writings, America was
reached by Leif the Lucky in AD 985. The Atlantic was crossed by the Vikings in wooden
longboats. The sailors were guided on their journey by the sun, stars, and movements of sea
birds.
WITH ACTIVE VERBS
The Vikings may have made the European discovery of America more than five hundred
years before Columbus arrived. According to ancient Norse writings, Leif the Lucky reached
America in AD 985. The Vikings crossed the Atlantic in wooden longboats. The sun, stars, and
movements of sea birds guided the sailors on their journey.
2.25 ACHIEVING PARALLELISM
A sentence has parallelism when it uses the same grammatical forms to express ideas of equal, or
parallel, importance. When you edit your sentences during revision, check to be sure that your parallelism is
not faulty.
FAULTY Lloyd is afraid of taking risks and to be in unfamiliar situations.
PARALLEL Lloyd is afraid of taking risks and being in unfamiliar situations.
FAULTY Having something worth saying and to communicate it well are both essential elements of
speech-making.
PARALLEL To have something worth saying and to communicate it well are both essential
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elements of speech-making.
FAULTY The dishonest woodcutter claimed the golden ax is mine and that he had dropped it in the
water.
PARALLEL The dishonest woodcutter claimed that the golden ax was his and that he had dropped
it in the water.
2.26 REDUCING WORDINESS
When you edit your writing, check carefully for repeated or unnecessary ideas. Remove any words that
do not contribute to your meaning.
REPETITION Marilda glided out on the stage and danced with utter abandon on the stage.
CORRECTED SENTENCE Marilda glided out on the stage and danced with utter abandon.
UNNECESSARY IDEA The setting sun, which was setting in the west, cast long shadows over the
somber assembly.
CORRECTED SENTENCE The setting sun cast long shadows over the somber assembly.
When you write, use only as many words as you need to express your meaning. While editing, replace
complicated or unclear words and phrases with ones that are simple and clear.
WORDY His idea that he thought up seems to me as I think about it to be absurd and
preposterous.
DIRECT His idea seems absurd to me.
WORDY The jinnee implored and begged the fisherman to let him come back out of the bottle
again and promised and swore that he would give him fabulous riches if he would let him
come back out again.
DIRECT The jinnee begged the fisherman to let him back out of the bottle and promised to give him
fabulous riches.
Look for ways to reduce the length of your sentences by replacing a clause with a phrase that conveys
the same meaning. In some cases, you can even replace a lengthy phrase with a single word.
WORDY Elie Wiesel, who was a concentration camp survivor, wrote Night, which is a book about
the Holocaust.
DIRECT Elie Wiesel, a concentration camp survivor, wrote Night, a book about the Holocaust.
WORDY The kind of quality of your character is more important than the amount of wealth you
have.
DIRECT Your character is more important than your wealth.
2.27 CORRECTING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS, RUN-ONS, AND SENTENCE STRINGS
A sentence should express a complete thought and contain both a subject and a verb. A sentence
fragment is a phrase or clause that does not express a complete thought but has been punctuated as
though it did. You can correct a sentence fragment by changing its punctuation or structure so that it
expresses a complete thought.
FRAGMENTED Nora was terrified. That Torvald would read the letter from Krogstad.
CORRECTED Nora was terrified that Torvald would read the letter from Krogstad.
In sentences in which the subject will be understood by the reader, the subject can be left
unexpressed. Such sentences are not sentence fragments.
SENTENCE WITH IMPLIED, UNEXPRESSED SUBJECT [You] Take good care of my sweater.
A run-on is formed of two or more sentences that have been run together as if they were one complete
thought. Edit a run-on by making it into two sentences, by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction,
or by adding a semicolon.
RUN-ON Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher his most famous student was Plato who in
turn became the teacher of Aristotle.
TWO SENTENCES Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher. His most famous student was
Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.
COORDINATED CLAUSES Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher, and his most famous
student was Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.
CLAUSES WITH SEMICOLON Socrates was a leading Athenian philosopher; his most famous
student was Plato, who in turn became the teacher of Aristotle.
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Sentence strings are formed of several sentences strung together with conjunctions. Edit sentence
strings by breaking them up into separate sentences and subordinate clauses. In the example that follows,
the first passage is a sentence string; the second is a passage broken up into separate sentences and
clauses.
STRINGY He was, however, used to this sort of thing, and he never expected anything to help him
apart from his philosophic calm and his Uncle Agostino's will, and he was an excellent
walker, and he thought far more about his shoes than about his feet, and if matters went
as well as he expected, then everything would be mended in due course.
REVISED He was, however, used to this sort of thing; he never expected anything to help him
apart from his philosophic calm and his Uncle Agostino's will. He was an excellent walker,
and thought far more about his shoes than about his feet; if matters went as well as he
expected, then everything would be mended indue course.
—Grazia Deledda, "The Shoes"
2.28 CORRECTING DANGLING OR MISPLACED MODIFIERS
A dangling modifier is a modifying phrase or clause that seems to modify a word it is not intended to
modify. Sometimes this error occurs because the modifier is too far from the word it is supposed to modify. It
is then called a misplaced modifier. You can edit dangling and misplaced modifiers by adding a word for the
phrase or clause to modify or by rewording the sentence.
DANGLING Valerie drove to the airport while reading my book.
WORDS ADDED Valerie drove to the airport while I was reading my book.
MISPLACED Aleksei played a solo on the cello wearing a white tuxedo.
REWORDED Wearing a white tuxedo, Aleksei played a solo on the cello.
2.29 INVERTING SENTENCES FOR EMPHASIS
When editing your writing, look for opportunities to add emphasis and clarify your meaning. One way to
add emphasis is to invert a sentence—to change the usual order of its parts.
REGULAR ORDER He seems weary and breathless from his ride.
INVERTED ORDER Weary he seems, and breathless from his ride.
REGULAR ORDER He is not an orator.
INVERTED ORDER An orator he is not.
EDITING FOR ERRORS IN VERBS
2.30 CORRECTING SHIFTS IN VERB TENSE
When the verbs in a sentence or group of sentences shift from past to present or from pre-sent to past
without reason, the reader may not be able to follow the intended meaning. Correct the shift by using
consistent tenses for all verbs.
WITH TENSE SHIFT Henrik Ibsen was a nineteenth century Norwegian author who writes
powerful plays on social and political themes.
CORRECTED Henrik Ibsen was a nineteenth century Norwegian author who wrote powerful
plays on social and political themes.
2.31 CORRECTING ERRORS IN THE USE OF IRREGULAR VERBS
Every verb has four principle parts: the base form, the present participle, the past, and the past
participle. All the other verb forms can be made from these parts. As you can see from the table below, the
present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form (some-times dropping an e), and the past and
past participle are formed by adding -d or -ed (or sometimes -t) to the base form.
BASE PRESENT PAST PAST
FORM PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
enter [is] entering entered [has] entered
hope [is] hoping hoped [has] hoped
learn [is] learning learned [has] learned
Some verbs, however, form the past and past participle in some way other than by adding -d or -ed (or
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sometimes -t) to the base form. These verbs are called irregular verbs. English has dozens of them. The
table below shows just a few examples. If you are in doubt about whether a verb is irregular, look it up in the
dictionary; if it is irregular, you will find its principle parts listed.
BASE PRESENT PAST PAST
FORM PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
begin [is] beginning began [has] begun
choose [is] choosing chose [has] chosen
fling [is] flinging flung [has] flung
hide [is] hiding hid [has] hidden
speak [is] speaking spoke [has] spoken
When using irregular verbs in the so-called perfect tenses (with has or have), make sure you do not
use the past form instead of the past participle.
NONSTANDARD PARTICIPLE Her majesty has spoke.
STANDARD PARTICIPLE Her majesty has spoken.
Another error to watch for is using the past participle form without a helping verb or mistaking the past
participle for the past.
NONSTANDARD You been caught in the act!
STANDARD You have been caught in the act!
NONSTANDARD The child drunk a glass of milk to neutralize the poison he had swallowed.
STANDARD The child drank a glass of milk to neutralize the poison he had swallowed.
Finally, do not add -d or -ed or -t to the present or past form of an irregular verb.
NONSTANDARD The escaped convict rided eighty miles in a boxcar.
STANDARD The escaped convict rode eighty miles in a boxcar.
2.32 CORRECTING SPLIT INFINITIVES
In English, the infinitive often takes the form of two words, to and the base. In their discussion of this
form, the first English grammarians—influenced by their knowledge of Latin, in which the infinitive is a single
word—decreed that the infinitive should never be "split" in English. Under this rule, adverbs and other
sentence components should
not stand between to and the base form. However, the normal sentence rhythms of English, and the
demands of sense, often call for an infinitive to be split.
STRAINED WORD ORDER The paramedic told me to straighten out gently my friend's twisted leg.
NATURAL WORD ORDER The paramedic told me to gently straighten out my friend's twisted leg.
STRAINED WORD ORDER After the accident, Wynne resolved to urge strongly his grand-father to
surrender his driver's license.
NATURAL WORD ORDER After the accident, Wynne resolved to strongly urge his grand-father to
surrender his driver's license.
In using the infinitive, keep to and the base form together where possible, but do not hesitate to
separate them where the rhythm or sense of the sentence requires it. (Note that a phrase such as to be fully
informed is not a split infinitive; it is an infinitive of the verb to be followed by a predicate nominative modified
by an adverb.)
EXAMPLES:
To safely detonate the explosives requires great expertise.
You ought to at least try to talk some sense into her.
I need to be fully informed about every development in this case.
Although the rule that infinitives should not be split was based on Latin rather than English, it has been
widely accepted. You should be aware that some people may find fault with the use of a split infinitive, even
in cases where such a use is required by sound and sense.
2.33 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VOICE AND MOOD
Shifts in voice from active to passive can be as confusing as shifts in tense. Check your sentences to
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be sure voice is consistent. Rewrite and change subjects as necessary.
WITH VOICE SHIFT Samantha went out one night to watch the moonrise, and finally the ghost was
caught sight of by her.
CORRECTED Samantha went out one night to watch the moonrise and finally caught sight of the
ghost.
In addition to watching for voice shifts, check to be sure your verbs are in the appropriate mood. Mood
is a characteristic that shows the way in which a verb is used. Each verb has three moods: indicative,
imperative, and subjunctive.
Use a verb in the indicative mood to express a fact, an opinion, or a question.
INDICATIVE MOOD
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote the first narrative of Western history.
It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
Have you heard of the Peruvian band Inca Son?
Use the imperative mood to express a direct command or request.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Give the devil his due.
"Speak of love in your own words—Improvise! Rhapsodize! Be eloquent."
Use the subjunctive mood in the present to express a suggestion or a necessity.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
It is crucial that the figures be accurate.
I recommend that he have the tests done as soon as possible.
Use the past subjunctive to express a wish or a condition that is not true (contrary to fact).
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
If I were in your shoes, I'd feel the same way.
We all wish he were here with us.
Notice that the singular of most verbs in the subjunctive looks like a plural of a verb in the indicative.
INDICATIVE PLURAL The children were not aware that Ravi had been hiding so long.
SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR If Harlan were honest with himself, he would see the futility of it.
2.34 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VERB AGREEMENT I
A word that refers to one person or thing is said to be singular in number. A word that refers to more
than one person or thing is said to be plural in number. Most nouns that end in –s are plural, but most verbs
that refer to the present and end in –s are singular.
SINGULAR NOUNS shadow, dolphin, product
PLURAL NOUNS shadows, dolphins, products
SINGULAR VERBS wobbles, happens, believes
PLURAL VERBS wobble, happen, believe
Each verb in a sentence should be singular if its subject is singular and plural if its subject is plural. In
other words, a verb must agree in number with its subject.
EXAMPLES
The orchestra plays both classical and contemporary pieces.
The lungs transfer oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide.
The pronouns 1 and you, though singular, almost always take forms that look plural. The only
exceptions are the forms I am and l was.
EXAMPLES
I tremble when I think of facing her.
You expect too much of yourself.
A compound subject is formed of two or more nouns or pronouns that are joined by a conjunction and
have the same verb. A compound subject joined by the conjunction and usually takes a plural verb.
EXAMPLE Mishmash, Mushrush, and Clapsaddle work in the electronics division.
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A compound subject takes a singular verb if the compound subject really names only one person or
thing.
EXAMPLE My dear friend and mentor is Mrs. Walters.
A compound subject formed of two singular subjects joined by the conjunctions or or nor takes a
singular verb.
EXAMPLES
Either Schroeder or Harrington is responsible for leaking the information.
Neither Chinese food nor pizza sounds too appealing to me right now.
A compound subject formed of a singular subject and a plural subject, joined by the con-junctions or or
nor, takes a verb that agrees in number with the subject nearer the verb.
EXAMPLES
Neither Elise nor the twins have had chicken pox.
Neither the twins nor Elise has had chicken pox.
These indefinite pronouns are singular and take a singular verb: anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and
something.
EXAMPLES
Neither of the players has a strong serve.
Something is dreadfully wrong with Kyle.
These indefinite pronouns are plural and take a plural verb: both, few, many, and several.
EXAMPLES
When Premila and Santha went to the Anglo-Indian school, both were given English names.
Few of the students understand Dr. Duchardt's discourses.
The following indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural: all, any, most, none, and some.
EXAMPLES
All of the furniture is old and dilapidated. All of the chairs are old and dilapidated.
Most of the snow has melted.
Most of the icicles have melted.
When you invert sentences for emphasis, make sure you maintain agreement in number between
subject and verb.
EXAMPLES Seventy miles he commutes to work every day. One load of bread they were able to
buy.
The contraction doesn't (from does not) is third-person singular and should be used only with a thirdperson singular subject. The contraction don't (from do not) should be used with all other subjects.
EXAMPLES Gunther doesn't speak any English. Obstacles don't deter Denise from her goal.
2.35 CORRECTING ERRORS IN VERB AGREEMENT II
When a sentence begins with here, there, when, or where, often the subject follows the verb. In editing
your writing, use extra care to check that the subject and verb of such sentences agree in number.
Remember that the contractions here's, there's, when's, and where's contain a singular verb (is) and should
only be used with a singular subject.
EXAMPLES Here's the information you requested.
There are nine Muses in classical mythology. When's the next train?
Where are the screwdriver and the wrench?
Also check to be sure a verb in a sentence with a predicate nominative agrees in number with the
subject and not with the predicate nominative. (See 2.17 for the definition of a predicate nominative.)
EXAMPLES
Brussels sprouts are my favorite vegetable.
My favorite vegetable is Brussels sprouts.
A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the group as a unit, and it takes a
plural verb when it refers to the members of the group as individuals.
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AS SINGULAR The entire faculty is dedicated and caring.
AS PLURAL All faculty have earned at least a master's degree.
While editing your work, check for nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning. They should
take singular verbs.
EXAMPLES measles, gymnastics, cryogenics, gallows
The title of a creative work such as a book or song takes a singular verb, as does a group of words
used as a unit.
EXAMPLES
Ovid's Metamorphoses is a long poem with many accounts of miraculous transformations.
Chicken and dumplings is our family's favorite chicken dish.
An expression stating an amount is singular and takes a singular verb when the amount is considered
as one unit. It is plural and takes a piural verb when the amount is considered as something with many
parts.
AS SINGULAR Ten days seems like forever to wait for the test results.
AS PLURAL Ten days have elapsed since our dog disappeared.
A fraction or a percentage is singular when it refers to a singular word and plural when it refers to a plural
word.
AS SINGULAR Over half the population in that country suffers from malnutrition.
AS PLURAL Over half the people in that country suffer from malnutrition.
AS SINGULAR Twenty percent of their budget Is spent on overhead.
AS PLURAL Twenty percent of their funds are spent on overhead.
Expressions of measurement, such as area, length, volume, and weight, are usually singular.
EXAMPLES Four units is a dangerous amount of blood to lose.
Ninety pounds is too much for a child of his height to weigh.
EDITING FOR ERRORS IN PRONOUN USAGE
2.36 PRONOUN CASE
Case is the form that a noun or a pronoun takes to indicate its use in a sentence. English nouns and
pronouns have three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. The nominative case is used for the
subject of a verb or for a predicate nominative. The objective case is used for a direct object, an indirect
object, or the object of a preposition. The possessive case is used to show possession. The form of the
nominative and objective cases of nouns is the same, and most nouns form possessives by adding an
apostrophe and an s to the singular and an apostrophe only to the plural. But many pronouns have different
forms to show nominative, objective, and possessive cases.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SINGULAR
Nominative Case
Objective Case
Possessive Case
(for subjects or predicate
nominatives)
(for direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions)
(to show possession)
I
You
Me
You
My, mine
Your, yours
He, she, it
Him, her. it
His, her,
hers its
PLURAL
We
Us
Our, ours
You
You
Your, yours
they
them
Their, theirs
To determine which form of the pronoun to use when writing a sentence, first
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decide whether the pronoun is used as a subject, predicate nominative, as some
kind of object, or as a possessive. Doing so will tell you in what case the pronoun
should be.
SUBJECT She felt an overpowering chill upon hearing the news.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE It was he who drove his spear into Hector's
neck.
DIRECT OBJECT William the Conqueror defeated them in the Battle of
Hastings.
INDIRECT OBJECT The salesperson offered us a free cutting board with
the knife set.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Great-uncle Wilfred bequeathed his coin
collection to you and me.
Remember that in standard English, prepositions always take an object in the
objective case. The phrase between you and I, for example, is nonstandard
English.
Use the possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and
theirs just as you use the pronouns in the nominative and objective cases.
AS SUBJECT My paintings and his are hanging in the gallery.
AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The Mitsubishi is hers.
DIRECT OBJECT After Dale received his award, I went up to get mine.
INDIRECT OBJECT Mr. Garrison gave our project an A and theirs a B.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION This package is for our family and the other
one is for yours.
Use the possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and their as
adjectives before nouns.
EXAMPLES
When Alfonso was confronted, his first response was to deny everything.
"It is not only the inscriptions on their graves that mark them out; ... in
people's hearts, their memory abides and grows."
As you edit your writing, check the case of nouns and pronouns before a
gerund. They should always be in the possessive case.
WITH GERUND Their singing sounds more like screeching to me.
Do not confuse the gerund and the present participle (see 2.9). Compare the
example above with the following example, in which no possessive is required
before the participle:
WITH PARTICIPLE We heard them singing as they scrubbed the floor.
2.37 WHO AND WHOM
The pronoun who is referred to as an interrogative pronoun when it is used to
form a question. When it is used to introduce a subordinate clause, it is referred
to as a relative pronoun. In both cases, the nominative is who, the objective is
whom, and the possessive is whose. As you edit your writing, check these
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pronouns to see if the form of the pronoun you have used is appropriate for its
use in the sentence or subordinate clause in which it appears.
SUBJECT Who cut Samson's hair?
SUBJECT The intrepid inventor who built the poetry machine was Trurl.
DIRECT OBJECT Whom did Brutus assassinate?
DIRECT OBJECT The woman whom you saw was Mrs. King.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION From whom did he steal the shoes?
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION I don't remember to whom I lent the lawnmower.
In spoken English, whom is gradually being replaced by who. In some formal speech, how-ever, and in
all writing of standard English except dialogue, the form whom should still be used where grammatically
correct.
2.38 PRONOUNS IN APPOSITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
When a pronoun is used with an appositive, its form matches its use in the sentence. (See 2.20 for the
definition of an appositive.)
SUBJECT We, the undersigned, endorse the candidacy of Walter Wright.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The culprit is I, Harriet Dunbar.
DIRECT OBJECT The Rams defeated us Lancers in the championship.
INDIRECT OBJECT You can tell me, your trusted confidante, the secret.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION The beast was killed by him, the hero Sunjata.
When a pronoun is itself used as an appositive, it should be in the same case as the word to which it
refers.
PRONOUN IN APPOSITION TO SUBJECT Two of the least athletic girls in history, Emma and I,
actually enjoyed the hike.
PRONOUN IN APPOSITION TO THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION Awards were presented to
the leading vocalists, Victoria and him.
2.39 PRONOUNS IN COMPARISON
The ends of sentences that compare people or things are often left unexpressed. Pronouns in such
sentences should be in the same case as they would have been if the sentence had been completed.
EXAMPLES
Dickens is more widely read than they [are].
The prospect of going down into that cave was more daunting to me than [it was] to him.
2.40 PRONOUN REFERENCE AND AGREEMENT
Check the pronouns in your writing to be sure they agree in number, person, and gender with their
antecedents. (For a discussion of number, see 2.34.) Person is the form a word takes to indicate the person
speaking (the first person, corresponding to l or we), the person spoken to (the second person,
corresponding to you), or the person spoken of or about (the third person, corresponding to he, she, it, or
they). Gender is the form a word takes to indicate whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter(neither
masculine nor feminine).
INCORRECT NUMBER Confucius believed that a man should be trustworthy in words and that
they should make close friends only with those of benevolence.
CORRECT NUMBER Confucius believed that a man should be trustworthy in words and that he
should make close friends only with those of benevolence.
INCORRECT GENDER The bridegroom approached the altar with trepidation but carried herself
with poise and confidence.
CORRECT GENDER The bridegroom approached the altar with trepidation but carried himself with
poise and confidence.
As you edit, check each pronoun to be sure that it refers clearly to its antecedent.
CLEAR REFERENCE Gilgamesh went on a quest for everlasting life because he was afraid of
death.
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CLEAR REFERENCES Zenchi was ashamed of his huge nose; he tried a variety of measures to
shorten A.
Weak reference occurs when a pronoun refers to an antecedent that has not been expressed. If you
find a weak reference while editing your writing, either change the pronoun into a noun or give the pronoun a
clear antecedent.
WEAK REFERENCE Making sausages was a real ritual in which they all had to participate.
PRONOUN CHANGED TO NOUN PHRASE Making sausages was a real ritual in which all the
women in the family had to participate.
WEAK REFERENCE Richard ironed all the clothing and then proceeded to put on one of them.
PRONOUN GIVEN CLEAR ANTECEDENT Richard ironed all the shirts and then proceeded to put
on one of them.
Ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun can refer to either of two antecedents. Clarify ambiguous
references by rewording the sentence or by replacing the pronouns with a noun.
AMBIGUOUS When the explorer finally found the long-lost missionary, he allegedly said, "Doctor
Livingstone, I presume."
CLEAR When the explorer finally found the long-lost missionary, the explorer allegedly said,
"Doctor Livingstone, I presume."
An indefinite reference occurs when the pronouns you, it, or they have no reference to a specific
person or thing. Edit out an indefinite reference by rewording the sentence to explain to whom or what the
pronoun refers, or by eliminating the pronoun altogether.
INDEFINITE REFERENCE The fallen king was mortified to learn that it had been done by a
woman.
PRONOUN ELIMINATED The fallen king was mortified to learn that he had been felled by a
woman.
INDEFINITE REFERENCE In the manual it explained how to change the oil.
PRONOUN ELIMINATED The manual explained how to change the oil.
INDEFINITE REFERENCE They say that laughter helps heal the human body. PRONOUN
REPLACED Researchers say that laughter helps heal the human body.
A general reference occurs when a pronoun refers to a general idea implied in the previous clause,
rather than to a specific antecedent. Edit general references by replacing the pro-noun with a noun or by
rewording the sentence.
GENERAL REFERENCE Project Mercury was a United States space program designed to put a
man in orbit around the earth, which ran from 1961 to 1963.
SENTENCE REWORDED Project Mercury, which ran from 1961 to 1963, was a United States
space program designed to put a man in orbit around the earth.
GENERAL REFERENCE For forty days and nights, rain fell on the land and many people drowned.
This caused severe flooding.
PRONOUN REPLACED AND SENTENCES REWORDED For forty days and nights, rain fell on the
land, causing severe flooding. Many people drowned.
EDITING FOR ERRORS IN MODIFIER USAGE
2.41 ERRORS IN MODIFIER USAGE
When you wish to modify the subject of a linking verb, use an adjective. When you wish to modify an
action verb, use an adverb.
LINKING VERB AND ADJECTIVES My great-grandmother's hair was luminous and pink in the light
of the setting sun.
ACTION VERB AND ADVERB The stars flickered weakly against the vast, black curtain of the sky.
Check whether your use of an adjective or adverb is correct by temporarily replacing the verb you have
written with the verb seem. If the sentence still makes some kind of sense, the original verb is a linking verb
and should take an adjective. If the substitution of seem produces nonsense, the original verb is an action
verb and should take an adverb. You can see how this works by substituting seem in each of the examples
given above.
SUBSTITUTION MAKES SENSE My great-grandmother's hair seemed luminous and pink in the
11
light of the setting sun.
SUBSTITUTION MAKES NO SENSE The stars seemed weakly against the vast, black curtain of
the sky.
Comparison refers to the change in the form of a modifier to show an increase or a decrease in the
quality expressed by the modifier. Each modifier has three forms of comparison: positive, comparative, and
superlative. Most one-syllable modifiers and some two-syllable modifiers form the comparative and
superlative degrees by adding -er and -est. Other two-syllable modifiers, and all modifiers of more than two
syllables, use more and most to form these degrees.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
ADJECTIVES clear clearer clearest
hungry hungrier hungriest
daring more daring most daring
beneficial more beneficial most beneficial
ADVERBS late later latest
seldom more seldom most seldom
fully more fully most fully
pretentiously more pretentiously most pretentiously
To show a decrease in the quality of any modifier, form the comparative and superlative degrees by
using less and least.
EXAMPLES
dense, less dense, least dense
skeptically, less skeptically, least skeptically
Some modifiers form their comparative and superlative degrees irregularly. Check the dictionary if you
are unsure about the comparison of a modifier.
EXAMPLES
good, better, best
well, better, best bad, worse, worst
Use the comparative degree when comparing two things. Use the superlative degree when comparing
more than two things.
COMPARATIVE Santha was the more easily intimidated of the two sisters.
SUPERLATIVE The skin is the largest organ of the human body.
As you edit your writing, check sentences for illogical comparison. Such comparison occurs when one
member of a group is compared with the group of which it is a part. Clarify illogical comparison by including
the word other or else in the sentence.
ILLOGICAL Hydrogen is more abundant than any element in the universe.
LOGICAL Hydrogen is more abundant than any other element in the universe.
Another problem to check for is double comparison. This occurs when two comparative forms or two
superlative forms are used to modify the same word. Correct double comparison by editing out one of the
comparative or superlative forms.
DOUBLE COMPARISON The chandeliers were more fancier than any I had ever seen.
SINGLE COMPARISON The chandeliers were fancier than any I had ever seen.
In English a double negative is a nonstandard construction in which two negative words are used
instead of one. Check your writing to be sure you have not used a negative word such as no, none, not (and
its contraction, –n't), nothing, barely, hardly, or scarcely with any other negative word. If you find a double
negative, change it by deleting one of the negative words.
DOUBLE NEGATIVE She was so shocked she couldn't scarcely speak.
SINGLE NEGATIVE She was so shocked she couldn't speak. SINGLE NEGATIVE She was so
shocked she could scarcely speak.
DOUBLE NEGATIVE The Book of Sand didn't have no beginning or end.
SINGLE NEGATIVE The Book of Sand had no beginning or end.
2.42 ERRORS IN MODIFIER USAGE II
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The demonstrative pronouns this and these are used to refer to things near the speaker. The pronouns
that and those refer to objects at some distance. Thus you might say, "This apple in my hand is poisonous" if
you were referring to an apple you were actually holding, but if you were pointing at an apple in a picture of
yourself, you might say, "That apple in my hand is poisonous." The two pairs of pronouns are often used to
distinguish between objects or sets of objects.
EXAMPLE These papers are to be filed and those are to be shredded.
Check your writing to see that your use of this and these, and that and those makes sense.
NONSENSICAL That sofa here in the living room should go next to this old piano downstairs in the
family room.
SENSIBLE This sofa here in the living room should go next to that old piano downstairs in the
family room.
The pronoun them is a personal pronoun in standard English and should not be substituted for the
demonstrative pronoun those.
NONSTANDARD One would swear them gems were genuine.
STANDARD One would swear those gems were genuine.
Modifiers that often give writers trouble are bad and badly. Check instances of these words in your
writing to make sure you have used bad as an adjective and badly as an adverb. Only the adjective should
follow a linking verb such as feel, sound, look, smell, or taste.
NONSTANDARD Samantha felt badly about her inadvertent breach of confidence.
STANDARD Samantha felt bad about her inadvertent breach of confidence.
Similarly distinguish between good and well. Good is an adjective and should not be used to modify an
action verb. Well, however, can be used either as an adverb meaning "capably" or "in a satisfactory way," or
as an adjective meaning "healthy" or "of a satisfactory condition."
NONSTANDARD Cheri paints landscapes good.
STANDARD Cheri paints good landscapes.
STANDARD Cheri paints landscapes well.
STANDARD However, she does not sculpt well.
STANDARD Yesterday she did not feel good, but today she is looking well.
USAGE HANDBOOK
2.43 USAGE PROBLEMS I
The following sections (2.43–2.45) explain some common problems to watch for as you edit your
writing.
adapt, adopt. Adapt means "to make [something] fit a specific use or situation by modifying"; adopt
means to "take something and make it in some sense one's own."
EXAMPLES
Mrs. Sandburg was devastated to have to leave the home she had grown up in, but she gradually
adapted to living in the nursing home.
The compassionate couple adopted eleven handicapped children.
affect, effect. If you wish to use a verb meaning "have an effect on," use affect. If you wish to use a
noun meaning "the result of an action," use effect.
VERB The book about the Red Cross affected her so deeply that she resolved to become a nurse
herself.
NOUN One of the effects of the earthquake was the creation of huge tsunamis that pounded
coastlines hundreds of miles from the epicenter.
As a verb, effect means to bring something about despite obstacles.
EXAMPLES
The Westport basketball team effected a major upset against Jamesville in the semi-finals.
The defeat affected the Jamesville fans so much that all sat in stunned silence after the final
buzzer.
2.44 USAGE PROBLEMS II
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imply, infer. Most writers accept the following meanings for these words: imply means "to express
indirectly rather than openly"; infer means "to arrive at a conclusion by reasoning from evidence." Although
this distinction between imply and infer has not always been observed, it is a useful one.
EXAMPLES
Daniel's guilty grin implied that he had taken the brownie.
Daniel's mother inferred from his guilty grin that he had taken the brownie.
like, as, as if. Although like is frequently used to introduce subordinate clauses in informal English, it is
considered a preposition, not a conjunction. Do not use it in place of as or as if in your writing.
INFORMAL I feel like I'm being taken for granted.
FORMAL I feel as if I were being taken for granted.
FORMAL I feel like an idiot.
literally. Most writers limit their use of literally to the sense "actually," and avoid using it in the sense
"not actually, but in effect, or for all practical purposes." This distinction, though sometimes ignored, is worth
observing.
CLEAR The sewing machine repair man literally had no fingers on his right hand.
CONFUSING Dad literally raised the roof when he heard that I had smashed the car.
2.45 USAGE PROBLEMS III
of. The preposition of should not be used in place of have after verbs such as could, should, would,
might, must, and ought.
NONSTANDARD You must of taken my keys by mistake.
STANDARD You must have taken my keys by mistake.
STANDARD You must've taken my keys by mistake.
Avoid off of.
NONSTANDARD The parachutists jumped off of the Seattle Space Needle.
STANDARD The parachutists jumped off the Seattle Space Needle.
then, than. Use than as a conjunction in comparisons. Use then as an adverb that tells when
something occurred.
EXAMPLES
Ivan Ilyich was more concerned about his illness than anyone else seemed to be.
First get your chores done, then we'll discuss going to the movies.
MECHANICS HANDBOOK
PROOFREADING FOR PUNCTUATION ERRORS
2.46 USING END MARKS
An end mark signals the end of a sentence. It also shows the purpose of the sentence.
A declarative sentence ends with a period. If a declarative sentence already has a period at the end
because an abbreviation occurs there, no other end mark is needed. If a declarative sentence ends with a
quotation, place the period inside the quotation marks.
DECLARATIVE Chinua Achebe is considered by many to be the greatest living African novelist.
WITH ABBREVIATION AT END Minerva finds inspiration in the words of Martin Luther King, Jr.
WITH QUOTATION AT END God said, "Let there be light."
A question ends with a question mark. Indirect questions, however, do not require a question mark. If a
question ends with an abbreviation, add a question mark after the final period. If a question is quoted, the
question mark appears inside the closing quotation marks; if a question contains a quotation, the question
mark appears outside the closing quotation marks. Polite questions often end with a period instead of a
question mark.
DIRECT QUESTION Who was Omar Khayyam?
ENDING IN ABBREVIATION What were you doing outside at 3 A.M.?
INDIRECT QUESTION Sylvia asked me what I was making.
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QUOTED QUESTION Vasilios asked, "What is the meaning of life?"
QUESTION INCLUDING QUOTATION Did Nick actually say, "I liked the opera"?
POLITE QUESTION Will you please tell me where to find Haddonfield Drive.
An exclamation ends with an exclamation point. If an exclamation is quoted, the exclamation point
appears inside the closing quotation marks; if an exclamation contains a quotation, the exclamation point
appears outside the closing quotation marks. An imperative sentence may end with a period instead of an
exclamation point.
EXCLAMATION Flash! Apollo 13 has landed safely!
QUOTED EXCLAMATION "Stop!" Ian yelled, "You're getting too close to the edge!"
EXCLAMATION CONTAINING QUOTE I can't believe Aaron said, "You're not bad—for a girl"!
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE Let's take the scenic route.
2.47 USING COMMAS
As you proofread your writing, check to see that you have used commas after certain introductory
elements. Such elements include mild exclamations such as yes, no, oh, and well; participial phrases;
prepositional phrases; and adverb clauses.
MILD EXCLAMATION Well, we have nothing to lose.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE Having been expelled from the castle, Candide wandered for a long time,
not knowing where he was going.
TWO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES For the rest of his life, William carried a burden of guilt for what
he had done.
ADVERB CLAUSE When Tartuffe expressed his true intentions, Orgon saw him for the monster he
was.
A comma is also used to set off an element that interrupts a sentence, such as a parenthetical
expression or a word used in direct address.
PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSION She tormented herself, however, wondering if she had done the
right thing.
DIRECT ADDRESS Papa, I am going to marry with a great love for Tita that will never die.
A serial comma is a comma used to separate items in a series, whether the items are words, phrases, or
clauses. Some writers omit the last comma when and, or, or nor joins the last two items in a series, but this
construction sometimes makes a sentence unclear.
WORDS At the ceremony of induction into the knighthood, a knight was given armor, a horse, a
helmet, and a lance.
PHRASES Camus said that Sisyphus's scorn of the gods, his hatred of death, and his passion for
life won him the unspeakable penalty of exerting the whole being toward accomplishing
nothing.
CLAUSES "Time flies, death urges, knells call, heaven invites,/Hell threatens."
—Edward Young
Some paired words may be considered a single item.
PAIRED WORDS Items on the menu include chicken a la king, liver and onions, and beef stew.
If all the items in a series are joined by and, or, or nor, do not separate them with commas.
EXAMPLE The raven ate and flew around and cawed and did not return to the boat.
Two or more adjectives preceding a noun are separated by commas.
EXAMPLE Montaigne wrote of a country in which it was rare to see a sick, palsied, bleary-eyed, or
toothless man.
Use a comma before and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet when they join two independent clauses. The
comma may be omitted before and, but, nor, and or if the clauses are very short and the resulting sentence
is still clear in meaning.
LONG CLAUSE The magpies of New South Wales have a song-like call, while the call of the
kookaburra resembles demonic laughter.
SHORT CLAUSE The pit bull growled and Clarice backed out of his range.
15
Do not use a comma between two parts of a compound verb or compound predicate.
A nonrestrictive participial phrase or clause is one that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the
substantive to which it refers. You can test a phrase or clause when proofreading your writing by seeing if
the main meaning of the sentence is lost if you omit the phrase or clause. If the phrase or clause is indeed
nonrestrictive, make sure it is set off by commas.
RESTRICTIVE The wedding dress that Mary Ellen found in the chest belonged to her greatgrandmother.
NONRESTRICTIVE Mary Ellen's great-grandmother, who came over from Greece when she was
fifteen, married a butcher when she was seventeen.
Appositives and appositive phrases can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive.
RESTRICTIVE The Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus refuted the notion that the earth is the
center of the universe.
NONRESTRICTIVE Nicholas Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, refuted the notion that the earth is
the center of the universe.
2.48 SEMICOLONS AND COLONS
A semicolon is used as punctuation between clauses in several situations. Use a semicolon between
closely related independent clauses that are not joined by and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet.
EXAMPLE The children wanted to know why their mother did not return; they did not understand
that she was dead.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or transitional
expression that is followed by a comma.
EXAMPLE Nelson was hopelessly behind after falling; however, he picked up his bike and finished
the race.
Use a semicolon between linked independent clauses or items in a list if the clauses or items already
contain commas.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES "Be upright in their presence, and they will hold you in respect; be filial
and benevolent, and they will be loyal to you; use the righteous and instruct the
unqualified, and they will try their best in service." —Confucius
LIST OF ITEMS WITH COMMAS Important philosophers of the Enlightenment included Immanuel
Kant, who wrote critiques investigating the limits of human reasoning; John Locke, who
disputed the divine right of kings; and Adam Smith, whose ideas about economics led to
the growth of capitalism.
A colon introduces a long statement or quotation or a list of items.
QUOTATION Tartuffe gave Elmire the oldest line in the book: "Well, if you look with favor upon my
love,/Why, then, begrudge me some clear proof thereof?"
LIST According to the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, these are the names of the first people:
Jaguar Quitze, Jaguar Night, Mahucutah, and True Jaguar.
2.49 DASHES, HYPHENS, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS
A dash is used to show an abrupt break in thought.
EXAMPLE living and speaking like barbarians, excluded—what a catastrophe!—from the Hellenic
way of life. — Cavafy
Sometimes the dash serves in place of such expressions as in other words, that is, or namely.
EXAMPLE The main character in Chinua Achebe's "Marriage is a Private Affair" acts on a shocking
notion—that marriages should be based on love.
A hyphen is used to link words in a compound adjective, adverb, or noun.
EXAMPLES forest-dwelling creatures, ninth-inning grand slam, well-rounded student, first-rate
product, strong-willed woman, three-year-old brat, half-heartedly, even-handedly, selfconfidently, good-naturedly, go-ahead, set-up, rock-bottom, lady-in-waiting
If you have questions about whether you should hyphenate a particular compound word, look it up in
the dictionary. If the dictionary offers no information, consider whether the hyphen is needed to make the
meaning of the sentence clear.
UNCLEAR The thick skinned girl was not perturbed by their criticisms. CLEAR The thick-skinned
girl was not perturbed by their criticisms.
16
Parentheses are used to enclose an aside or information that is less important than the main
information offered in a sentence.
ASIDE Dominic Mazzini (I think you know his brother) played a brilliant violin solo.
LESS IMPORTANT Turn left at the blue house (the one with the picket fence) and go to the top of
the hill.
Brackets are used to enclose a writer's corrections or comments in someone else's quoted material,
and as parentheses within parentheses.
QUOTED MATERIAL "The best-laid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley [often go astray]." —Robert Burns
PARENTHESES WITHIN The article about Gibraltar ("Britain's Precarious Stronghold"
PARENTHESES [National Geographic, November 1996, page 62]) tells of an exciting cave sixty
feet high and more than a hundred feet deep.
2.50 APOSTROPHES
An apostrophe is used to form the possessive of nouns and some—but not all—pronouns. To form the
possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s. If the noun already ends in an s sound, has two
or more syllables, and would be hard to pronounce with an additional s, add only an apostrophe. These
rules apply also to hyphenated words, names of organizations, and indefinite pronouns.
WITH ADDED s boss's office, Pandora's box, everyone else's opinion, Pilgrim's Progress,
Dickens's Oliver Twist, mother-in-law's wig
WITHOUT ADDED S Moses' staff, righteousness' sake, Jesus' teachings
To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only an apostrophe if the plural form ends in s. If the
plural form ends in some other letter, add an apostrophe and an s.
ENDING WITH S four days' journey, ten years' imprisonment, two weeks' pay
ENDING WITHOUT S people's choice, oxen's lowing, dice's spots, geese's formation
While proofreading, check to see that you have not used an apostrophe to form the plural of a noun.
Note also that the possessive pronouns, including yours, ours, hers, and its, do not have an apostrophe.
INCORRECT PLURAL It took six rescuer's to dig out the man buried by the avalanche.
CORRECT PLURAL It took six rescuers to dig out the man buried by the avalanche.
INCORRECT POSSESSIVE By 3 A.M. the game was losing it's appeal.
CORRECT POSSESSIVE By 3 A.M. the game was losing its appeal.
To show joint possession by all people in a group, add 's (or an apostrophe only) to the last word. To
show individual possession of similar items by each member of a group, add 's (or an apostrophe only) to
each noun in the group.
JOINT POSSESSION Fred and Lynn's car is covered with snow and ice.
INDIVIDUAL POSSESSION Fred's and Lynn's cars are covered with snow and ice.
Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of words that refer to time or that indicate amounts in dollars
or cents.
EXAMPLES a day's wages, a moment's notice, ten dollars' worth of rice
2.51 UNDERLINING, ITALICS, AND QUOTATION MARKS IN TITLES
Italics are a type of slanted printing used to show emphasis. (Underlining is used instead of italics in
handwritten documents or in forms of printing in which italics are not available.) The following examples
show the categories of words that should receive italics (underlining) for emphasis.
WORKS OF ART Wyeth's Christina's World, Raphael's The School of Athens, Michelangelo's Pieta
BOOKS, PLAYS Pasternak's Doctor Zhivago, Ibsen's Hedda Gabler
FILMS, TELEVISION PROGRAMS Casablanca, I Love Lucy
PERIODICALS Herald-American, The Saturday Evening Post
AIRCRAFT, SHIPS, SPACECRAFT, TRAINS Gossamer Albatross, Andrea Doria, Columbia, Tom
Thumb
Italicize the titles of long musical compositions unless they are merely the names of musical forms
such as fantasy, symphony, concerto, sonata, and nocturne. The titles of short pieces such as songs should
be placed in quotation marks.
17
SHORT MUSICAL COMPOSITION Irving Berlin's "White Christmas"
LONG MUSICAL COMPOSITION Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto
No. 2
As you proof your writing, check for words used as words, letters used as letters, and words from
foreign languages. These should all be in italics (or underlined).
EXAMPLES
The word zing is an example of onomatopoeia.
Pelicans fly in single file, while ducks and geese fly in a V
The selling of our house is a fait accompli—something that has already been done.
Quotation marks are used to enclose titles of short works.
PARTS OF BOOKS Part One: "The Solar System"
SONGS "Auld Lang Syne"
SHORT POEMS "Penelope's Despair"
STORIES "The Bet"
ESSAYS, ARTICLES "The Myth of Sisyphus"
2.52 OTHER USES OF QUOTATION MARKS
Quotation marks are used to enclose a direct quotation, or a person's exact words. They are not used
to enclose an indirect quotation, which is a reworded version of a person's words. Commas and periods that
follow a quotation should be placed inside closing quotation marks; colons and semicolons should be placed
outside. Do not, however, use a period to separate a direct quotation from the rest of a sentence.
DIRECT "I must stand on my own feet if I am to find out the truth about myself and about life."
DIRECT WITH PERIOD The book of Proverbs says that a good name is "more desirable than great
riches."
DIRECT WITH COMMA "Tis held that sorrow makes us wise," affirmed Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
DIRECT WITH SEMICOLON Achilles burst out in despair, "Let me die at once"; his own death
seemed preferable to living with his grief.
INDIRECT Yevgeny Yevtushenko said that his descendants would remember with bitter shame
those times when people referred to simple honesty as fearlessness.
When writing dialogue, a conversation between speakers, begin a new paragraph each time the
speaker changes, and enclose each speaker's words in quotation marks. When an indication of the speaker,
such as she said, divides a sentence into two parts, the second part begins with a small letter.
EXAMPLES
Said the jinnee sarcastically, "Fisherman, I bring you good news."
"What news?" asked the old man.
"News of your death, horrible and prompt!" replied the jinnee... .
"Be brief, then, I pray you," said the fisherman, "for you have wrung my soul with terror."
—from The Thousand and One Nights
Single quotation marks are used to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
EXAMPLE Francesca admitted, "I was thinking only of myself, but then I remembered Confucius'
admonition that we should not worry 'about being misunderstood but about understanding
others."'
2.53 ELLIPSIS IN QUOTATIONS
Ellipsis points are used to indicate an ellipsis, or omission, in quoted material. Use three ellipsis points
(with a space before the first point) if the quoted material that precedes the omission is not a complete
sentence; if it is a complete sentence, keep the end mark and add the ellipsis points.
COMPLETE SENTENCE BEFORE OMISSION "Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent a new nation.... Now we are engaged in a great civil war."
INCOMPLETE SENTENCE BEFORE OMISSION "[Me here highly resolve ... that this nation, under
God, shall have a new birth of freedom."
Ellipsis points are also used in much the same way to show a pause in a written passage.
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EXAMPLE "Help me carry ... oh, never mind, I can do it."
PROOFREADING FOR ERRORS IN CAPITALIZATION
2.54 ASTRONOMICAL TERMS, TIME, DAYS, MONTHS, YEARS, HOLIDAYS, EVENTS, AND PERIODS
Capitalize the names of astronomical bodies such as planets, stars, and constellations.
EXAMPLES Mercury, Saturn, Sirius, Vega, Cassiopeia, Orion, Andromeda, Large Magellanic
Cloud
Do not capitalize units of time such as the words second, minute, hour, day, year, decade, century, or
the names of the seasons.
EXAMPLES
In the second year of King Darius, on the first day of the sixth month, the prophet Haggai spoke to
the people of Israel.
Miranda looks best in autumn colors, while Shari comes alive in winter colors.
Capitalize the names of days, months, and holidays.
EXAMPLES Wednesday, Friday, January, August, Independence Day, Thanksgiving
Do not capitalize references to decades or centuries.
EXAMPLES the twenties, the fifth century
Capitalize historical events, special events, and recognized periods of time.
HISTORICAL EVENTS Peloponnesian Wars, Spanish Inquisition, American Revolution
SPECIAL EVENTS Stanley Cup, Earth Day, World Series
HISTORICAL PERIODS Mesozoic Era, Renaissance, Industrial Age
2.55 NAMES, TITLES OF PERSONS, OCCUPATIONS, AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
Capitalize the names of persons and titles of address such as Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, Madame, or
Monsieur-when used in addressing a person or before a name.
EXAMPLES Laura Unsworth, Ms. Hughes, Franz Kafka, Dr. Jenner
Check a reference book if you are unsure about the capitalization of de la, du, van, von, and other
parts of names. Sometimes the part of a name that follows Mc– or Mac– is capitalized and sometimes it is
not.
EXAMPLES Vasco da Gama, Cecil B. De Mille, Robert De Niro, Fiorello La Guardia, Louis
L'Amour, John le Carre, Douglas MacArthur, Harold Macmillan, Paul McCartney, James
Van Allen, Vincent van Gogh, Wernher von Braun
Capitalize official titles of persons when they immediately precede a person's name, used as part of
the name, or when they are used instead of a name or as a name in direct address.
EXAMPLES King George, President Hoover, General Grant, Pope Pius 0 King, grant us mercy!
Do not capitalize references to occupations.
EXAMPLES the dentist, the editor, the engineer, the professor, the banker, the painter
Capitalize the names of family relationships used as titles unless they are preceded by a modifier.
MODIFIED your sister, my dad, Yvonne's aunt
NOT MODIFIED We painted Grandma's house last weekend.
If the name of a family relationship precedes a proper name, capitalize it even if it is modified.
EXAMPLES Aunt Madeline, old Uncle Alf
2.56 DIRECTIONS, REGIONS, PLACE NAMES, ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS, BRAND AND
TRADE NAMES, BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES, AND VEHICLES
Capitalize the names of commonly recognized geographical regions.
EXAMPLES North Pole, Pacific Basin, Southeast Asia, Arctic
Do not capitalize words such as east, west, north, and south when they are used only to indicate
direction.
EXAMPLES
Poughkeepsie is north of New York City on the Hudson River.
19
The South suffered great devastation in the American Civil War.
The adjectives eastern, western, northern, and southern are not capitalized when they are used as
temporary designations.
TEMPORARY eastern Australia, southern India, western Pennsylvania
STANDARD Northern Ireland, Western Europe, Southern California
Capitalize the names of places. Capitalize any term such as lake, mountain, river, or valley if it is used
as part of a name.
BODIES OF WATER Rio Grande, Lake Louise, Arctic Ocean
CITIES AND TOWNS Athens, Mexico City, Kigali
COUNTIES Marin County, Cayuga County, Middlesex County
COUNTRIES Malaysia, Ecuador, Republic of the Sudan
ISLANDS Java, Honshu, Isle of Wight
MOUNTAINS Mount Huascaran, Pike's Peak, Pindus Mountains
STATES Montana, Delaware, Oklahoma
STREETS AND HIGHWAYS New Jersey Turnpike, Erie Boulevard, Pennsylvania Avenue
Do not capitalize generic terms for places without specific modifiers.
EXAMPLES
There was a multi-vehicle collision on the turnpike.
The still lake perfectly mirrored the snow-capped mountains.
Capitalize the names of organizations and institutions, whether they are public, private, athletic,
business, or government bodies.
PUBLIC Smithsonian Institution, Ohio State University, Niagara Mohawk Power
PRIVATE Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, National Wildlife Federation
ATHLETIC Miami Heat, New York Rangers, Los Angeles Dodgers
BUSINESS General Electric, Eastman Kodak, Metropolitan Life
GOVERNMENT Parliament, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Department of
Education
Capitalize the brand names and trademarks of products made by businesses. The dictionary may
indicate if a name is trademarked. Do not capitalize the noun following a trade name that indicates what type
of product it is.
EXAMPLES Gap jeans, Cheerios, Coleman stove
Capitalize the names of important or widely recognized buildings and other structures or monuments.
Capitalize the noun following a building, structure, or monument name that indicates its type.
EXAMPLES Chesapeake Bay Bridge, Fort Sumter, Parthenon, Alhambra, St. Paul's Cathedral,
Bunker Hill Monument, Eiffel Tower, Chrysler Building, Taj Mahal
Contrast the absence of capitalization in the following example of a building that is not widely known:
EXAMPLE The cathedral has massive stained-glass windows, flying buttresses, and grotesque
gargoyles.
Capitalize the names of vehicles only if they are trade names.
EXAMPLES Oldsmobile, Saturn, Miata, Astrovan, minivan, station wagon, cablecar
2.57 FIRST WORDS, INTERJECTIONS, AND THE PRONOUN I
Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
EXAMPLES "The great masses of the people will more easily fall victims to a big lie than to a small
one." —Adolf Hitler
"If winter comes, can spring be far behind?" —Percy Bysshe Shelley
Do not capitalize the interjection oh unless it begins a sentence or stands alone. Do, however,
capitalize the word 0, which is technically not an interjection but a vocative—a word used to call someone.
EXAMPLES
Oh! How I wish it were true.
Oh, no! My camera fell in the water!
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I have . . . oh, about sixteen hours of homework tonight.
"There, there I would go, 0 my beloved, with thee!" —Johann von Goethe
Capitalize the pronoun I wherever it appears, except in quoted material where the pronoun is
lowercased in the original.
EXAMPLES "I leave this rule for others when I'm dead,
Be always sure you're right—then go ahead." —Davy Crockett
"i do excuse me, love, to Death and Time" e. e. cummings
2.58 TITLES OF WORKS OF ART, LITERATURE, AND MUSIC
Apply title capitalization to titles of works of art. In title capitalization, the following are capitalized: the
first word, the last word, all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions.
Articles (a, an, the) are written lowercased unless they are the first or last word. Some writers also capitalize
any preposition over five letters long.
EXAMPLES Botticelli's The Birth of Venus, Rembrandt's Supper at Emmaus, Winslow Homer's The
Coming of the Gale
Apply title capitalization to titles of literary works.
EXAMPLES Thomas's "A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London," Verne's
Around the World in Eighty Days, Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment
Apply title capitalization to titles of musical works.
EXAMPLES "Take Me Out to the Ball Game," Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, Gilbert and
Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance
2.59 QUOTATIONS AND SACRED NAMES
Capitalize the first word of a sentence in a direct quotation even if it begins within the sentence where it
is quoted.
EXAMPLE Margaret Thatcher remarked, "In politics, if you want anything said, ask a man; if you
want anything done, ask a woman."
Do not capitalize a quoted fragment that completes the sense of part of the sentence out-side the
quotation marks.
EXAMPLE In 1604, King James I of England wrote that smoking was "a custom loathsome to the
eye, harmful to the brain, [and] dangerous to the lungs."
Capitalize references to sacred beings or persons, including God, gods, prophets, apostles, and saints.
Some adjectives traditionally linked to such beings and persons are sometimes capitalized as well.
EXAMPLES Jehovah, Messiah, King of Kings, Holy Mary, Ahura Mazda, Dalai Lama, Vishnu
Capitalize the names of sacred writings and parts of such writings.
EXAMPLES Psalms, Septuagint, New Testament, Book of Mormon, Upanishad, Koran
2.60 POETRY, OUTLINES, AND LETTERS
The first word in each line of a poem was capitalized in English until recent times.
EXAMPLE
Now waving grain, wide o'er the plain,
Delights the weary farmer;
And the moon shines bright, when I rove at night,
To muse upon my charmer. —Robert Burns
Most writers since the twentieth century, however, have broken with this tradition.
EXAMPLE
The time will come
when, with elation,
you will greet yourself arriving
at your own door, in your own mirror
and each will smile at the other's welcome. —Derek Walcott
Capitalize the first word of each entry in an outline. Most of the index letters that identify parts of the
outline are also capitalized. The following example is an outline for a report on the Amazon River; observe
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that lowercase letters are used as index letters after the Arabic numeral level.
The Amazing Amazon
I. Description of the Amazon 2. Alexander von Humboldt
A. Location B. Twentieth-century exploration
1. Source 1. Theodore Roosevelt
a. Principal source 2. National Geographic Society
b. Tributaries
2. Course III. People of the Amazon
3. Mouth A. First people of Amazonia
B. Exploitation of people
B. Size
1. Length and volume C. Population of Amazonia today
2. Width and depth IV. Riches of the Amazon
II. Exploration of the Amazon A. Wildlife
A. Early exploration B. Plants
1. Francisco de Orellana C. Natural resources
Capitalize letters used as grades, as musical tones, or as a designation for a person, thing, or location.
EXAMPLES
Getting a C on my term paper brought my average down to B+.
That piece in B minor has an eerie sound.
Going from point A to point B is not as simple as it looks on the map.
2.61 SCHOOL SUBJECTS, CLASSES, GRADES, AND AWARDS
Capitalize a school subject when it is also the name of a language or when it is followed by a number
indicating that it is the name of a specific course.
EXAMPLES German, Sociology 101, science, social studies, algebra
Expressions such as tenth grade, twelfth grade, sophomore, junior, or expressions such as freshman
year, junior year, are not capitalized unless they are part of the title of an official program.
EXAMPLES sophomore English, Senior Seminar
Capitalize the names of awards and prizes. Some words that go with prize names are not capitalized,
however.
EXAMPLES Nobel Prize in chemistry, National Book Award, Life Achievement Award, Grammy
Award, Templeton Prize, Presidential Medal of Freedom
SPELLING HANDBOOK
2.62 PROOFREADING FOR SPELLING ERRORS
After you have checked your writing for other problems, read it through with an eye open for spelling
errors. Even if you have confidence in your spelling, you may make a mistake in keyboarding your work or
writing it out by hand. Of course, the difficulty in detecting errors is that you will tend to see the words as you
meant to write them, rather than as they really stand on the page. Professional proofreaders have a helpful
technique: they read the text backwards word by word. If you come across a word that causes the slightest
doubt, check it in the dictionary.
2.63 USING SPELLING RULES
Many spelling problems arise from a common operation: forming plurals. Form the plurals of most
nouns by simply adding s. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant have plurals ending in es, as
do nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh.
EXAMPLES signs, decisions, gardens, trumpets, principles heroes, potatoes, vetoes dresses,
taxes, adzes, branches, flashes
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The plurals of words ending in o preceded by a vowel are formed by adding s. The plurals of most
musical terms ending in o are also formed by adding s.
EXAMPLES radios, studios, rodeos, oratorios, trios, altos, cellos, arpeggios
Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel by adding s. (The vowels are the letters a,
e, i, o, u. Sometimes the letter y also represents a vowel sound.)
EXAMPLES rays, donkeys, buoys, guys
Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant by changing the y to i and adding es.
(The consonants are all the letters that are not vowels.)
EXAMPLES authorities, countries, spies, centuries The plurals of some nouns are irregular.
EXAMPLES mouse—mice, goose—geese, woman—women, phenomenon—phenomena
Form the plural of a compound noun consisting of a noun and a modifier by making the main noun
component plural.
EXAMPLES ladies-in-waiting, sisters-in-law, maids of honor, Secretaries of State
Another operation that causes spelling errors is adding prefixes or suffixes to a word. A prefix is a letter
or a group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. When adding a prefix to a
word, do not change the word itself.
EXAMPLES extra + curricular = extracurricular super + natural = supernatural
A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to change its meaning. The spelling of
most words is not changed when the suffix –ness or –ly is added.
EXAMPLES author + ship = authorship help + ful = helpful
In the case of many words of more than one syllable ending in y, however, change the y to i before
adding –ly or ness.
EXAMPLES silly + ness = silliness happy + ly = happily
In most cases of words ending in a final silent e, drop the e when adding a suffix beginning with a
vowel, and keep the e when adding a suffix beginning with a consonant.
EXAMPLES
like + able = likable care + ful = careful
serve + ant = servant shame + less = shameless
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