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Chapter II
How to Get the Meaning of Unfamiliar Words
Words or vocabulary is considered a vital factor that influences effective
reading, being able to read accurately and efficiently and to understand as much of the
passage as you need to achieve your purpose. Comprehension failure could be a simple
matter of not knowing the meaning of a word or a failure in specific reading skills.
This chapter will provide readers some techniques to get the meaning of unfamiliar
words. There are three possible ways to learn the meaning of unfamiliar word:
1. Using different kinds of context clues;
2. Using what you know of word stems and word formation;
3. Looking up the word in a dictionary (if the other two mentioned techniques
are not possible)
Guessing Word Meaning from Context
Context refers to the words surrounding an unfamiliar word. These
surrounding words provide clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Using context
clues to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words helps the reader save time since
the reader doesn't have to look the word up in the dictionary and give the reader a good
sense of how a word is actually used. Context may include the whole sentence,
paragraph, situation, chapter, or even the entire book in which the strange word
appears (Barnett, 1988).
Clues are hints or things that suggest the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
Clues the writer uses to clarify the meaning of an unfamiliar word are as follows:
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1. Situations refer to the consideration what happen or will happen in that
situation and condition. The simple way for this technique is to find out some key
words that can indicate the action in the sentence.
Examples :
1.1 She walks briskly to class so that she wouldn’t be late.
a. slowly
b. quickly
c. fortunately
d. comfortably
The situation is that she doesn’t want to be late for class. How should
she walk? The answer will be that she has to walk quickly. Thus, briskly means
quickly.
1.2 During the winter, having to take a cold shower makes me shiver all
over.
a. sleep
b. shake
c. cry
d. warm
The key word is the winter and the situation is to take a cold shower.
We can infer that shiver means shake. When we take a cold shower in the winter it
will make us shake all over.
1.3 We offered our condolence to the unhappy woman when her husband
died.
a. congratulation
b. happiness
c. gladness
d. sympathy
The situation is her husband died and the key word is unhappy
woman. The question is what we should offer when someone feels unhappy because
her husband died. Naturally we will offer her sympathy. So we can guess that
condolence means sympathy.
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2. Repetition is the occurrence of using words which have occurred before.
There are several kinds of repetition where words or certain phrases are repeated for a
stronger emphasis by the author and they refer to the meaning of aforementioned
words.
Examples :
2.1 He’s such a mournful person that just being around him makes me sad,
too.
a. happy
b. sad
c. glad
d. big
The above sentence the clue is being around him makes me sad that
can lead us to know the meaning of “mournful” because the author use sad as
repetition of word meaning. So we can guess that mournful means sad.
2.2 Many ships have vanished during hurricanes. All crews have
disappeared and have never been found.
a. disappeared
b. broke
c. threw
d. appeared
From the sentence the hint is have never been found that can guide us to
guess that vanished means disappeared.
2.3 Students! Students! Please stop chattering and listen to me. Class has
begun so you cannot enjoy talking.
a. clapping
b. playing
c. talking
d. going
In this sentence the clue is Class has begun so you cannot enjoy talking
that can hint us to know that chattering is the same meaning as talking. The author use
repetition of word meaning.
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3. Contrast is the opposition or dissimilarity of things that are compared; "in
contrast to", "by contrast" an author writes contrast when he or she describes the
difference(s) between two or more entities. The following examples describe using
contrast to get the meaning of a new word.
Examples :
3.1 One plate of rice usually suffices for me, but one plate isn’t enough for
my husband.
a. much
b. enough
c. a little
d. a few
The key word that can hint us know that suffices means enough is but
that show the contrast of the two clauses.
3.2 My library at home is quite sparse; the central library, however, has a
lot of books.
a. large
b. full
c. few in number
d. interesting
From the above the correct answer is few in number. The key word that
let us know the meaning of sparse is however and a lot of that show the opposition of
the first clause.
3.3 While Drew is popular and …………… , Ben would rather stay at
home alone, enjoying a good book.
a. noisy
b. uneducated
c. sociable
d. reserved
The appropriate word that fit the blank is sociable because the clue that
shows the contrast of the two clauses are popular and stay at home alone, enjoying a
good book. These make us choose sociable as the correct answer.
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4. Examples is another clue that make us get the meaning of a new word.
Sometimes the author tries to help the reader get the right concept of their writing so
they give some examples for their explanation. We can look at examples or look at
words around that word which help to explain its meaning in the context.
Examples:
4.1 The street is crowded with conveyances of all descriptions, such as
buses, bicycles, cars and automobiles.
a. transportation
b. bus terminal
c. convenience
d. comfort
From the sentence we can guess the meaning of conveyances by
looking at the Examples—buses, bicycles, cars and automobiles—so we know that
conveyances are means of transportation.
4.2 Iran is trying to restore many of its ancient buildings. For example,
Persepolis—Iran’s oldest building---is being partially rebuilt by a group of Italian
experts.
a. destroyed
b. partially rebuilt
c. ruined
d. wiped up
From the sentence we can guess the meaning of restore by looking at
the Examples --- Persepolis— Iran’s oldest building and also use the repetition
technique for guessing the meaning of restore. So we know that restore is a mean of
partially rebuilt.
4.3 Although the rigors of the job were great--for example, the long hours,
the lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures outdoors-George didn’t complain because the pay was good.
a. good results
b. difficult conditions
c. sleeplessness
d. healthfulness
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We can guess the meaning of rigors by looking at the Examples --- the
long hours, the lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures
outdoors. All situations as examples show us difficult conditions so we can guess that
rigors are means of difficult conditions.
5. Typographical Clues such as, are the art and techniques the author uses
for presentation of text in a manner. Usage of typographical signs, notably punctuation
marks, parentheses (
) or dashes --- and various elements of layout can help us not
only easy to read but also visually engaging and hint us the meaning of new words.
Examples:
5.1 Some ancient European families used the unicorn (in old stories, a
horse – like creature with one long horn) for their symbol.
From the sentence we can guess that unicorn means a horse - like
creature with one long horn because words or phrases in parentheses is the
explanation of a word in front.
5.2 Many scientists are now studying bionics --the field of science which
uses information about the functioning of biological systems to help solve engineering
problems.
The same reasons as 5.1 we know bionics means the field of science
which uses information about the functioning of biological systems to help solve
engineering problems because words or phrases that come after dash are usually also
the explanation of the word in front.
5.3 The number of climbers, tourists and trekkers (people who are
interested in long distance walking) in Nepal has now reached one million a year.
From the sentence we easily know that trekkers mean people who are
interested in long distance walking by using typographical clue technique to get the
meaning of trekkers.
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6. Definition refers to a concise explanation of the meaning of a word or
phrase or symbol that the authors use for writings.
Examples:
6.1 Mah Jong and Chi Far are popular games in Hong Kong. Chi Far is a
Chinese numbers game played mostly by maids and working class housewives.
From the two sentences we know that Chi Far means a Chinese
numbers game played mostly by maids and working class housewives because the
writer already tell us the meaning of Chi Far by telling its definition. Saying that Chi
Far is……………
6.2 I need a file for my work because it is needed to rub the rust out. A file
is an instrument used for rubbing something to be a good shape.
Similar to 6.1 the writer also tells us the meaning of Chi Far by telling
its definition. Saying that a file is……………Why do some writers tell us the definition
of words they used? It may be because they don’t want us to misunderstand. English
word has more than a single meaning. Even though we can know the meaning from a
dictionary but it will take time and it is not sure that we can take the right meaning to
the text we read. The easy way to help us the writer gives the definition of words in the
text they wrote.
7. Explanation refers to a statement that makes something comprehensible by
describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc.
Look at the following sentence.
Most domestic dogs are smart.
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We can’t guess the meaning of domestic because there is not enough
information. Domestic could mean, for example: either wild or hunting or tame. To get
more information we have to continue reading.
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Most domestic dogs are smart. They can be trained for hunting.
Now the first definition —wild— is improbable because of the second
sentence. But we are still unsure whether domestic means hunting or tame.
Read the following paragraph.
Most domestic dogs are smart. They can be trained for hunting. They can
also be taught to be watchdogs or guide-dogs for blind people.
Now we can be fairly sure that domestic means tame in this context
because of the information given in the last sentence; it helps to explain the meaning of
domestic. More information gives us a more detailed explanation. A more detailed
explanation will help us to make a better guess at the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
8. Appositive is a noun or noun phrase which explains or renames a noun
which comes immediately before it. The writer uses a noun or noun phrase to modify
another noun that come before it. The symbol the writer uses as appositive to describe
a noun that lead us to know the meaning of an unfamiliar word is comma ( , ). We can
guess that words or phrases which are between the two commas are the meanings of
words in front it.
Example:
The nucleus of an atom, the center part which contains protons and
neutrons, is the part with which scientists do most of their work.
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By using the appositive we know that Nucleus means the center part
which contains protons and neutrons.
9. Lexical Cohesion The act, process, or condition of cohering: the linguistic
elements that make a discourse semantically coherent.
Example:
This red rose is a very beautiful flower.
Red rose means flower.
10. Similarity
Look at the following sentences.
A cat may look big to a mouse. In the same way, a mouse probably looks
monstrous to an insect.
If we don’t know what monstrous means, we can learn its meaning by
looking at the words around that word. Here the writer is comparing the sizes of a cat
and a mouse. He is also comparing the sizes of a mouse and an insect. Monstrous is
thus similar to big because the author uses the phrase in the same way. Therefore, we
know that monstrous means very large or huge.
Self Practice 2.1: In the following sentences, choose the most appropriate
meaning of words that would fit each blank .
1. Be careful with this knife-- its edge is so keen that you can shave with it.
a. long
b. wide
c. sharp
d. clear
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2. The students are continually perplexed by the professor’s actions. For
example, last week he promised that there would be no quiz and he gave one; then he
said he wouldn’t grade it but he did anyway and gave all the students Fs.
a. confused
b. happy
c. uninterested
d. patient
3. Although the rigors of the job were great--for example, the long hours, the
lifting of heavy loads, the very hot and then very cold temperatures outdoors--George
didn’t complain because the pay was good.
a. good results
b. difficult conditions
c. sleeplessness
d. healthfulness
4. The girl always prevaricated when she was caught in the act of cheating
and didn’t want the truth to be known.
a. ate a lot
b. cried
c. lied
d. laughed
5. She had a lesion on her arm that would not stop bleeding.
a. bracelet
b. headache
c. birthmark
d. wound
6. He is a prestidigitator who entertained children by pulling rabbits out of his
hat, swallowing fire, and other similar tricks.
a. magician
b. singer
c. lawyer
d. teacher
7. The mother showed her wrath at what the child had done by screaming at
him and hit him.
a. pleasure
b. anger
c. surprise
d. sadness
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8. When asked to serve as a chairman, Pual________stating that he did not
feel capable of performing the duties of the office.
a. objected
b. accepted
c. wept
d. Rejoiced
9. Although measles is thought to be harmless childhood disease, it is
more___________than most people realized.
a. permanent
b. widespread
c. exciting
d. harmful
10. Not all funerals have to be____________occasions; in New Orleans,
relatives of the dead person often dance to a jazz procession while carrying the coffin
to the cemetery.
a. enjoyable
b. happy
c. solemn
d. angry
11. In most colleges, at least one course in English is______, required, for
degree.
a. optional
b. compulsory
c. suggested
d. desirable
12. In order to ______ a message by telephone there must be a wire
connecting the telephones of the sender and the receiver of the message.
a. take
b. bring
c. transmit
d. carry
13. The claim that Mr. Soontorn failed the test was ______ because the
professor gave him an A for the course.
a. unlikely
b. unjustified
c. unusual
d. uncommon
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14. Joe Blow only had a very______ knowledge of Thai law, and thus was not
able to explain to the student why they were not able to travel to Europe without a
passport.
a. extensive
b. great
c. significant
d. superficial
15. Dictionaries became_________after the passage of the time because
language changes continuously with new words being added, old words being
discarded and meanings of words changing.
a. old
b. changed
c. outdated
d. useless
Self Practice 2.2: Define the italic words in the following sentences by noting
their context, and indicate what the clues are:
Example; His schedule was hectic, but he managed to go out for
basketball.
A: Meaning : hasty / confusing / busy
B: Clue : Contrast (but)
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1. The prisoner was harassed---annoyed continually----by the jailers.
A: Meaning :_____________________________
B: Clue
:_____________________________
2. After the foundation walls are completed, the floor structure is begun by
setting in place the joints, a series of long, wooden, steel or concrete beams that
support the floor.
A: Meaning :_____________________________
B: Clue
:_____________________________
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3. Although Harry is usually inept at sports, he surprised the coach and won
the race.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
4. She is susceptible to the ideas of others. She believes most everything
anyone tells her.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
5. There is a great variety of reptiles found in Thailand----for example, many
types of snakes, lizards, crocodiles, turtles, ect.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
6. The increasing number of nosocomial infections in American hospitals is
causing great concern. Nosocomial infections are infections which patients get inside
the hospital.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
7. Decubitus ulcers, or bed sores, have for centuries caused a lot of trouble to
patients and have resisted the efforts of doctors to cure them.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
8. The torrential rains during the rainy season in Thailand sometimes cause
floods and damage to property.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
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9. The number of climbers, tourists and trekkers (people who are interested in
long distance walking) in Nepal has now reached one million a year.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
10. Recent years have seen increased use of air structures, that is, closed
containers of soft material that become hard when fill with air.
A: Meaning :____________________________
B: Clue
:____________________________
Guessing Meaning from the Formation of Words
Words not derived or compounded or developed from other words are called
Simple or Primary Words (stem). They belong to the original stock of words in the
language; as moon, take, bare, man
From these Simple or Primary Words are formed other words. They are of two
kinds :1. Compound Words
A compound word is a combination of two or more words used to express a
single concept. Consistency in the treatment of compounds is always difficult. There
are wide variations in acceptable style, and the rules that do exist sometimes conflict or
overlap. More important than absolute consistency in the formation of compounds is
the union or separation of the elements so that terms can be easily read, understood,
and pronounced. Look at Table 2.1 that shows some examples of compound words.
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Table 2.1 Some examples of compound words
Primary word
Compound word
news
Newsstand, newspaper
flower
Flower petal, flowerpot
pig
Pigtail, pigpen,
sand
Sandpaper, sandstorm
lady
Ladybug, ladyfinger
thumb
Thumbtack, thumbprint, thumbnail
copper
copperhead
eye
Eyebrow, eyelid
bed
Bedrock, bedtime
hand
Handbag, handshake
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2. Derived Words or Derivatives
Derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for
example, by adding a derivational affix. It is a kind of word formation or it is the
process by which words are formed from existing words or bases by adding affixes, as
singer from sing or undo from do, by changing the shape of the word or base, as song
from sing, or by adding an affix and changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as
electricity from electric. They are formed;
1. by making some changes in the body of the Primary Words; as
bond is derived from bind,
feed is derived from food,
song is derived from sing.
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2. by adding something to the beginning or the end of the Primary
Words; as,
unkind is derived from kind,
reclaim is derived from claim,
manhood is derived from man
fortunate is derived from fortune.
kindness is derived from kind.
joyful is derived from joy.
amazement is derived from amaze.
speaker is derived from speak.
national is derived from nation.
3. Stem
A stem, in linguistics, is the combination of the basic form of a word or it is
part of a word which remains the same, while combining with different ending. Look
at Table 2.2 that shows some example of word stems.
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Table 2.2 Some Common Stems
Stem
Meaning
-anthro-,man
enthropo-archrule; chief
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-aster-; -astro-; star
-stellarStem
Meaning
-audi-,-audit- Hear
Examples
anthropoid (of animal - like a man)
patriarch (the father and ruler of a family
or tribe)
astronomy (the scientific study of the sun,
moon, stars and other heavenly bodies)
Example
audible (able to be heard)
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Table 2.2 (Continued)
-chrontime
-corpbody
-dictsay, speak
-duclead
-gammarriage
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chronic (continuing a long time)
corpus (a body of writing)
diction (style of speaking or writing)
bring induce (to lead on; to persuade)
polygamy (the practice of having many or
several marriage partners)
-geoearth
geography (the science dealing with the
earth and its life)
-graphwrite
phonograph (a sound-producing machine
using records)
-hydr-, -hydro- water
hydrophobia (fear of water; rabies)
-lithstone
lithoid (stone-like)
-man-, -manu- hand
manufacture (to make by hand or machinery)
-mitsend; let go
emit (to send forth)
-mortdeath
mortal (causing death)
-onymname
antonym (a word opposite in meaning
to another)
-pathyfeeling; suffering sympathy (harmony in feeling; compassion)
-phillove
philosophy (the study of language;
love of speech)
Stem
Meaning
Example
-ped-, -podfoot
centipede (a small animal with many legs)
-polisCity
metropolis (a chief city or capital city of
a country)
-port-portporter (one who carries luggage)
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Table 2.2 (Continued)
-chrontime
chronic (continuing a long time)
-pon-, -pooput; place
postpone (to put off to later time)
-posestate; offer for propose (put forward for consideration)
consideration
-psychmind
psychologist (one who studies mental
processes and behavior)
-scopeinstrument for chronoscope (an instrument to measure
seeing
or small period of time)
observing
-scrib-, -script- write
inscribe (to write or engrave words)
-spectlook at
inspect (to look over carefully)
-spirbreathe
respire (to breathe)
-sophwise
sophisticated (worldly-wise)
-theo-, -thegod
theology (study one God and of God’s
relationship with man)
-vertrue
veritable (real; rightly named)
-voc-, -vokcall
vocalist (a singer)
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4. Affixes
Affixes are a group of letters added to the beginning of a word (in the case
of a prefix) or the end of a word (in the case of suffix) to change its meaning or its use.
(Anderson,1986).
4.1 Prefixes
Prefix is an affix which is placed at the beginning of a word or an affix
stem. (Crystal, 1980) or it is a group of letters that comes before the base form of a
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word. A prefix changes the meaning of words. Knowing the meaning of common prefix
helps us in two important ways. First, it helps us built our vocabulary and quickly guess
the meaning of unknown words in a reading, especially if we are unfamiliar with the
root. Second, knowing how prefixes are used with words can also make our writing
clearer and more precise. Table 2.3 shows some example of common prefixes.
Table 2.3 Some examples of English derivational prefixes:
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
a(n)not, without
atonality, amoral, anarchy, anonymous, atypical
abaway
abduction, absolutism, ablution
acr(o)- high, up, hill
acropolis, acrobatics
adnear, at
adrenal
aden(o)- gland
adenectomy
aer(o)- air
aeronautics, aerodrome, aeroplane, aerodynamics
agr(o)- relating to farming
agriculture
althigh
altitude
alteranother
Alter-ego, alternate
amlove
amorous, amateur
ambiaround, either, encircling ambiguity, ambidexterity, Ambisagrus
an(a)out of
anachronism
andrman
androgyny, androcentrism, android, androgen
anemwind
anemometer
Anglo- English or British
Anglo-Irish relations
antebefore
antebellum
anthropo- relating to human beings anthropology, anthropocentrism, anthropomorphic
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Table 2.3 (Continued)
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Prefix
ant(i)aut(o)bar(o)bathybe-
Meaning
Examples
against; opposite antidote, antibody, antisocial
self
autonomy, autobiography, automobile, autopilot
heaviness, heavy barometer
deep
Bathyscaphe, Bathysphere
completely,
bemuse, bespeak, bewail
excessively; forms
transitive verbs
benwell
Benediction, benign
bitwo
bicycle, bijection, bicameralism, bisexual
bi(o)life
biology, biography, biopsy
bibli(o)- relating to books bibliophilia, bibliography
blast(o)- bud, germination blastocyst
bradyslow
bradycardia
brom(o)- Stench
Bromine, bromide
bronch(o)- relating to breathing bronchitis
cac(o)bad
cacophony, cacography
cad/cas- a fall
cadence, cascade
carcin(o)- relating to cancer carcinogenic
cardi(o)- heart
cardiovascular, Cardiac arrest
hundred
or
cent-, centicentenarian, centimeter, centipede
hundredth
cephal(o)- head
cephalothorax
chrom(ato)- colour
chromatic, chromosome
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Table 2.3 (Continued)
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Prefix
chron(o)circumcocolpoconcontrcosm(o)countercrin(o)cryocrypt(o)cyt(o)HT
Meaning
TH
time
around
with; together
vagina
with, together
against, opposite
world
against, opposite
cry(shed tears)
frost, icy cold
hidden
cell (originally
hollow receptacle)
culpfault
dactyl(o)- finger, digit
detaking something
away, the opposite
dec(a)-, ten
dek(a)decione tenth
dem(o)- people
derm(at)- skin
ditwo, double
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Examples
chronology, chronic, chronicle
circumcision, circumlocution, circumference
cooperative, co-belligerence, co-worker
colpospasm
connotation, Congress, congregation
contradiction, contraception, controversy
cosmology, cosmopolitan, cosmotheism
counterpoint, Counter-Reformation, contraception
endocrinology
cryogenics, cryoelectronics, cryostorage
cryptography, cryptozoology
cytoplasm, cytology
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culpable, culprit
dactylogram
decentralisation, dehydration, Denazification, degrade
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decamerous, December, decimeter
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deciliter
demographics, democracy
dermatology, dermatitis
dichromic
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Table 2.3 (Continued)
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HT
Meaning
TH
day
Through
apt at teaching
apart, separation,
reverse, opposite, not
dok, dox(o)- view, teaching
doxology, dogma, orthodox
dynam(o)- power, force
dynamic, dynamite, dynamo
dysbad, deformed,
dyspepsia, dystrophy, dysarthria
abnormal
ecohouse
economy, ecology, ecosystem, ecotage
ectoouter, external
ectomorphic, ectoparasite
edaph(o)- soil
edaphic
relating
to
electr(o)electrocution, electroencephalogram
Electricity
embry(o)- embryo
embryogenesis
ento make ~ (transitive enrage, enlarge
verb)
end(o)-, inside
endoscope, endothermic, entoblast
ent(o)enne(a)- nine
enneastyle, enneagram
enter(o)- intestine
enteritis
earliest, most
eoeobacterium, eohippus
primitive
HT
didiadidact(o)dis-
Examples
diurnal
diameter, diagnosis, diarrhea
didactic
dissent, discovery, disambiguation, disconnected
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
53
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
ep(i)-, epherg(o)erythr(o)erot(o)ethnoeuEuroexexoextraHT
HT
TH
TH
florforegeoglossogynhemihemoheter(o)hex(a)hom(o)hydro-
Meaning
Examples
upon, above, around epitaxy, epicenter, ephemeral
work, labour
ergonomics synergy, energy
Red
erythrocite
love
erotic, erotomania
race, people
ethnology, ethnolinguistics, ethnocentrism
good
eulogy, euthanasia, eugenics, euphemism
European
Euro-MP, Eurocentric
former
ex-wife, ex-president
outside
exoskeleton
outside, beyond, extra-thin, extra-special extraordinary, extraterrestrial
additional
relating to flowers florist
before, in advance foreskin, foreshadowing
earth
geography, geology
language
glossogeny, glossogony, glossolalia
female
gynaecology, gynoid
half
hemimetabolous, hemisphere
blood
hemophilia, hemophobia
different
heterogenous, heterosexual
six
hexapod, hexagonal, hexameter
same
homogenous, homosexual
water
hydrogen, hydry
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
54
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
hyperexcessive, over, hyperactive, hyperthyroidism, hypertension
beyond
hyp(o)- below , under
hypodermic, hypnosis
inintensively
inflammable, invaluable
innot
infallibility, illiteracy, immoral, irrelevant
interbetween, mutual intervention, international, internet
intrawithin
intramural, intravenous, intraocular
kilothousand
kilogram, kilowatt
Lithorock
lithosphere
LusoPortuguese
lusophone
Mac- or "son of" (often used McCarthy, Kirsty MacColl
Mcin last names)
macrolarge
macrobiology, macroscopic
malbad
malpractice, malnutrition
maximany ,most
maximal, maximum
McDonalds-like,
McMcJob, McPaper (See McWords)
often derogatory
megamillion, very large megabyte, megaphone, megalopolis
mesomiddle
mesoamerica, mesoscale
metaafter, beyond
metacarpal, metaphysics
microone millionth, very microgram, microorganism, micronation
small
midin the middle of mid-term elections, Mid-Autumn Festival
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
55
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
milliminimismon(o)multimycomyri(a)nonnonO'HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
Meaning
thousandth
small
bad, wrong
one, single
many
relating to fungi
Ten thousand
not
nine
(son) of (often used
in last names)
eight
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
oct(o)-,
oct(a)omniall
oo- ("oo - egg, ovum
oh")
outmore, to a greater
degree
over- (noun) more than normal,
too much
over- (verb) to do too much, to
(verb) over
pent(a)- five
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
octane, octopod, octagon, October
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
omnidirectional, omnivore, omnipotent
oocyte
HT
HT
TH
TH
outdo, outrun
overpopulation, over-consumption, overlord
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
Examples
milligram, milliliter
miniskirt, miniseries
miscarriage, misanthropy, misogyny, mistake
monolith, monorail, monotony, monocle
multiculturalism, multilingualism
mycology, mycoprotein
myriagon, myriad
nonsense, non-denial denial
nonagon
O'Brian
TH
HT
TH
HT
overlook, overspend, oversee
TH
pentagon
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
56
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
Meaning
peri(o)- around, about,
enclosing, near
photolight, photon
phytorelating to plants
postafter
prebefore
profor, in favor of
psycho- mind, mental
pyrofire, flame
quadr-,
four
quartquinque- five
quint(i)- fifth, five
reagain, repeatedly
rect(i)proper, straight
retrobackward
scler(o)- hard
semihalf, partial
sept(a)- seven
sex(i)six
SinoChinese
spasm(o)- spasm
spermseed
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
photograph, photosensetive, photosynthesis
phytogeography, phytoplankton
postpartum depression,postmodernism
prediction, preview, precedent, prenatal care
pro-choice, protagonist
psychology, psychosomatic
pyromania
quadrangle, quadruplet, quartic, quartile
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
Examples
perimysium, pericardium, periosteum, perinatal
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
quinquesection,
quintiped, quintet
reduction, reflection, revolution
rectify, rectangle
retrograde, retrospective
scleroderma, atherosclerosis
semi-automatic, semi-detached
heptachord, September
sexivalent
Sino-American relations
spasmatic, spasmolysis
spermophile, spermine
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
57
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
Meaning
spher(o)- sphere, ball
sphygm(o)- Pulsation
splen(o)- spleen
splanchn(o)- viscera
schiz(o)-, split
schist(o)staphyl(o)- cluster, uvula
stom(ato)- mouth
stylpillar
subbelow, less than,
under,2
superextremely, more
than,2
syntogether, united, at
the same time
tach(y)- rapid, accelerated
tel(e)distance, distant
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
P
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
staphylococcus, staphyloplasty
stomatitis, stomach
stylus, stylist, stylopodium
subset, subsonic, subway, subtitles
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
P
superhuman, Superego, supersonic
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
end
god
across, beyond
three
HT
TH
synergy, synchronicity, synesthesia
HT
TH
HT
TH
tachycardia, tachymeter, tachyon
telecommunications, television, telephoto lens,
telodynamic
teloblast, telophase
theology, theogony
transfer, transubstantiation, transatlantic, Trans-Siberian
railway
triangle, tricolor, triptych
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
tri-
TH
P
P
tel(o)theotrans-
Examples
spherical, atmosphere
sphygmomanometer, sphygmograph
splenomegaly
splanchnopathy
schizophrenia, schistocyte
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
58
Table 2.3 (Continued)
U
U
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
twitwo
twilight, twig, twin
ultraextremely, beyond ultramontanism, ultraviolet
certain limit
unnot, opposite, take unconstitutional, undelete
something away
underbelow, incompletely underestimate, underage, undercook
unione, single
uniform, unification
uphigher
upscale, update, upgrade, upheld
urfirst, original
urtext
ur(o)urine
uric, urinal
vitalife
vitamin, vital
withtogether, united withhold, withstand
zoorelating to animals zoomorphic, zoology
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
4.2 Suffixes
Suffix is an affix which is placed at the end of a word or stem.
(Hartmann, 1972) or it is a group of letters that comes after the base form of a word.
The suffix changes the way a word used.
Example:
ex- is the prefix and -able is the suffix, both added to the stem -port- =
exportable (that can be exported). Table 2.4 shows you some examples of English
derivational suffixes.
59
Table 2.4 Some examples of English derivational suffixes
Suffix Part of speech
Meaning
Examples
-able
adj
capable, can do
usable, notable, comfortable
-ably
adv
notably, fashionably
-ad
noun
group
triad, monad
-ade
noun
lemonade, accolade, blockade
-age
noun
forming a noun
marriage, mileage, garage
-agogy noun
leading
pedagogy, demagogy
nominal, focal,
-al
adj
aspect of
(compare -ality)
-al
noun
abstract noun
refusal
-ality
noun
property (aspect,
proportionality, sexuality
behaviour, condition) (see -al and -ity)
of
-an
adj
urban
-an
adj, noun
republican, Roman, veteran
-ance
noun
relevance, annoyance, repentance
-ancy
noun
pregnancy, redundancy, vacancy
-ant
adj
relevant, dominant, pleasant
-ant
noun
assistant, immigrant, inhabitant
-ar
adj
linear, alveolar
-ar
noun
beggar, liar
-ard
noun
drunkard, coward, wizard,
steward
-ary
adj
ordinary, secondary, military
U
U
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
U
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
60
(Continued)
Part of speech
noun
noun
noun
adj
noun
verb
noun
noun
Table 2.4
Suffix
-ary
-arch
-archy
-ate
-ate
-ate
-athlon
-ation
U
HT
U
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
-ation
HT
noun
TH
-ative
-atory
-cele, coele, coel
-cele
-centesis
-cephalic
chondrion
-cide
HT
TH
HT
adj
noun
noun
TH
Meaning
ruler, leader
rule, leadership
Examples
dictionary, library, seminary
monarch, tetrarch
gynarchy, anarchy
literate, desperate, fortunate
certificate, advocate
concentrate, oscillate
pentathlon, decathlon
invitation, pronunciation,
starvation
concentration, oscillation,
narration
talkative, lucrative, affirmative
laboratory, conversatory
mucocoel or mucocoele
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
sporting event
state or concept of
HT
from verb with -ate,
state or concept of
body cavity
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
noun
noun
adj
noun
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
noun
tumor, hernia
puncturing
relating to the head
small grainlike
structure
murder, killing agent
HT
TH
hydatidocele
amniocentesis, rachicentesis
anencephalic, macrocephalic
mitochondrion
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
suicide, vespacide, regicide,
fratricide
HT
TH
HT
U
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
61
(Continued)
Part of speech
Meaning
Noun
practice
noun
expressing the quality
of an adjective
-cycle
noun
circle, cycle, unit of
radio frequency
-dom
noun
state or condition of
-ectasia, noun
stretching out
-ectasis
-ectomy noun
surgical removal
-ed
adj
-ee
noun
changes verb to a noun
(the object of that
verb)
-eer
adj
-eme
noun
linguistic unit
-emia
noun
blood condition
-en
adj
-en
verb
-enchyma noun
cellular tissue
-ence
noun
-ency
noun
-ent
adj
-ent
noun
Table 2.4
Suffix
-city
-cy
atrocity
diplomacy, literacy, idiocy
HT
HT
U
HT
TH
U
HT
TH
Examples
HT
TH
HT
epicycle, hydrocycle
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
freedom, boredom, kingdom
brochiectasis, telangiectasia
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
TH
TH
TH
U
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
laryngectomy, vasectomy
bored, tiled
employee, referee, payee
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
engineer, overseer
lexeme, phoneme, morpheme
leukemia, anaemia
golden, wooden, written, frozen
lessen, deafen, frighten
mesenchyma, karyenchyma
independence, violence, absence
frequency, clemency, consistency
different, excellent, independent
resident, regent, superintendent
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
62
Table 2.4
Suffix
-eous
-er
HT
U
U
TH
-ergy
-ern
-ery
-ese
-esque
HT
TH
HT
TH
-ess
HT
(Continued)
Part of speech
Meaning
adj
noun
changes verb to noun
(the subject of that
verb, see also -or)
noun
work
adj
direction
noun
adj, noun
nationality, language
adj
in the style of
noun
TH
female
Examples
courteous
write, writer
HT
TH
HT
TH
energy, synergy
western, northern
slavery, machinery, nunnery
Chinese, Lebanese, Portuguese
Pythonesque, Romanesque,
picturesque
actress, waitress, stewardess,
priestess
synesthesia, kinesthesis
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
-esthesis,
-esthesia
-etic
-ette
-fare
noun
sensation, feeling
adj
noun
noun
-ful
adj
energetic, sympathetic, frenetic
small
diskette, statuette, usherette
how things are going / welfare, fanfare, warfare
coming along
full of, having some hopeful, useful
or much
a scandal
Watergate, nipplegate
knowing
prognosis, diagnosis
angle
polygon, pentagon
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
-gate
-gnosis
-gon
HT
TH
TH
TH
U
HT
HT
noun
noun
noun
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
63
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix Part of speech
U
-gry
HT
U
noun
TH
-hedron
-holic
noun
adj
-hood
noun
-iable
-ial
-ian
-ian
-ian
-iant
-iary
-iate
-ible
adj
adj
adj
adj, noun
noun
adj
adj
verb
adj
-ibly
-ic
-ical
adv
adj
adj
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
U
HT
HT
Meaning
adjective form of only
2 or 3 nouns in the
English language
seat, face
love, addiction
state/condition of,
a group sharing
characteristics
HT
TH
HT
Examples
anger, hunger
HT
TH
HT
TH
icosahedron, tetrahedron
alcoholic
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
brotherhood,
falsehood
HT
adulthood,
TH
sociable
special, filial, remedial
mammalian
Brazilian, Christian
librarian, barbarian, physician
deviant, defiant
tertiary
asphyxiate, deviate
capable, can do (same incredible, terrible, visible
as -able)
incredibly, responsibly, terribly
(adjective)
neurotic, electronic, historic
historical, phonological,
economical
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
64
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix Part of speech
Meaning
-ics
noun
the study of
U
HT
U
TH
Examples
Physics, Aerodynamics,
Forensics, economics
(categorical) property hominid, tepid, candid, fervid
(aspect) of
(compare -al)
expedieny
salient, sentient, expedient
cashier, financier, gondolier
to become, make
clarify, specify, basify, vilify
tactile, facile, volatile
large numbers
million, billion
delicious, ambitious, religious,
vivacious
noun from verb, in
doing, acting
the process of
bedding, stuffing, roofing
action, companion
adjective from noun; foolish, selfish, greenish, tallish
sort of; approximately
nationality, language Spanish, Turkish, English
doctrine, act, practice, Protestantism, alcoholism,
condition
Buddhism, southernism
person
dentist, socialist, cellist
adept
fashionista
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
-id
adj
-iency
-ient
-ier
–ify, –fy
-ile
-illion
-ious
noun
adj
noun
verb
adj
-ing
noun
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
-ing
-ion
-ish
HT
HT
TH
TH
-ish
-ism
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
adj
adj, noun
noun
HT
TH
TH
-ist
-ista
noun
U
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
noun
noun
adj
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
65
Table 2.4
Suffix
-ite
-itis
-itive
-itude
-ity
U
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
-ium
HT
-ive
HT
TH
TH
(Continued)
Part of speech
Meaning
Examples
Noun
member of a group socialite, Carmelite
noun
disease, inflammation hepatitis, gingivitis
adj
sensitive
noun
attitude, gratitude, Beatitude
noun
expressing state or
normality, formality, banality
condition
noun
metallic element
sodium, Calcium
(exception: helium)
adj
make the noun an
defensive, aggressive, passive
adjective
noun
organization/organisation,
categorization/ categorisation
verb
to cause, to be, to
materialize/materialise,
idolize/idolise
become
used for hip hop slang Americizzle
noun
movement (ability
telekinesis
thereof)
adj
lack of
homeless, useless, careless
noun
diminutive, or
ringlet, hamlet, anklet
denoting a relation to
some part of the body
adj
having the qualities of childlike
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
-izzle
-kinesis
HT
TH
HT
-less
-let
HT
TH
TH
-like
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
-ization/
-isation
-ize/-ise
HT
U
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
66
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix Part of speech
Meaning
-ling
noun
smaller, younger,
cuter or weaker
version of the noun
root OR sharing an
identity or quality of
the noun root (e.g. as
a follower)
-ly
adj
-like, having the
attributes of
-ly
adv
-like, having the
attributes of
-man
noun
person
-mancy noun
divination by
U
U
HT
TH
Examples
darling, duckling, earthling,
sapling
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
-mania
TH
noun
quickly
TH
fireman, statesman
crystallomancy, bibliomancy,
necromancy
an irrational but
kleptomania, megalomania,
irresistible motive for mythomania
a belief or action
abstract noun
movement, amazement,
government
measuring device
barometer, thermometer
measure
symmetry, geometry, isometry
testimony, ceremony
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
noun
-meter
-metry
-mony
TH
TH
U
HT
HT
noun
noun
noun
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
-ment
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
stately, monthly
TH
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
67
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix
Part of speech
Meaning
-morphism noun
form
-most
adj
-ness
noun
abstract noun
-nik
noun
Slavic origin;
corresponds to
" - er"
-ocracy
noun
system of
government
-ogram
noun
writing, description
-ography noun
study of
-oid
adj
resembling
-oid
noun
resembling
-ologist
noun
one who studies a
scientific subject
-ology
study, science
U
HT
U
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
Examples
isomorphism, homomorphism
utmost, innermost
kindness, ruthlessness, darkness
otkaznik, beatnik
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
kakistocracy, democracy,
androcracy
ideogram
stenography, geography
solenoid, hominoid
planetoid
archaeologist
TH
HT
noun
TH
subject of an
"-omics"
study of rules
knowledge of
name, word
changes verb to
noun (see also
-er), person
HT
-omics
-onomy
-onym
-or
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
noun
noun
noun
noun
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
biology, psychology,
planetology
genome
HT
-ome
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
proteomics, economics
astronomy
antonym, consonym, heteronym
actor, governor
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
68
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix
Part of speech
Meaning
-or or -our noun
-ory
adj
-ory
noun
-ose
adj
full of, like, given
to; carbohydrates
-osis
noun
process, action,
formation, diseased
condition
-ous
adj
adjectival suffix
-phagy,
noun
eating
-phagia
-philia
noun
attraction
-phobia
noun
fear
-phone
noun, adj
sound, audio;
speaker of a
language
-phyte
noun
plant, used in
botany to create
terms which
categorise plants
based on their lifehistory, growthform
U
HT
U
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
mitosis, osmosis, ostosis,
psychosis
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
porous, disastrous, nervous
monophagy
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
Examples
candor, fervour, color
auditory, sensory
history, repository
verbose; globose
HT
TH
TH
HT
hemophilia
acrophobia, mysophobia
telephone, homophone;
Anglophone
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
U
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
therophyte, halophyte
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
69
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix
Part of speech
Meaning
-polis
noun
referring to city or
big area
-science
adj
knowing
-scope
noun
from Greek
skopos, view;
instrument for
viewing and
observing spaces
-script
noun
written
-ship
noun
abstract noun, state
of being
-sion
noun
noun that has been
altered from a
process
-some
adj
-stan
noun
land, country
-ster
noun
person
-t
adj
-th, -eth
adj
ordinal number
-th
noun
forming a noun
-tion
noun
noun that has been
altered from a
process
U
HT
U
Examples
Metropolis
TH
HT
HT
omniscience
microscope, telescope
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
manuscript, transcript
friendship, relationship,
dictatorship
decision, illusion
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
tiresome, awesome, fulsome
Afghanistan
youngster, gangster
burnt, spoilt
tenth, millionth, twentieth
growth, health, depth, strength
evaporation, introduction
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
HT
TH
70
Table 2.4 (Continued)
Suffix
Part of speech
Meaning
-tom,
noun
part or segment
-tome
-tropism
noun
to turn
-ty
noun
-uary
noun
-ulent
adj
U
U
HT
Examples
dermatome
TH
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
-uous
adj
-ure
-us
noun
noun
HT
TH
-ville
noun
HT
TH
-vore, noun / adj
vorous
-ward or
adj, adv
-wards
-ware
noun
-ways
adj
-wise
adj
HT
TH
HT
phototropism
certainty, loyalty
sanctuary, mortuary
turbulent, fraudulent
tempestuous,
unctuous,
sensuous
failure, exposure, temperature
ulcus
HT
TH
inflammation
city, town from
Nashville
French
HT
TH
HT
to devour
TH
carnivore, herbivore
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
direction
southward, inward, upward
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
-wright
noun
-y
adj
TH
HT
HT
TH
software
hardware, software, freeware
sideways, longways
direction
clockwise, lengthwise
playwright,
wheelwright,
person who makes
shipwright
having the quality
runny, messy, chewy
of, inclined to
HT
TH
TH
TH
HT
HT
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
71
This is an incomplete list of suffixes in English. Note that this list includes only
derivational suffixes (which form new words, often of a different part of speech) and
suffixes which serve to mark the part of speech. It does not include the inflectional
suffixes which only produce new forms of a word without changing the part of speech,
eg -s for the plural of nouns.
In conclusion, knowing the meaning of stems and prefixes can help us in
quickly guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words in reading. They are the useful,
timesaving skills. We won’t have to constantly consult our dictionary, and we can
follow the text more easily and knowing the form of suffixes is also very helpful. If we
know the way a word formed by adding suffixes, we will quickly know the meaning of
unknown words. For example, the suffixes can be used to form personal nouns;
- ian
musician, politicain
- er
reader, writer
- ist
economist, scientist
- or
actor
- ant
attendant,
HT
HT
TH
TH
HT
TH
HT
TH
HT
Self Practice 2.3: In each item, select the best definition of the italic word.
1. In retrospect, we could have been wise to leave our money in the bank.
a. Many years ago
b. In fact
c. Looking around
d. Looking back
2. No matter what Fred said, Jim contradicted him.
a. laughed at him
b. said the opposite
c. yelled at him
d. didn’t listen to him
U
U
TH
72
3. The doctor is a specialist in the human respiratory system. She knows
most about_________
a. bones
b. nerves
c. lungs
d. the stomach
4. If a man is a bigamist, he___________________.
a. is married to two women
b. has two children
c. is divorced
d. will never marry
5. There was a great antipathy between the brothers.
a. love
b. dislike
c. difference
d. resemblance
6. Dan says he is an atheist.
a. one who believes in one god.
b. one who believes in many god.
c. one who believes there is no god.
d. one who is not sure if there is a god.
7. Janet is interested in autographs of famous people.
a. signatures
b. pictures
c. personalities
d. families
8. The immigration authorities deported Mr. Jensen because he did not have a
legal passport.
a. searched through his body
b. sent him out of the country
c. locked him up
d. questioned him
73
9. The government is financing a study of the effects on man of living in a
megalopolis.
a. an apartment in a large building
b. a dangerous part of a city
c. a city with a large police force
d. an extremely large city
10. Dr. Swanson has written articles about interstellar travel.
a. underwater
b. high-speed
c. outer space
d. long-distance
Looking Up Words in a Dictionary
There are many ways that we can find out about words. The best known way
to find out about a word is to use a dictionary. What are some of the things we find out
when we use a dictionary?
There are numerous things we can find in a dictionary. The first and obvious
things in a dictionary that people think of are definitions. The words are all in
alphabetic or A-B-C order. Words sometimes have more than one definition. There is
also other information about words such as their function or part of speech, their
pronunciation, as well as origins, or roots, of words.
Other useful information can be found in the dictionary as well. Information
such as English to metric conversion tables, maps, Presidents of the United States,
explanations of common symbols. Here is a list of some of the things that we can learn
from a dictionary.
1. Spelling. A dictionary shows the accepted spelling of every word that is
listed, as well as the spelling of irregular verb forms and plurals.
2. Pronunciation. Each dictionary has a special way of showing how words
are pronounced, including stress.
74
3. Syllable division. This helps in spelling and pronouncing words and
indicates where the word should be divided at the end of a line.
4. Derivation. A dictionary includes the history of each of each word
indicating its origin and development through different languages before it became an
English word.
5. Meaning. Almost every word has more than a single meaning. Different
meanings are given, often with illustrative sentences. Special technical definitions are
also listed.
6. Part of Speech. There are determined, of course, by actual use in a
sentence. A dictionary indicates, however, whether the word is commonly used as a
noun, pronoun, verb (transitive and intransitive), adjective, adverb, conjunction, or
preposition.
7. Usage. Your dictionary will tell you whether a word is chiefly British or
American, or whether the word is formal, colloquial, dialectal, archaic, poetic, or
slang. The information is often important in writing.
8. Synonyms and antonyms. Frequently words of similar meanings
(synonyms) or words of opposite meaning (antonyms) are listed, with explanation of
the distinctions.
9. General information. Information about persons and places is listed, either
within the alphabetical arrangement of the words or in special sections at the back. For
example, a dictionary will tell you the location of Roanoke, the population of
Katmandu, or the dates that Cleopatra rules.
How to Use a Dictionary
First, think of the word to look up. Then open the dictionary to as close to the
first letter or two of the word as possible. Then either turn back or forward to find the
word. To help the search, dictionaries have guide words to help. Guide words are at
75
the top of each page. The first guide word is the first word on a page, and the second
guide word at the top of the page is the last word on the page. Using the guidewords,
you should find the word you a looking for easily. It will be between the words.
Self Practice 2.4
Here are some sample definitions of words from an English dictionary. After
each definition there are some sentences using the word that has been defined. Your
task is to select the correct definition for each sentence. Put the letter a, b, c and
others of the correct definition in front of the sentence.
1. Pinch ( V) (a) be too tight; hurt by being too tight
(collog.) (b) steal; take without permission
(c) be very mean; live sparingly or economically
(d) take in a tight grip between the thumb and fingers; have in a
tight grip between two hard things which are passed together.
_____1. I pinched my finger in the door way.
_____2. Who has pinched my dictionary?
_____3. Their parents had to pinch and scrape in order to save
money for their clothes.
_____4. These shoes pinch me
U
2. Open (adj.) (a) not blocked
(b) not filled
(c) not hiding anything; honest
(d) spread out; unfolded
(V.)
(e) to cause to start
(N.)
(f) the outdoors.
76
_____1.
_____2.
_____3.
_____4.
……...5.
……...6.
The story opens with a snow storm.
The flowers are open.
She loves to spend life in the open.
Let’s be open with each other.
The job is still open.
An open river is one without ice.
3. Nurse (N) (a) a woman employed to take care of a young child.
(b) a person who is trained to take care of sick people.
(c) to suck milk from woman’s breast.
(d) to act as or be a professional nurse.
(e) to take care of as or like a nurse
……….1. She spent some time nursing during W.W.II in a military hospital.
……….2. The number of male nurses has increased recently.
……….3. Since she has no one to take care of her baby during her
working hours she has to hire a nurse.
……….4. All her time goes into nursing her old father.
……….5. A baby feels secure while nursing at her mother’s breast.