1. business and industrial
2. agriculture and forestry
3. agriculture

%#)0% 7/2+).' 0!0%2 s .o. 11/2009
The WTO’s Trade Policy Review
Mechanism: How to Create Political
Will for Liberalization?
Valentin Zahrnt
Valentin Zahrnt ([email protected]) is a Research Associate at ECIPE.
ABSTRACT
The economic crisis has sparked fears about emerging protectionism and created wide interest in initiatives
to monitor trade policies.The WTO regularly examines its members’ trade policies – but its reports tend to be
superficial and uncritical. How could they be improved to become a more powerful tool for trade liberalization?
This paper argues that trade policy reviews (TPRs) should be resolutely aimed at shaping domestic politics.They
should help domestic constituents to compare trade policies across time and countries. Furthermore, they should
reveal the economy-wide costs of protectionism and identify winners and losers on a sectoral basis. Besides, the
process of how TPRs are prepared, discussed, and disseminated should be improved. The drafting of the Secretariat’s report should be more transparent and allow for greater stakeholder participation, the TPRs should be
presented and debated in the country under review.
JEL Code:
F13
Keywords:
transparency, WTO reform, political economy, global governance
www.ecipe.org
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ECIPE WORKING PAPER
1 INTRODUCTION1
Governments are vulnerable to backsliding on liberal policies in their dealing with the global
financial and economic crisis. A replay of the tariff surges that exacerbated the Great Depression
of the 30s will most likely be prevented. But evidence is mounting that governments are resorting to creeping protectionism as they did after the oil shocks of the 70s and whose pernicious
effects lasted well into the 80s. Recent monitoring of trade policies shows a growing number
of antidumping investigations, subsidy programs that favor domestic employment and lending,
non-automatic licensing, discriminatory government procurement, and suspicious food safety
measures.2
In this situation, the WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) assumes particular importance. It serves ‘the regular collective appreciation and evaluation of the full range of individual
Members’ trade policies and practices and their impact on the functioning of the multilateral
trading system.’3 This mandate sounds promising.The TPRM could take stock of trade distorting
policies and reveal their costs, so that governments and their domestic constituents become more
willing to embrace liberalization. However, little is known about the actual quality and effectiveness of the TPRM. The self-assessments of the Trade Policy Review Body offer much praise and
no evidence, while the academic literature is largely descriptive and outdated.
Therefore, this paper undertakes an in-depth examination of the workings of the TPRM. This
reveals striking weaknesses.TPRs are cumbersome to read and clogged with compendium-style
information.They are analytically superficial and relentlessly uncritical.They differ in their coverage and approach one from another. Furthermore, the procedures for preparing and discussing
TPRs lack efficiency and public participation. It is therefore unsurprising that TPRs are deemed
to have no discernible effect on trade policies. Other trade policy assessment, for instance by the
World Bank, are more rigorous and outspoken. Lagging behind other organizations in its core
domain is an embarrassing situation for the WTO.
To give greater clout to the TPRM, the paper makes recommendations regarding its objectives,
the reports, and the TPR process. Importantly, all recommendations could be realized within the
existing mandate of the WTO agreement – and would indeed come much closer to its ambitious
wording than current practice.
Objective: TPRs should be resolutely aimed at shaping domestic politics. They could do so by
focusing the attention of domestic constituents and the media on their country’s trade policies.
They could also help domestic constituents to compare trade policies across countries and time
as well as to better understand the trade and welfare effects involved. In this way, TPRs could
convince readers of the benefits of liberal reform and serve as a reference in domestic policy
debates.4 An explicit commitment to this set of objectives would allow the TPRM to develop into
a more coherent instrument.5
Reports: TPRs should follow a standardized analytical grid. This would make TPRs easier to
read, facilitate comparison across time and countries, and assure that reports are complete. It
would also secure consistency in the severity of criticism, making reports more acceptable to
governments who care about their relative standing and treatment. Regarding their content,
TPRs should rely much more strongly on existing analysis that shows the economy-wide costs of
protectionism and identifies winners and losers on a sectoral basis. Besides, they should scrutinize
* The ECIPE Working Paper series presents ongoing research and work in progress. These Working Papers
might therefore present preliminary results that have not been subject to the usual review process for ECIPE
publications. We welcome feedback and recommend you to send comments directly to the author(s).
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not only trade policies but also policy-making processes. TPRs should compare actual processes
to best practices and summarize available analysis on the quality of policy making.
Process: The process of how TPRs are prepared, discussed, and disseminated should be improved.The drafting of the Secretariat’s report should be more transparent and allow for greater
stakeholder participation. A further step in the attempt to transform TPRs from a diplomatic
exercise in Geneva into an event in members’ domestic politics should be to present and debate
TPRs in the country under review. To realize these more ambitious objectives, the budget of the
Trade Policy Review Division (TPRD) should be substantially increased.
Section 2 gives background information on the TPRM. Section 3 discusses which objectives the
TPRM should pursue in the future. It looks at related sources on trade policy which TPRs should
complement and at future trade policy challenges to which TPRs should respond. Section 4 develops suggestions for improving TPR reports, giving examples of the questions that could be asked
on anti-dumping measures, agricultural policies, sanitary and phytosanitary regulation. Section
5 adds recommendations on the TPR process (frequency of reviews, management and resources,
independence of the Secretariat, stakeholder participation, review meetings, dissemination/use
of TPRs, TPRM appraisal). Section 6 assesses the political feasibility of TPRM reform. The concluding section summarizes the argument.
2 BACKGROUND ON THE TPRM
Let us start with some brief considerations of the history, process, content, and performance
of the TPRM.
2.1 HISTORY
The grandfather of all transparency devices in the WTO is Article X of the GATT 1947. It
prescribes that all laws, regulations, judicial decisions and administrative rulings of general application affecting trade ‘shall be published promptly in such a manner as to enable governments and
traders to become acquainted with them.’ Regrettably, states never acquired the habit of notifying
the WTO of their trade restrictive policies. The 1979 Understanding on Notification, Consultation, Dispute Settlement, and Surveillance entrusted the Secretariat with submitting two reports
per year on the state of the world trading system. However, these reports could not mend the lack
of comprehensive data on countries’ individual trade policies. Several influential study groups
urged greater transparency in trade policies (Leutwiler Report 1985, Long Report 1989, ‘Functioning of the GATT System’ debate). This prepared the way for the provisional establishment
of the TPRM in 1989, an early harvest of the Uruguay Round midterm review, which the 1995
Marrakesh Agreement made definitive and extended beyond goods. The four countries with the
largest share of world trade are to be reviewed every 2 years, the next sixteen every 4 years, and
the rest every 6 years. As of April 2009, 260 TPRs have been conducted, 16 of them in 2008.
2.2 PROCESS
The TPR process can be divided into three steps.6
Preparation of reports: The Secretariat first sends one or two questionnaires to the country
under review and collects information from various sources (the country’s official web pages,
reports by other international institutions, NGOs, academic work). Members of the TPRD of the
Secretariat then travel to the country to discuss outstanding questions with the government and
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other stakeholders. The Secretariat drafts a report and sends it to the country under review for
verification. The final report, together with a policy statement from the country under review,
is circulated to the member states at least five weeks before the review meeting. Member states
are summoned to submit their written questions two weeks before the meeting. The Secretariat
identifies the main points contained in the questions and makes them available one week before
the meeting. Countries under review often give written responses to the questions they have
received in due time before the meeting.
Review meeting: The Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB) is open to all members and elects a
chairperson for one year, who opens and guides the meetings. The member under review and a
discussant, chosen among the members and acting in a private capacity, receive each 15 minutes
for their initial remarks.The statements from the floor, following the outline of main issues drawn
by the chairperson, should not exceed seven minutes.The meeting takes two half-days, separated
by a one-day break during which the country under review can prepare responses to new questions that have arisen during the first discussion.
Dissemination: The Secretariat’s report and the policy statement from the country under review are released at the end of the first review meeting.The chairperson, assisted by the Secretariat, gives a press conference immediately after the second meeting.The minutes of the meeting are
made available online.This is also done with the written questions and answers, with the country
under review asked to provide responses to all questions that have not been answered during the
meeting within one month of the meeting.
2.3 CONTENT
For more than a decade, the Secretariat’s reports have been abiding by the same main structure.
The summary observations are followed by four sections. First, the economic environment of
the country under review is discussed, looking at output, trade, investment, employment, public
finances, exchange rates, and related macroeconomic issues. Second, the trade policy regime is
characterized by describing the institutional framework for trade policy making, trade policy
objectives, preferential trade agreements, and nonreciprocal preference schemes, among others.
Third, trade policies and practices are examined by measure. This includes measures directly affecting imports (customs procedures, rules of origin, tariffs, technical regulations etc.), measures
directly affecting exports (documentation, restrictions, taxes, subsidies etc.), and other measures affecting production and trade (competition policy, government procurement, intellectual
property rights, state-owned enterprises etc.). Fourth, trade policies are addressed by sector,
typically with extensive coverage of agriculture and services where trade restrictive measures
are frequent and complex.
2.4 PERFORMANCE
Paragraph A of Annex 3 of the WTO Agreement defines the mission of the TPRM:
The purpose of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (“TPRM”) is to contribute to
improved adherence by all Members to rules, disciplines and commitments made
under the Multilateral Trade Agreements and, where applicable, the Plurilateral
Trade Agreements, and hence to the smoother functioning of the multilateral trading system, by achieving greater transparency in, and understanding of, the trade
policies and practices of Members. Accordingly, the review mechanism enables
the regular collective appreciation and evaluation of the full range of individual
Members’ trade policies and practices and their impact on the functioning of the
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multilateral trading system. It is not, however, intended to serve as a basis for the
enforcement of specific obligations under the Agreements or for dispute settlement
procedures, or to impose new policy commitments on Members.
The TPRB has worked out three appraisals of the TPRM.7 The body finds that the mechanism is
functioning effectively and achieving its mission, and it expresses its satisfaction with the structure, content, and quality of the Secretariat’s reports. The most recent appraisal sees the need
for highlighting more explicitly the significant trade policy changes made by member states since
the last review. It also suggests making discussions during the review meetings more structured
and interactive.
Media coverage indicates that TPRs have become less critical since the mechanism’s initial phase
in 89-91, which ended when all the great trading nations had been reviewed.8 In line with this,
media interest in TPRs has been steadily declining.The media repeatedly notes, in a side-remark,
a lack of clear conclusions.9
The academic literature produced numerous evaluations of the TPRM and specific TPRs as long
as the issue was new.10 In recent years, this stream has dried up.11 Studies consistently stress the
importance of having a well-functioning TPRM.They mostly commend the work of the TPRD in
the face of its limited resources, whereas they criticize a lack of analytical rigor and sometimes
also a lack of normative appraisal of countries’ trade policies.12
More outspoken criticism typically comes from observers in Australia and New Zealand. Carmichael (2005), former chairman of the Industries Assistance Commission, Australia’s domestic
transparency institution at the time, castigates the TPRM for having ‘done nothing to ease the
negative pressures governments face at home’. Stoeckel and Fisher (2008) also dismiss the TPRM
in a comparative study of transparency institutions:
The WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism is the poorest of all transparency exercises of trade policy. Trade policy reviews contain no economic analysis at all
— let alone economywide analysis. Since the effect on national interest from each
country’s trade policy is not evaluated, there is no indication of what policy changes
would be in the national interest. Also, trade policy reviews may not be perceived as
being fully independent. … Trade policy reviews conducted under the auspices of
the WTO therefore have had no material effect on the quality of trade policies.
More generally, Carmichael (2005), Stoeckel and Fisher (2008) and The Tasman Transparency
Group (2006) cast doubt on the ability of any international transparency mechanism to influence
policies and heavily favor domestic transparency agencies. They argue that domestic institutions
are closer and thus more relevant to domestic politics.
3 SELECTING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE TPRM
In sum, the TPRM has assumed a characteristic shape during its first 20 years of operation – but
there is widespread disappointment with this shape if one looks beyond the formal WTO appraisals. Indeed, the very rationale of the TPRM has been cast into doubt compared to the potentially
superior performance of domestic transparency institutions. Without denying the advantages of
local ownership and close ties to policy actors and processes inherent in domestic institutions, a
complementary WTO mechanism is justified for at least three reasons.
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First, a WTO mechanism can guarantee that a review of a certain quality and coverage is undertaken with a certain frequency for all countries.The minimum level of transparency thus ensured
is valuable as many countries will, for political reasons or a lack of resources, not institute sound
transparency mechanisms domestically or at least not entrust them with regular reviews of all
trade matters.
Second, an international mechanism can support domestic transparency institutions. It accustoms
governments to tolerate reviews, stakeholders to contribute to the review process, and the media to use the results. Furthermore, international reviews can report on the quality of domestic
transparency institutions, drawing attention to persistent shortcomings and acute governmental
encroachments. Such reporting could include information on the mandate, resources, and independence of the domestic mechanisms; on the issues they have covered since the last international
report; and on the integration of their results into policymaking.
Third, an international mechanism can serve not only as a backup and prop for domestic institutions but deliver its own, unique contribution. Namely, it facilitates country comparison through
standardization. An international mechanism can ask the same questions for all countries, analyze
the matter with consistent methods, and apply a similar standard of rigor in its conclusions. Information on where the individual country stands on an international scale is a powerful tool to
mobilize stakeholders and influence policy debates.
One should therefore not abandon the TPRM but enhance its effectiveness. Such an effort has to
start with defining the priority objectives of the TPRM. Remarkably, no official document defines
and prioritizes the objectives of the TPRM in detail or identifies the channels through which the
mechanism shall obtain its results.Taking documents from the TPRB and the academic literature
as well as interviews as sources, several potential functions for the TPRM can be identified.13
Facilitating negotiations: TPRs may generate the information about countries’ current trade
policies and their compliance with past trade agreements that governments need in order to engage in trade negotiations.TPRs may also enhance the legitimacy of trade negotiations by reducing the informational disadvantage of small and developing countries (the TPRM has partly been
an attempt to match the US that began in 1985 with its National Trade Estimates, a systematic
stocktaking of trade barriers encountered by US businesses abroad).
Focusing international attention: The TPRM as an event concentrates the attention of all
members on a country’s trade policies. This may incline governments toward more liberal trade
policies in order to reap praise and avoid criticism. The TPRM also provides a forum where
member states can question dubious trade practices in detail. This external pressure can help to
change specific trade restrictive measures.
Influencing domestic politics: A first potential benefit is that the government and domestic
constituents in the country under review may learn about its own country’s trade policies and
their effects.This may lead to more liberal policies as TPR readers become aware of the condensed
results of the dispersed processes of trade policy making, which involve many issues, measures,
and governmental bodies and that stretch over long periods of time. Second,TPRs may strengthen
liberal stakeholders in the country under review by providing them with new, better accessible,
or more authoritative information. TPRs may thus serve as reference points in the domestic
arena. Third, TPRs as events concentrate the attention of domestic constituents and the media
on a country’s trade policies. Fourth, TPRs in their entirety may demonstrate the liberal trend
in trade policies and spread the knowledge of successful liberal reforms.They may thus convince
governments and domestic constituents of the benefits of trade liberalization.
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The policy-related benefits of TPRs are thus manifold and heterogeneous.14 In the future, the main
objectives of the TPRM should be to shape domestic politics. This mission for the TPRM results
from an examination of related sources on trade policy that reveals where the TPRM can best
assume the role in the ensemble of transparency mechanisms. Such a mission also responds best
to the challenges of future trade policy making.
3.1 RELATED SOURCES ON TRADE POLICY
Which of the potential objectives should be privileged, so that TPRs add maximum value, depends on which other sources of trade policy information and analysis are available.The following
list is neither exhaustive with regard to the providers of information nor concerning the ‘information products’ they offer. In particular, it does not delve into the universe of academic work
and commercial intelligence, such as the Economist Intelligence Unit.The purpose is confined to
characterizing the nature and quality of available information.
WTO: WTO agreements oblige member states to notify changes in trade policies and to give
periodic summary notifications.This information can be easily accessed through the WTO document database. The WTO uses some of the information contained in the notifications to update
specific databases, such as on trade volumes, tariffs, and regional trade agreements. It also publishes an annual profile of each member state that includes some key figures on trade policy
(tariffs; anti-dumping measures, countervailing duties, and safeguards in place; services sectors
with GATS commitments; dispute settlement system involvement; outstanding notifications).
Moreover, member states can address difficulties they encounter with other countries’ trade policies in the specific working committees of the WTO. The minutes of these meetings are publicly
accessible.
Country reports: Several organizations conduct regular country studies that exclusively or
partly concern trade.The World Bank addresses trade issues in their ‘Country Economic Memoranda’. Besides, it produces further trade-related country and country group studies (document
type ‘Foreign Trade, FDI, and Capital Flows Study’). They focus mostly on export strategies but
also diagnose countries’ import policies.These studies cover only developing countries, they are
not written on a regular basis, and they are selective in their treatment of trade issues. Just as
the Country Economic Memoranda, they can be outspoken in their criticism – reaching beyond
policies to domestic policy-making processes and institutions.
Most countries agree to publish the IMF’s annual ‘Article IV Consultation’, a very uncompromising analysis of a country’s macroeconomic developments and policies. While trade policies
usually take a backseat, some strong criticism of protectionist measures can be found in these
documents.
APEC conducts a ‘Report of the Individual Action Plan (IAP) Peer Review’ for its members.The
reports are very similar to TPRs in their coverage. Worth mentioning are tables that show ‘Improvements Implemented Since Last IAP’, ‘Current Non-Tariff Measures Applied’, and ‘Further
Improvements Planned’.
The United States Trade Representative (USTR) writes a ‘National Trade Estimate Report on
Foreign Trade Barriers’ every year. This description of foreign trade policies is driven by the US
priorities of the moment rather than the ambition to give a comprehensive and comparable picture. It selectively contains quantifications of trade effects to show the damage to US interests.
Databases and indices: A few databases stand out for their coverage of trade policies and their
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analytical power. UNCTAD’s Trains database lists non-trade barriers according to a detailed classification scheme. Country summary reports are offered for selected developing countries.
The Market Access Map is a joint CEPII, ITC, UNCTAD, and WTO project. It covers 185 importing countries and provides information on trade flows, tariffs (bound, MFN applied, preferential
applied, tariff quotas), anti-dumping duties, and rules of origin down to the most detailed national
tariff line level. It also permits aggregation of data across sectors and countries, country comparisons, and simulation of the trade effects of tariff cuts.
The World Trade Indicators collected by the World Bank carry the telling sub-title ‘Benchmarking
policy and performance’.They offer about 300 indicators for 210 countries, together with country rankings for each indicator.15 Data can be accessed in different formats (country snapshots,
country comparison through tables and maps, and longitudinal comparison) and users have great
flexibility in designing their queries. The trade policy section includes
s
all sorts of traditional tariff indices (different averages, shares of duty-free trade, tariff
peaks, tariff overhangs, tariff escalation)
s
trade restrictiveness indices (the uniform equivalent tariff that would have the same
trade effect as the set of measures examined) for applied MFN and preferential tariffs,
with or without non-tariff barriers
s
most of the trade policy section of the WTO Trade Profiles
s
GATS Commitment Indices (aggregating sector coverage and a rough measure of commitment quality) from the World Bank and the US International Trade Commission.
In addition, many indices exist that assess trade policies and the general conditions of doing business in a country. They include the Doing Business Report, the World Governance Indicators,
and the Logistics Performance Index of the World Bank, the Global Competitiveness Report and
the Global Enabling Trade Report of the World Economic Forum, the Fraser Institute Index of
Economic Freedom, the Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom, the Opacity Index of
the Milken Institute, and the Corruption Perceptions Index of Transparency International.
Government information: Many countries are providing increasingly detailed and well-presented information about their trade-related policies. Among the drivers of the trend are, first, a
general increase in government transparency; second, growing public interest in trade policies;
and third, the ease of delivering information through the Internet.
The lead ministry on trade of larger/more developed countries typically offers information on
trade flows, trade policy objectives, preferential tariff agreements, non-reciprocal preferential
tariff schemes, and trade defense instruments, among others.16 Additional information on subsidies and non-tariff barriers can be found on the web pages of other ministries.
A different kind of transparency comes from independent public review institutions where Australia’s Productivity Commission takes pride of place.17 In its annual ‘Trade and Assistance Review’, it gives a succinct overview of Australia’s tariffs and subsidies, calculating net benefits and
costs for numerous sectors.
In sum, one can note that since the inception of the TPRM in 1989, a revolution in the availability
of trade policy information has taken place. The WTO is offering additional venues and formats
for generating and distributing information; non-WTO country reports have been commenced
or improved that deal partly or exclusively with trade; standardized data on trade policies has
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been created and disseminated through online databases and reports, many of them aggregating
many measures into comparative indices; member states have become much more transparent in
their policies and measures; and finally, academic and think-tank research, as well as commercial
intelligence, has multiplied. Nevertheless, there is still no authoritative and periodic review of
individual countries’ trade policy-making processes and trade policies trying to influence domestic politics. This is a gap the TPRM should fill.
By contrast, the availability of alternative sources of information lowers the importance of other
potential objectives for the TPRM. Providing information for negotiations should not be a priority
objective of the TPRM because countries generally have (to the extent that they genuinely care)
more detailed information on their key trade concerns and their main trading partners than what
can reasonably fit into a TPRM. On trading nations of lesser importance, for which information
may be more difficult to obtain, TPRs tend to be outdated at the time of negotiations as these
countries are on the six-year cycle.18
Focusing international attention should not be a key objective, either. Member states have sufficient possibilities to express their trade concerns - bilaterally, at WTO working committees, or
in public.The states that are most dissatisfied with certain trade policy practices of a given trading
partner are common knowledge. For the ‘trade bureaucrats’ community, TPRs are uninspiring
rehearsals of well-known positions and complaints.19 They are not an engaging debate where
harmed trading partners discover shared concerns and where the country under review genuinely
cares about winning praise and responding to criticism.
The opportunity for governments and domestic constituents to learn from foreign policy experiences through TPRs is also limited. For conveying the liberalization trend, summary studies
that consider the entire membership as well as examining groups of countries are more effective
(such as the World Bank’s World Trade Indicators). For communicating success stories, studies
are more appropriate that scrutinize the link between trade policies and outcomes; that focus
on the sequencing of reform measures and transition management, including how to cope with
adjustment pains; and that take the reform period as their timeframe.
3.2 TRADE POLICY CHALLENGES
Which functions the TPRM should fulfill also depends on the trade policy challenges of the
future. The most important trend is the move from border barriers clearly targeted at trade to
behind-the-border regulatory barriers embedded in policies that pursue non-trade values. That
is, from tariffs, quota, and non-automatic import licenses to obstacles such as technical standards,
sanitary and phytosanitary standards, and barriers to trade in services.
These ‘deep integration’ issues have several characteristics in common. First, WTO agreements
prescribe general disciplines but do not define forbidden measures in detail. One reason for
this is that the number, technical complexity, and normative contestedness of the issues prevent
specification during negotiations. Furthermore, measures, problems, and best practices evolve
too quickly for a WTO agreement to keep abreast. Second, compliance is difficult to monitor
because it cannot be inferred from a single figure, such as a tariff line, but results from a broad
range of practices whose conformity with the general WTO disciplines is hard to assess.
Third, enforcement through the dispute settlement system is awkward. The implications of one
ruling even for similar practices often cannot be derived with reasonable certainty. The number
of trade-restrictive practices that could be pursued through the dispute settlement system is
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enormous. Measures found to be in non-compliance may form part of a legislative package that is
politically sensitive and cannot be easily re-opened. And WTO rulings may be perceived as sacrificing non-trade values on the shrine of liberal ideology, thus harming the WTO’s public image.
If negotiation, monitoring, and enforcement of trade agreements on the issues that increasingly
occupy the center stage of trade concerns is difficult, the challenge is to foster a domestic political
environment conducive to good economic governance that is also internationally responsible.
Another background trend, related to the changing agenda of trade liberalization, is the politicization of trade. The ‘club model’ of multilateral cooperation that isolated the trade ministry
from involvement by other ministries and the general public, thus immunizing agreements from
disaggregating, has come to an end.20 Since the Uruguay Round, trade has become increasingly
contested at the domestic level.21 The broader WTO agenda has been (1) reflected in a greater
involvement of ministries and regulatory agencies beyond the trade, economic, finance, and foreign policy ministries that have traditionally reigned over these matters. Special interest groups
and civil society organizations show (2) a growing interest in participating in the formation of a
national negotiating position. At the same time, governments have become more accommodating towards private actors because they believe in the legitimacy and effectiveness of an inclusive
trade policy-making approach.These two developments have led to the establishment of national
councils (3) in which various ministries, regulatory agencies, special interest groups, civil society organizations, and academic institutions discuss trade policy. What these councils have in
common is that they do not produce policies which are governmentally binding, but they create
expectations that their recommendations should be respected. While public awareness of trade
issues varies (4) across countries, issues, and time, discontent with liberal trade policies played a
central role in some elections, such as in India and Mexico.
These changes in domestic trade policy making are largely perceived as leading to more protectionist stances. Some of the reasons behind more protectionist inclinations of newly arrived
stakeholders are structural and cannot be changed through TPRs. For instance, parliamentarians
have narrower constituencies, and thus more specific interests to protect certain industries, than
the executive bodies. But protectionist views can also be traced back to lacking knowledge or
erroneous beliefs about the likely effects of liberalization.22 Convincing a broader audience of
the benefits of free trade – e.g. through TPRs – is therefore increasingly important if further
liberalization is to succeed.
Finally, it is important to see that most liberalization after the Second World War and up to the
1980s has been achieved in multilateral negotiations among developed countries. Since then, unilateral liberalization has picked up steam in eastern Asia and spread among developing countries
around the globe.23 The World Bank (2005) estimates that 65% of trade liberalization between
1983 and 2003 has been attained through unilateral reform, compared to 25% through WTO
negotiations and 10% through preferential trade agreements. This unilateral reform drive is especially powerful in services, such as telecommunications and financial services, where governments deem that international competition is crucial to their countries’ growth. If TPRs succeed
in fostering a domestic environment that is supportive of open markets, this will yield not only
additional multilateral but also unilateral liberalization.
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4. IMPROVING THE TPR REPORTS
What should TPRs look like in order to influence domestic politics?24 A first recommendation
is that TPRs should follow a detailed analytical grid. Such standardization would have several
advantages:
s
With a clearer, sharper, and more consistent structure, TPRs would be easier to read
and specific information could be more quickly retrieved.
s
TPRs could be better compared across time and countries. Contextualization through
comparison is a wish frequently expressed by TPR users.
s
Applying a detailed grid could help to make reports more succinct.25
s
It could make reports more complete and avoid unpleasant aspects being omitted.
s
An analytical grid would secure greater consistency in the severity of criticism across
TPRs. Using a more similar yardstick would thus make criticism more acceptable.26
s
It could guide countries as to what information is expected from them over the long
term (and countries might release such information, once routines for their collection
have been created, on a regular basis, independently of TPRs).
The application of the analytical grid should be adapted to the country under review.The review
should go into greater detail for large and developed countries. For these countries, the global
interest in understanding and shaping their trade policies justifies a more substantial analytical
effort. Their governments are better able to provide the necessary information and have lesser
opportunity costs of assigning administrative resources to this task. In addition, more critical
analysis from third parties, such as researchers and domestic transparency and auditing institutions, is available.
Besides this flexibility in response to countries’ overall economic characteristics, the application
of the analytical grid should also be responsive to countries’ policies on each issue. For instance,
questions about the policy-making process for antidumping measures could be dropped for countries whose antidumping measures remain below a certain threshold. Similarly, the quantitative
description could be much reduced in such cases. By the same token, it makes little sense to
prod into the details of policy making in agriculture if the country under review leaves the sector
largely to the market.27
The flexibility to drop certain elements for which no change has occurred since the last TPR
may be required to avoid excessive repetition. The reports could give short summaries of these
elements and refer back to past TPRs.28 But it should be noted that repetition is of much lesser
concern if the target audience reaches beyond trade experts. The broader the public, the more
it forgets between reviews. Repetition may even be desirable: Promoting change is not about
sorting out things once, so that they can be looked up by those who care, but about repeating the
message and rubbing it in until it is accepted.
4.1 ELEMENTS OF THE ANALYTICAL GRID
Several elements that should be included in the discussion of most or all trade policy measures
and sectors are presented in table 1.
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TABLE 1: STANDARDIZED TPR ELEMENTS
ELEMENT
FUNCTION
Qualitative description
provide non-experts with an overview of the main policies to facilitate
understanding of the subsequent analysis, and give insight into the
evolution of the system by highlighting policy changes and future
regulatory intentions
Quantitative description
facilitate comparison of policies across time and countries through
standardization and aggregation
Analysis of trade and welfare effects
offer an impartial and qualified review of the literature to give policymakers and domestic constituents a sense of domestic and international
policy effects
Issues raised by trading partners
summarize discussions in working committees and dispute settlement
activites in order to spread knowledge about the problems trading
partners encounter, their arguments, and independent assessments by
panels and the Appellate Body
Policy making processes
make key aspects of the policy-making process comparable across
countries, examine them in the light of best practice benchmarks, and
adduce existing analysis on the quality of the policy-making process
and evidence of capture by special interest groups
The first element, qualitative description, should provide an overview of policies, policy changes,
and future regulatory intentions. It should help the reader understand the content of the legislative framework and not turn into a rehearsal of legal acts. Footnotes should indicate not only the
pertinent legal sources but also good summaries and discussions thereof.
The extent of the quantitative description will have to vary greatly from one issue to the other.
Tariffs and subsidies lend themselves to quantification, while regulatory barriers are more difficult
to aggregate. Nevertheless, it would be helpful to provide estimates of the frequency with which
different types of regulatory barriers are used as well as of the trade flows thereby affected.
TPRs should draw heavily on existing analysis of trade and welfare effects. By offering an impartial
and qualified review of the literature, TPRs can give policymakers and domestic constituents a
sense of the extent to which independent experts agree in their evaluation of current policies and
which gains could be reaped from reform. The analysis does not need to be limited to the economic realm: it is important to also address broader effects, for instance to trace how imported
technology and services enable environmental protection and how trade in health services cuts
health care costs while improving quality and choice. Mistaken beliefs about the harmful repercussions of trade on such values are ever more prominent obstacles to trade integration that
should be addressed upfront.
Issues raised by trading partners in the WTO working committees and through the dispute settlement system should be systematically presented. Such an integrated presentation adds value
above and beyond the long and overlapping laundry lists of complaints brought forward in the
context of the TPR meeting. In addition,WTO rulings enjoy authority that simple complaints do
not. At the same time, examination of countries’ compliance record with WTO rulings through
the TPRM enhances the ‘compliance pull’ of such rulings by increasing visibility of non- or insufficient compliance.
A final element of the analytical grid should aim at policy-making processes, especially for issues
susceptible to capture by special interest groups. The grid should implicitly define best practice
standards on key aspects of the policy-making process through the choice and wording of its
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standardized questions.Where countries deviate from suggested best practices, they should give
reasons. Existing analysis on the quality of the policy-making process should also be adduced.29
Exercising pressure to enhance processes is most important in domains where regulatory barriers, once put in place, are difficult to tackle through quantitative description and analysis.
Sanitary and phytosanitary regulation is a good example for such an area where ex-post oversight
is hard to implement and the preventive approach through sound policy-making processes thus
essential.30
4.2 EXAMPLES OF THE ANALYTICAL GRID
In the following, examples for the kind of questions that could be raised in the analytical grid
are given.The focus is on policy-making processes as this element has received scant attention in
traditional TPRs.
Antidumping (AD)
s
How independent are the different stages of decision-making on antidumping measures
from political influence?
s
How transparent is the decision-making on AD measures? To what extent are the data
that do not contain confidential business information and the models used to calculate
dumping margins, damage to domestic industries, and causality between dumping and
damage publicly available?
s
What are the minimum thresholds for initiating AD investigations, such as minimal
shares of domestic producers supporting or not opposing investigations or minimal
domestic market shares of dumped products?
s
Is there a test whether AD measures are necessary to preserve competition, that is,
whether dumping can be expected to lastingly and significantly diminish competition
if only domestic competition policies are applied, taking competition through new
market entrants and substitute products into account?
s
Is there a test of the welfare costs of AD measures? What importance does it attach to
consumer interests? What kind of quantitative assessment does it include?
s
Is there an automatic review of AD measures? When/how is it triggered? Does it presume maintenance or termination of AD measures as its default option?
Agriculture
s
Are the general objectives of agricultural policies and the specific objectives of each
policy program defined in concrete, wherever possible measurable terms?
s
Is the efficiency of policy programs for attaining their stated objectives systematically
evaluated and a cost-benefit analysis conducted before passing them into law? Are the
results of such analyses published?
s
Is governmental information about the country’s farm structure, including farm income, made public? Specifically, what information is not made public and why?
s
Is governmental information about subsidy programs (their effects and recipients)
made public? Specifically, what information is not made public and why?
s
Are income support programs separated from other programs aimed at promoting
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public goods? Which programs mix income support and public good promotion and
why?
s
To what extent are programs aimed at promoting public goods targeted? This includes
the use of market-based mechanisms for allocating subsidies, such as auctions for environmental stewardship contracts; the use of outcome oriented compensation; and
negotiation of individual contracts with farmers based on transparent selection criteria
and compensation schemes.
s
Are efficient monitoring and sanctioning systems in place to prevent farmers from
shirking on their obligations and reaping unwarranted subsidies?
Sanitary and phytosanitary regulation
s
Are risk assessment (the scientific evaluation of hazards and of the exposure of different
population subgroups to these hazards) and risk management (the political decision on
appropriate prevention and control measures) clearly separated?
s
To what extent are risk assessment principles (e.g. when data is sufficient to make
inferences and when default assumptions are to be preferred, which safety factors to
take in the face of uncertainty, and which weight to give to different kinds of evidence)
documented in a risk assessment policy?
s
Do risk assessment reports explain which choices risk assessors have made (which data,
which assumptions/inferences/models, and which studies they used; which importance they attached to different pieces of evidence, to different health threats, and to
population subgroups), for which reasons these choices were made, and which degree
of uncertainty is attached to the data and the interpretative choices?
s
Are draft risk assessments made available for public commenting, and is a peer review
commissioned in important cases?
s
Which procedures are in place in order to take into account negative trade effects when
determining the appropriate level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection and in order
to select the least trade-restrictive measures?
s
Which procedures are in place in order to attain coherent levels of sanitary or phytosanitary protection across SPS measures?
4.3 FURTHER ELEMENTS
Some elements that are not (sufficiently) treated in traditional TPRs and that do not fit into the
proposed analytical grid could be added or extended.
Indices: The first part of a TPR should give an overview of trade-related indices (see section 3
for the wide set of indicators from which the WTO can pick). Their advantages are that they are
highly comparable across time and countries, and that they embody a type of normative assessment through the choice and definition of factors and their aggregation that can, for resource
constraints and political reasons, not be conducted by the Secretariat. While some indices are
sufficiently specific to be allocated to a trade measure, most cut across measures, so that a joint
presentation of all indices appears advisable.
Domestic transparency mechanisms: TPRs should enquire into the existence and nature
of domestic transparency mechanisms that evaluate trade-related policies. This should include
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information on their mandate, resources, and independence; on the trade-related issues they
have covered since the last TPR; and on the integration of their results into policy making. The
TPRM must not be seen as an alternative to but as a way to strengthen the standing of domestic
transparency mechanisms.31
Notifications: Even developed countries fail to reliably adhere to the obligation to timely notify
trade policy changes and to periodically submit summary notifications to the WTO. One brief
section should therefore evaluate the completeness and timeliness of notifications, and countries should be asked to give explanations for shortcomings. In this way, the TPRM provides not
only aggregated description and analysis drawing on existing data but reinforces the continuous
bottom-up generation of trade policy information.
Focus topics: While a central recommendation of this paper is to enhance standardization of
TPRs, it would also be useful to combine this with additional flexibility by dedicating the last
chapter of the TPR to one or a few focus topics.These would be topics where the country’s policies are particularly trade restrictive, where policies have become or run the risk of becoming
more protectionist, or where substantial changes have created the need for a thorough stocktaking. For the 2009 TPR of the EU, for instance, this could have been agriculture, a notoriously
sensitive issue, and technical regulation where the EU has notably introduced far-reaching legislation on chemicals (REACH). Such focus topics can also address trade from a non-economic angle
where concerns over conflict between trade integration and sustainability objectives emerge as
impediments to reform.
5. IMPROVING THE TPR PROCESS
Up to this point, the recommendations have concerned the structure and content of the Secretariat report. What shall be reconsidered now is the broader picture: how and how often TPRs
are conducted, how reports are discussed and disseminated, and how the TPRM itself should be
reviewed.
5.1 FREQUENCY
The current division into 2-, 4-, and 6-year cycles is not useful. A 6-year gap between two
reviews is insufficient to establish a sense of continuity (reviews are seen as one-time events with
which one has to grapple and can forget about afterwards). It would be preferable to review all
countries at least every four years. Some argue that a full-blown review every two years comes
too often, leaving not enough time for changes worth reporting.While this is certainly true under
the current format, a 2-year cycle may be suitable if the objective is to shape domestic discourse
(including through repetition of key messages and events sufficiently frequently to be on people’s
minds).
5.2 MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCES
To obtain an accurate picture of the managerial challenge of conducting improved TPRs, one
has to note that the WTO can build strongly on pre-existing information.This means both sources
from within the WTO (notifications, working committees, dispute settlement system) and from
outside the WTO (information which the Secretariat could not collect itself because of resource
constraints or political limitations where analysis requires contested methodological choices or
value judgments).
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Furthermore, the WTO could more actively disseminate the announcement of which countries
are soon to be reviewed.The analytical grid would serve as a guideline on the information needed.
It could inform academics about the best available information on a country and create incentives
to fill knowledge gaps with the prospect of being quoted in future TPRs.
For small developing countries and least developed countries a simplified analytical grid could
be established.This would have the twofold advantage of not making those countries look bad for
not providing all the information required and of relieving the TPRD.
Nevertheless, collecting the additional information while also improving presentation will require significant additional resources. Not all additional employees would have to work for the
TPRD on a permanent basis. More of the work could be done within the WTO’s specialized
departments and then be ‘assembled’ by the TPRD. For instance, experts in agriculture could
review agricultural policies for all countries under review. This would improve the coherence
in treatment of each measure and sector across countries. It would, in addition, increase quality
and efficiency through rationalization. This will become crucial if TPRs go deeper into analyzing
policy-making processes and trade and welfare effects.
But the WTO should not go to the other extreme and outsource the work on TPRs, either. First,
coherence across TPRs is key to producing meaningful, comparable results. Second, countries will
accept criticism only if they feel that the same yardstick is applied to all of them. The consistent
quality needed can best be assured through in-house production.Third, outsourcing makes much
less sense if TPRs are written by different experts and integrated by the TPRD. The multiplicity
of managerial interfaces speaks in favor of conducting the work within the boundaries of one
organization – possibly in cooperation with a local research institute.
5.3 INDEPENDENCE
How can the independence of the Secretariat be ensured? How can it be immunized against
members’ attempts to water down the Secretariat’s draft report before publication or to subsequently retaliate with diplomatic and public outrage? The most effective shield will be respect for
the TPRM’s performance and the conviction of its systemic utility. In this regard, the status of the
Appellate Body can serve as a model.
On a more practical level, experienced researchers could be invited for instance for twoyear terms, similar to the practice of the World Bank or the Australian Productivity Commission. Having more researchers working at the WTO that are not acquainted with the
‘member-driven’ culture of the Secretariat could help to sharpen TPRs in everyday practice.32)XUWKHUPRUHWZRPHDVXUHVGLVFXVVHGEHORZZRXOGDOVRKDYHEHQHÀFLDOHIIHFWVIRU
independence. Regular independent reviews of the TPRs could shed light on the actual
ZRUNLQJRI WKH735'DQGKLJKOLJKWXQGXHSROLWLFDOLQÁXHQFH$QGHODERUDWLQJ735V
under greater public scrutiny and with stronger stakeholder participation would exercise
pressure on the Secretariat to take up critical contributions in their report and limit countries’ ability to purge the Secretariat’s drafts before publication.
5.4 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
Currently, the Secretariat delegation visiting the country under review meets with selected
stakeholders to obtain input for its report. Only the final TPRs, but neither stakeholders’ contributions nor draft reports, are made public. In the future, the process of elaborating TPRs should
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become more open. Everybody should have the right to submit contributions. All contributions
that fulfill minimal requirements of pertinence and quality, the Secretariat’s draft report, and the
reviewed country’s response to the draft report (signaling factual mistakes but also attempting to
soften criticism) should be published. Such a transparent process would not only strengthen the
Secretariat’s independence vis-à-vis the reviewed country but it would also spur domestic interest
in the TPRM and instill a sense of co-ownership.33
5.5 REVIEW MEETINGS
The current format of review meetings is unattractive. Most questions have already been
discussed bilaterally or in the working committees.The questions are redundant across countries
intervening in the meeting and these questions repeat over the years for countries frequently
under review. Many questions are driven less by informational needs than by the tactical intent to
get complaints ‘on the books’ and build up one’s negotiating positions in the Doha Round.
Answers tend to be defensive and no genuine deliberation takes place. Rather, the meeting reproduces the written answers and questions (which are most boring and excessively numerous – the
US, for instance, received more than 800 questions for its 2008 review, the EU almost twice as
much in 2009). The discussants tend to deliver yet another summary of the TPR instead of critically tackling the reviewed country’s trading practices (and the quality of its responses to the
written questions).
Unsurprisingly therefore participation is weak except for the most important trading nations
that attract much attention and participate in most other countries’ review meetings. A press
conference is organized by the WTO after the second meeting (though this has been discontinued
for lesser trading nations due to poor media interest). But the conference does not produce any
news and most newspapers publish their article already after the first meeting when the reports
are released.
It would be much more coherent with the proposed objective that the TPRM should shape domestic policy making if review meetings were made an attractive event for policymakers, the
trade community, and the media. An apparent point to start with is that holding the meetings of
a transparency mechanism behind closed doors sends an awkward signal. Irrespective of actual
public interest, TPR meetings should be accessible, at least through video streamlining.
The first review meeting should take place in the capital of the country under review.34 The review
meetings should start with a long presentation by a member of theTPRD.This should be followed by
a brief response of a high-ranking representative of the country under review. Subsequently, several
discussion panels should focus on specific aspects of the report. They should be mainly composed
of national and international economists (known to speak jargon-free language). One panel could
involve representatives from business federations and other non-governmental organizations.
A second meeting could be organized in Geneva for the members.The advantage of this sequence
is that the first meeting attracts public attention (like the première at the Opera) when the objective is to involve a maximum of stakeholders and attract the media spotlight. The lack of public
interest in the second meeting is conducive to a more serene discussion among member representatives that can dispense with posturing and finger-pointing.Which form this second meeting
will ideally take remains to be seen. The better the specialized WTO committee’s function, the
less complaints-driven discussions for each individual country will be needed. Something that
could be envisaged is discussions for small groups of similar countries.
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5.6 DISSEMINATION/USE OF TPRS
Changing TPRs and review meetings according to the recommendations would already make a
great difference for the dissemination of the results. If TPRs are well-written and well-presented,
and contain information that is directly critical or can be easily used for criticizing policies, people
will read it, the media will draw on it, and public discourse will refer to it.
In order to further facilitate dissemination, a summary brochure with an appealing layout could be
written that reports especially on improvements since the last review and remaining weaknesses.
Reports could be written by the Secretariat that compare overall trade policies among a small set
of similar countries or that compare specific fields of trade policy across many or all members.
And all information could be fed into an online database that can be searched by country and
piece of information (e.g. to compare average durations of AD measures across EU, US, India, and
China, or to compare the responses of the four countries as to how they separate income support
programs for farmers from other agricultural subsidies aimed at promoting public goods).
5.7 TPRM APPRAISAL
The self-evaluation by the TPRB has proven ineffective. Delegates do not take the time to
seriously examine the workings of the system and to think about alternatives. Also, if they know
that it will be periodically their turn to defend their countries’ trade policies, they are hesitant
to make TPRs more stringent. It seems more appropriate to convene an outside advisory body of
independent experts to assess the substance, methodology, and presentation of TPRs.35 This body
could realize a fully fledged evaluation every three years.
6. POLITICAL FEASIBILITY OF REFORM
Reforming the TPRM along those lines appears acceptable if one believes that the WTO is about
helping governments to implement rational policies, which are at the same time in the interest
of their people and their trading partners, and not to succumb to special interest groups and misguided beliefs about the advantages of protectionism and state interventionism. In this case, the
TPRM would play a central role in the WTO architecture, requiring member states to tolerate
criticism and to grant the Secretariat significant autonomy and resources to live up to the task.
But this runs afoul of the traditional view of the WTO as a forum for negotiations and an enforcement mechanism, with the TPRM being an auxiliary to provide information for bargaining and
compliance monitoring.
What the ‘right’ mission for the WTO is partly depends on factors beyond the scope of this paper,
linked notably to national sovereignty and democratic legitimacy. Resistance will be particularly strong once TPRs scrutinize domestic policy-making processes.36 Nonetheless, some strong
points in favor of not limiting the TPRM out of concern over such broader political considerations
can be made.
Since the inception of the TPRM, governments have become much more used to being entangled
in a net of international, transnational, and domestic institutions that monitor, evaluate, and advise on policies. Most notably, the global economic crisis will result in a far-reaching expansion
of international cooperation on financial regulation and supervision. The long-standing culture
of the WTO as a member-driven organization with a weak Secretariat is not an inevitable aspect
of an international system grounded in national sovereignty but a relic in contradiction with the
groundswell of global governance. States have delegated much more authority to the secretariats
of other international organizations to review their policies, indicating that reticence in the WTO
is more of an idiosyncratic than a principled concern.
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A look at the Breton Woods institutions is revealing. The World Bank’s 2008 Country Economic
Memorandum on Turkey tackles trade policies without hesitation:
Non-tariff barriers that may hamper efficiency gains are still present in an otherwise
largely open trade regime. Despite progress in aligning with the EU acquis, import
customs clearance is still relatively slow in Turkey. Moreover, Turkey has remained
a fairly frequent user of anti-dumping measures since the tariff regime was liberalized in 1996 (World Bank, 2006 CEM). Such measures protect inefficient domestic
industries while increasing the cost of inputs for firms that use the goods that the
measures are targeting. State aid is also an issue as it disrupts a level playing field and
usually is in favor of uncompetitive firms.
So much for Turkey, one might warn, but the world’s great powers would not tolerate such assertiveness. Well, what about the US, powerful by all means, fond of its sovereignty, and harsh
when it comes to disciplining international organizations? In times of the financial crisis, when
the US government is least likely to tolerate outsiders telling it how to run its business, the 2008
IMF Article IV Consultation observes: ‘While the focus on the balanced federal budget by 2013
is encouraging, significant medium-term pressures are being obscured by unrealistic budget plans
… little progress has been made in Congress on reforming unsustainable pension and health entitlement programs.’ And on the trade front, the report criticizes:‘Proliferation of US preferential
trade agreements could undermine the multilateral fabric of world trades unless the agreements
include open-access clauses and simple rules of origin.’
Moreover, the potential infringement on sovereignty through an enhanced TPRM has to be weighted against the sovereignty costs of otherWTO reform measures. Alternative reform options under
debate include establishing a formal steering committee where selected states prepare agreements
before presenting them to the entire membership, introducing some form of majority voting,
strengthening the role of the Director General as a broker in negotiations, and admitting actors
other than representatives of member states’ governments into WTO decision-making.These are
not all direct alternatives, they do not work at the same levels and through the same channels, but
all of these measures are considered by some as means to improve the effectiveness of the WTO
and promote trade liberalization. Among these options, it appears that reforming the TPRM is a
comparably ‘soft’ approach that respects national sovereignty. After all, it does not force countries
to do anything; it just confronts them with an honest picture of their trade policies.
The emerging practice of global governance and the sovereignty costs of alternative reform measures are structural long-term factors weighing in favor of the proposed domestic-policy oriented
TPR reforms.What about the current political climate? Several aspects deserve consideration:
s
The 5-yearly self-appraisal by the Trade Policy Review Body did not produce strong
conclusions.37 But it showed that major players (with the EU and Japan in the first
place) promote changes to give the TPRM greater bite.
s
The blockade of the Doha Round is sufficiently solid to free up political attention and
human resources. Governments can now look beyond negotiating positions to systemic
issues. The WTO Ministerial Meeting in November 2009 is dedicated to systemic issues in the world trading system. India has already submitted an interesting proposal
to strengthen the WTO’s transparency function.38
s
The financial and economic crisis created momentum for fundamental re-thinking and
reform of international institutions. In particular, it sparked concerns about insufficient
monitoring of trade policies.
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s
Pascal Lamy, the WTO’s Director General, and the Secretariat have been successfully
pushing transparency mechanisms as a complement to negotiations and dispute settlement. Most notably, they introduced a new review mechanism of preferential trade
agreements,39 and they started reporting to the Trade Policy Review Body on recent
trade developments associated with the financial crisis.40 In April 2009, Richard Eglin
assumed office as new director of the TPRD. He brings with him a reputation as an
energetic doer and is set to drastically improve the TPRM.
Structural factors and current trends are thus both playing into the hands of sharpening the
TPRM. If governments nevertheless fail to undertake serious reform, civil society could (and
should) assume responsibility.The leading world economy think tanks or university departments
of the economically important countries could create a network to conduct trade policy reviews
themselves.41 Such a coordinated approach would offer several advantages. First, a standard format could be developed that would facilitate cross-country comparison. Second, the network
could assure the quality and thus the legitimacy of the reviews by selecting the most competent
research units and by exercising peer review. Third, a coordinated undertaking would signal the
longevity of the review project and attract attention.The perspective that enhanced transparency
of trade policies will otherwise be brought about by civil society may incline governments to accept reform of the international TPRM.
Some proposals may still be unacceptable at a first reform step. But it is important to see the
dynamics of reform: Just as greater political attention and support under current circumstances
can facilitate ‘technical’ improvements of the mechanism, a more effective TPRM will attract
greater attention and support over time. Much of the resistance against the TPRM is not principled insistence on sovereignty but bad administrative habits and laziness. This can gradually be
overcome if the higher administrative hierarchies and political decision-makers engage more
with the TPRM.
It should also be noted that enhanced transparency could be pioneered by a coalition-of-the-willing, with a limited number of members accepting to be reviewed according to stricter standards.
This would facilitate a gradual spread of enhanced TPRs, driven by international herd behavior
and peer pressure. Also, if liberal governments accepted enhanced TPRs, their successors would
have difficulty in reversing these WTO commitments. Such a gradual process sits well with the
idea that international mechanisms for transparency and good governance serve countries’ own
interests even more than those of their trading partners. Countries can do without the old mantra
of concession trading and reciprocity.
7. CONCLUSION
When the TPRM was inaugurated 20 years ago, some observers saw in its first fledgling steps the
future strides that would transform trade politics, but the mechanism did not grow strong and
bold. It remained neglected, deficient in resources and political backing. Political attention was
directed at it only to bully it back into its corner if it stuck out its nose. As a result, the Secretariat
reports are superficial, tame, and convoluted, and they are discussed in closed-door, boringly
repetitive review meetings driven by individual complaints.
Today more than ever, the world trading system needs a powerful transparency mechanism that
creates the political will for liberalization. The new regulatory, behind-the-border agenda for
trade liberalization – on issues like services, investment, competition policy, or technical standards – cannot be attained through negotiations among bureaucrats isolated from public opinion.
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It depends on broad public support for unilateral reform and multilateral disciplines.
Therefore, the TPRM should be redesigned from scratch. It should follow a standardized analytical grid that improves readability, allows easy comparison across time and countries, and
asks all countries of similar levels of development the same tough questions. Using studies from
scientifically reputable sources, it should rigorously analyze trade and welfare effects – including
non-economic repercussions on broader sustainability objectives. It should also inspect policymaking processes, applying best practice benchmarks and again relying on pre-existing in-depth
studies. To improve the quality of its reports, the Secretariat should receive additional resources
and independence.The process of writing reports should become more transparent and participatory. Last but not least, the discussion and dissemination of the reports should be geared up and
turned into an interesting public event.
The window of opportunity is wide open.The deadlock of the Doha Round lends urgency to the
institutional reform of the WTO and frees up the necessary human and political resources. The
financial and economic crisis has further added to the perception that the architecture of global
economic governance deserves refurbishing, and that transparency and analytical monitoring
are essential for stable prosperity in an interdependent world.The WTO Secretariat has recently
expanded its role in ensuring transparency – through close-up surveillance of emerging protectionism and databases on preferential trade agreements and sanitary and phytosanitary measures
– and it is determined to overhaul the TPRM. Key members have signaled their willingness to
join in. It is thus well possible that the TPRM will see more change in the next two years than it
has seen in its first two decades.
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ANNEX 1
The policy-related benefits of TPRs are thus manifold and heterogeneous.
s
TPRs may affect trade policies through multilateral and unilateral liberalization.
s
They change governments’ trade policy preferences through different channels (governments’ beliefs about suitable policies, international peer pressure, and domestic
politics).
s
Their effect may be in the information they deliver as well as in the attention the TPR
as an event focalizes on one country’s trade policies.
s
They have an effect on the country under review but also beyond by communicating
international trends and experiences.
s
They may influence specific measures as well as the overall direction of trade policies.
s
They may further compliance with WTO norms or improve trade related policies
independently of legal obligations.
s
TPRs can change substantive policies or related procedures, such as policy-making
processes, domestic review institutions, and WTO notifications.
In addition, TPRs may create positive spillover effects independently of whether they change
trade policies. For instance, TPRs of developing countries may serve as a diagnostic for aid for
trade and technical assistance in trade policy making. Businesses may use TPRs for their trade and
investment decisions, and academics may use it in their research.
ANNEX 2
Several criteria can be developed to select the issues that should be included and the analysis
that should be provided on each issue:
s
Trade relevance: Information should have a clear linkage to trade.
s
Policy impact: Information should be preferred that has the potential of influencing
policies, in particular by making the costs of trade restrictive measures visible and by
enabling comparison across time and countries.
s
Change: Information should be preferred where significant developments frequently
occur between two reports.
s
Differentiation: Information should be preferred that differs across countries in a
meaningful way.
s
Quantification: Information should be preferred that can be quantified (thus enabling comparison across time and countries).
s
Relative availability and quality: Information should be preferred whereTPRs offer
information that cannot be easily collected from other sources of at least equal quality.
TPRs have to fulfill some further requirements to be user-friendly. This is crucial if TPRs are to
reach political decision-makers or opinion leaders that have limited knowledge of trade issues
and are unwilling to invest time and effort to engage with an uninspiring, unnecessarily cumbersome compendium.
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s
Succinctness: Eliminating information that does not add significant value makes the
report more attractive and accessible to readers and directs the attention to the essential elements. This also eases the burden on the Secretariat and permits more analytic
work on the remaining issues.
s
Structure: The structure of TPRs should be detailed, explicit, coherent within a report, and coherent across reports.
s
Standardization: A large share of information should be provided in all TPRs, so that
readers know what to expect and are able to compare across time and countries.
Much TPR content cannot be justified according to the criteria proposed above. Section 1 of
the TPRs on the economic environment should be largely dropped and several parts of Section
2 on the policy regime also be eliminated. Many of these elements lack trade relevance and the
potential for influencing policy. Many elements remain unchanged over long time periods and
read quite similarly across TPRs of different countries. Especially on the economic environment,
better information is easily available from other sources. The annex of this paper takes the 2007
TPR of the EU as an example to show the potential for cuts.
Those sections that deserve to be kept need serious improvement. The quantitative description
of trade policies is often superficial.The TPR give snapshots without reference points that would
help to assess policy evolution over time and make comparisons across countries. Analysis on the
trade and welfare effects is mostly absent. In addition, description and analysis are selective, with
very different levels of detail across issues and countries, apparently driven by the information
the country under review supplies. Policy-making processes are summarized at a highly general
level instead of comparing specific processes, for instance on antidumping investigations, to best
practices.
A further problem arises with the presentation of the analysis.The most important shortcomings
concern the lower-level structure of the TPRs (that is, the fine-grained sequencing of the text that
does not show up in the table of contents). The structure is not sufficiently explicit. Sometimes,
there is no heading on several consecutive pages; it is difficult to quickly grasp the content of a
paragraph (something that could be mended by formulating the first phrase of a paragraph as a
lead and possibly highlighting it or by highlighting one or several keywords ahead of or within the
paragraph); and there is virtually no text guiding the reader. Moreover, the sequence of paragraphs
and of issues within a paragraph is not intuitive.There is no overarching principle that would help
readers to find their way, such as regularly separating the legal framework, policy changes, policy
objectives, implementation measures, trade effects, future regulatory intentions into different
paragraphs and ordering them as consistently as possible throughout the report.
ANNEX 3
The 2007 TPR of the EU can serve as an example of the potential for cuts.42 Regarding the economic environment, Section 1.1 ‘Main characteristics’ sounds like the general country information in a travel guide:
1. The 25 Member States of the European Communities (EC-25) cover a land area
of 3.9 million km2 and have a combined population of 459.5 million, of which
68% resides in the euro area. Germany is the most populated country, followed by
France and the United Kingdom; France is the biggest in surface, followed by Spain
and Sweden; and Malta is the smallest in both area and population.
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Section 1.2 ‘Recent economic developments’ offers general macroeconomic information drawing on EU sources without establishing any link to trade and trade policies. The only section to
be retained is Section 1.3 ‘Trade performance and investment’ that gives an overview of trade
and investment flows. The very short Section 1.4 ‘Outlook’ is again macroeconomic without a
link to trade.
Moving on to the trade and investment regime, Section 2.1 ‘Institutional framework’ unites almost all the possible vices:The very general description of the institutional setup of the EU has no
apparent link to trade, the information is unlikely to influence policies, change cannot generally
be expected between two reviews, and similar descriptions can be easily found in many other
sources.The Section 2.2 ‘Policy formulation and implementation’ is more trade specific and could
be kept in an improved form. Section 2.3 ‘Trade policy objectives’ is a lofty self-declaration that
could equally well decorate the EU website – or the website of about any other country. It is not
useful in a Secretariat report but can be placed in the accompanying policy statement issued by
the government of the country under review. Section 2.4 ‘Trade regulations and business environment’ explains the EU’s enterprise policy and in particular the single market. To the extent
that this information is pertinent, it should show up in sections 3 and 4 where trade measures
are being discussed. Section 2.5 ‘Trade agreements and arrangements’ contains some interesting
topics (WTO notifications, dispute settlement activity, preferential trade agreements, nonreciprocal preference schemes) – but also ample opportunity for cuts. The reader ‘learns’, at even
greater length in other TPRs, that the country under review is active in the Doha Round and a
promoter of the open and rules-based trading system (despite its reluctant PTA expansion as a
complimentary strategy).
The topics of sections 3 and 4 of the TPRs, which examine policies by measure and sector, are
mostly justified in the light of above criteria. Some subsections, however, could be purged. For
instance, the discussion of transport and energy should be limited to aspects relevant to market
access in these industries and not describe a country’s situation and policies in general terms.The
introductory paragraph on the energy sector starts (and carries on) like this:
49. The EC is an energy-intensive economy; it accounted for about 15% of world
energy consumption in 2000. As the world’s largest energy importer, and the second largest consumer, the EC’s demand for primary energy grew by 10% between
1990 and 2000. In 2002, the United Kingdom was the leading producer of primary
energy (28.5% of the EC’s total production), while Germany was the largest consumer (19.4% of final energy consumption) (Table IV.12). Industrial demand for
energy has been relatively stable, but demand from households and the tertiary sector has increased as a result of the transition to a more service-oriented economy.
On transport, the TPR states:
112.Transport accounts for 7% of EC GDP, around 5% of employment (more than
10 million jobs), and 71% of total oil consumption. During 1995-04, transport
demand grew by 2.8% a year for goods and 1.9% for passengers. However, there is
unequal growth in the different modes of transport. Road transport accounted for
44% of the goods transport market over the period, followed by 42% for waterborne transport (39% for short-sea shipping routes, and 3% for inland waterways),
10% for rail, and 0.1% for intra-EC air; on the passenger transport market, road accounted for 84%, rail for 7%, and air for 8% (Table IV.16). Some of the main prob-
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lems faced by the subsector include congestion on the main road and rail routes, in
cities, and at certain airports; environmental and public health concerns; poor road
safety; security threats; and, in general, difficulties in implementing the Treaty of
Rome common transport policy.
Information about the composition of a country’s energy sources or the relative importance of
different modes of transport does not provide a focal point for other countries or domestic constituents to lobby for better trade policies. TPRs should be cleaned of such compendium-style
information.
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Policy Brief No 1/2009.
Esty, Daniel C. 2002. The World Trade Organization’s Legitimacy Crisis. World Trade Review 1
(1):7-22.
European Court of Auditors. 2008. Is Cross Compliance an Effective Policy?: Special Report No.
8/2008.
Francois, Joseph F. 2001a. Maximising the Benefits of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism. In
Developing Countries and theWTO:A Pro-active Agenda, edited by B. Hoekman and W. Martin. Oxford:
Blackwell.
———. 2001b. Trade Policy Implications and Investor Confidence: Some Implications for an
Effective Trade Policy Review Mechanism. Review of International Economics 9 (2):303-316.
Gamberoni, Elisa, and Richard Newfarmer. 2009. Trade Protection: Incipient but Worrisome
Trends:World Bank Trade Notes 37.
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at the Tasman Transparency Group’s Conference on Domestic Transparency at the Lowy Institute,
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Jackson, John H., and Alan O. Sykes, eds. 1997. Implementing the Uruguay Round. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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Keesing, Donald B. 1998. Improving Trade Policy Reviews in theWorld Trade Organization.Washington,
DC: Institute for International Economics.
Keohane, Robert O., and Joseph S. Nye, Jr. 2001. Between Centralization and Fragmentation:The
Club Model of Multilateral Cooperation and Problems of Democratic Legitimacy. In Efficiency,
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Kimura, Fukunari. 2008. Demystify Protectionism: The WTO Trade Policy Review of Japan.
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Laird, Sam. 1999. The WTO’s Trade Policy Review Mechanism - From Through the Looking
Glass. World Economy 22 (6):741-764.
Leutwiler, Fritz, and Bill Bradley. 1985. Trade Policies for a Better Future: Proposals for Action. Geneva:
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Long, Olivier. 1989. Public Scrutiny of Protection: Domestic Policy Transparency and Trade Liberalization.
Aldershot: Ashgate.
Macrory, Patrick F. J., Arthur E. Appleton, and Michael G. Plummer. 2005. TheWorld Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis.Vol. III. NewYork: Springer.
Razeen, Sally. 2008. New Frontiers in Free Trade.Washington, DC: Cato Institute.
Skaggs, David E. 2005. How Can Parliamentary Participation in WTO Rule-Making and Democratic Control be Made More Effective in the WTO? A United States Congressional Perspective.
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Petersmann. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Barton: Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
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Van-Thinh, Tran. 1991. Statement by H. E. Mr. Tran Van-Thinh: GATT document C/RM/6.
Van den Bossche, Peter. 2008. NGO Involvement in the WTO: A Comparative Perspective. Journal of International Economic Law 11 (4):717-749.
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TPR/27.
———. 2005. Second Appraisal of the Operation of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism:WT/
MIN(05)/1.
———. 2006a. Managing the Challenges of WTO Participation: 45 Case Studies.
———. 2006b. Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements:WT/L/671.
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———. 2007a. Trade Policy Review Mechanism: Report of the Trade Policy Review Body for
2007:WT/TPR/213.
———. 2007b.Trade Policy Review Report by the Secretariat: European Communities - Revision:WT/TPR/177/Rev. 1.
———. 2008a. Rules of Procedure for Meetings of the Trade Policy Review Body:WT/TPR/6/
Rev.2.
———. 2008b. Third Appraisal of the Operation of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism:WT/
TPR/229.
———. 2008c. Trade Policy Review Mechanism: Report of the Trade Policy Review Body for
2008:WT/TPR/232.
Zahrnt, Valentin. 2008. Domestic Constituents and the Formulation of WTO Negotiating Positions:What the Delegates Say. World Trade Review 7 (2):393-421.
———. 2009. Transparency of Complex Regulation: How Should WTO Trade Policy Reviews
Deal with Sanitary and Phytosanitary Policies?: ECIPE Working Paper No. 06/2009.
FOOTNOTES
1.
I am grateful to Roderick Abbott, Serdar Altay, Gery Banks, Hugh Corbet, Fredrik Erikson, Hayden Fisher,
Andrew Lang, Hosuk Lee-Makiyama and Keith Rockwell for helpful comments on earlier drafts. I am
equally indebted to all the government and WTO officials that shared their thoughts on the TPRM with
me. The project has been supported by the German Marshall Fund of the United States.
2.
See Baldwin and Evenett (2009), Erixon (2009), Gamberoni and Newfarmer (2009) and several reports
by WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy.
3.
Paragraph A of Annex 3 of the WTO Agreement.
4.
Such an approach would complement the Secretariat’s effort to reach out to domestic constituents and
create a more trade-friendly climate, for instance through public fora, informal meetings with NGOs, and
the WTO website. For a recent survey of these activities, see Van den Bossche (2008).
5.
The objective determines issue selection, written presentation of the report, the process of developing
and discussing reports, and the frequency of reports, among other aspects.
6.
See Annex 3 of the WTO Agreement and the TPRB’s rules of procedure – WTO (2008a).
7.
See WTO (1996), WTO (2005) and WTO (2008b). The annual reports of the TPRB on its work are
highly repetitive and uncritical. See WTO (2008c), WTO (2007a) and earlier reports.
8.
Comparison is possible thanks to the WTO’s collection of media clippings. The feeling that TPRs
have become more deferential over time has been shared by all interview partners with an opinion on
the issue. The following statement, made after the first review of the European Communities by its
permanent representative to the GATT, Mr. Tran Van-Thinh, offers a telling snapshot of how the TPRM
was tamed: ‘One should have a sense of balance, a sense of proportion, a sense of relativity to give more
encouragement, to urge the political authorities and decision-makers of the Community to realize and
recognize that European integration is all very well … I have always contended that without the Community
nothing gets done here. A fortiori, one can do nothing against the Community.’ See Van-Thinh (1991).
9.
The Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung has been most emphatic in this regard.
10. A good overview of sources up to 1996 can be found at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/
tppubs_e.htm. The World Economy dedicated two special issues to the TPRM in 1995 and 1996.
11. Five discussions of individual TPRs can be found in volume 31, issue 11 of the World Economy – but
they contain few reflections on the TPRM in general.
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12. For instance, Kimura (2008) observes that, ‘To encourage Japan to reform its agricultural sector, we must
conduct much more penetrative analyses than the general description provided by the TPR.’
13. See Francois (2001a), Francois (2001b), Keesing (1998) and Laird (1999).
14. See Annex 1.
15. The World Bank also publishes an annual overview report of the World Trade Indicators that shows
mostly global and regional developments but also singles out individual countries (for instance, it provides
a table with countries whose simple average MFN Tariff has increased).
16. See, for instance, India’s amazingly rich section on anti-dumping at http://commerce.nic.in.
17. See Stoeckel and Fisher (2008) for a comparison of domestic transparency agencies across seven
countries.
18. The most important use for TPR information in negotiations appears to be for negotiating preferential
trade agreements where countries need information on the individual trade policies of even small
developing countries. But promoting derogations from the Most-Favored Nation principle can hardly be
an objective for the WTO.
19. Groser (2007) notes: ‘Once the two TPRM reports have been written, the diplomatic process that then
unfolds is, to use an old Australian phrase, about as useful as a glass door on a dunny [toilette]. … So if it
is, say, Canada that is being reviewed, then the NZ representative will come along and say all manner of
nice things about Canada as a sort of throat-clearing exercise before she or he zeroes in, on instructions
from Wellington, to make the usual bitch about the Canadian dairy regime. … There is no output. If you
want an output, you use dispute settlement, not the TPRM.’
20. See Esty (2002) and Keohane and Nye (2001).
21. See Jackson and Sykes (1997), Macrory, Appleton, and Plummer (2005), and WTO (2006a) for
collections of case studies. See also Zahrnt (2008) for a survey of delegations to the WTO.
22. Skaggs (2005) reports that “a Member [of Congress] most often hears about trade from angry
constituents. The anger may be because of job or business losses, or it may be couched in terms of
philosophical opposition: from the left usually because of lack of transparency, and from the right usually
because of national sovereignty.”
23. See Razeen (2008).
24. A list of criteria that TPRs should fulfill, and a discussion of the weaknesses of current TPRs in the light
of these criteria, is contained in annex 2. An example of the weaknesses, taken from the 2007 TPR of the
EU, is given in annex 3.
25. It could be examined whether information that does not fit into the standard structure really matters; and
it could be examined whether information that is unusually long for a given element of the structure could
not be condensed
26. Currently, some countries feel they are treated more harshly than others (and mention this as a reason for
resisting critical remarks when giving feedback on the Secretariat’s draft report before its publication).
27. Employing an analytical grid flexibly as a function of clearly set-out criteria is still very different from current
TPR practice.
28. When accessing TPRs electronically, hyperlinks could directly lead to the most recent detailed treatments
of the omitted/abbreviated elements.
29. A review of the EU’s policy-making practices in agriculture, for instance, could refer to several evaluations
by the Court of Auditors that criticize the lack of clarity of stated objectives, carelessness in the choice
of policy instruments, incoherence in implementation, and weak monitoring and enforcement. See for
instance European Court of Auditors (2008). Similarly critical records exist of the EU’s anti-dumping
practice. See Davis (2009).
30. See Zahrnt (2009).
31. Leutwiler and Bradley (1985) and Long (1989) have already stressed the interplay between the WTO
and domestic transparency. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Hong Kong proposed even an
agreement during the Uruguay Round to enhance domestic transparency, and UNCTAD exhorts its
members to establish transparency mechanisms on trade policies. See Banks (1992).
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32. It could also help to bridge the gap between the academic and analytical community and the work within
the WTO itself. Other international organizations, such as the World Bank and the IMF, are closer to the
leading edge of research.
33. A counter-argument can be made that draft reports contain too many holes and mistakes for public
release. However, this weakness can be clearly highlighted in drafts. At the very least, a first draft could
be sent to the country under review and be released together with a second draft (highlighting all
changes from the first draft) for public commenting. In this way, technical flaws would be mended before
the release, while politically dictated changes could be spotted.
34. For financial and logistical reasons, review meetings in capitals may have to be limited, for instance to the
20 biggest economies. Review meetings could also take place in capitals of all those countries that offer
to pay the costs or that find donors to sponsor the meeting. There are also substantial funds for technical
cooperation on trade that could be used to organize review meetings.
35. This idea has already been brought forward by Keesing (1998).
36. An amusing example of such stubborn sovereignty claims is the EU’s reply (G/ADP/Q1/EEC/28) to
Chinese worries that EU anti-dumping measures can be taken by a minority of the Council as abstentions
are counted as votes in favor: ‘The internal decision making process is by no means governed by WTO
law and therefore lies within the sole discretion of each Member of the WTO.’ Is it not the EU that time
and again prods China to change its domestic governance?
37. See WTO (2008b).
38. See India (2009).
39. See WTO (2006b).
40. See http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/archive_e/trdev_arc_e.htm.
41. I am grateful to Patrick Messerlin for pointing out this option. See www.globaltradealert.org for a nongovernmental transparency initiative.
42. See WTO (2007b).
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