HOW TO IMPROVE MEMORY (PROF. GRACE YAWO GADAGBUI) DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION. DEAN OF FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES Introduction In a complex world such as ours, man needs to have a sharp memory for abundant information before he can be productive even in the immediate family (the micro system) before the macro `ystem which is the “external world” outside the family circle. This macro system comprises the tertiary level of education, the ministerial sectors and the world at least including the choice of man or woman you may want to spend the rest of your life with. To expand means to have information and the amount of correct information you have make you the “giant” of the membership of the set. Information gives power and makes you dominant, over others who lack it. Information is the key to get you one and the flight of distinction. There is no substitute for appropriate information. It requires diligent exploration and description. In order to be informed it means you need to have a good structural physiological make up, that is, the brain that will collect, process, retain, retrieve and put the data or information to a good use. If you cannot do any of these as a living human being, you would soon attract labels. Some of such labels can be mental retardation, mental illness, and learning disabilities. This latter involve difficulties in two or more of the following: writing, spelling and oral communication, perception, cognition, emotional /behavioural abnormalities and reading. 1 In EUe, teachers will use verbal aggressive words as “tagb‫כ‬kukut‫“ כ‬literally meaning a “person with dead brain”, “asoviwo. In Fanti, the word “adwenkaekyir” or gyimigyimi” and in Ga “Buulu” are used. Each tribe has an equivalence to learning difficulties for the victims. Those labels have associated social stigma for the client also, such as social withdrawals, rejection and other punishment. Anyone whether, child or adult whose behaviour is a deviation from those of his peers, in some cultures is underrated and undermined of his integrity. Self esteem is ought to be preserved; that ego of staying at the level of “ who you are” is to be left intact for the individual. Our genes inalterably determine every thing about us ( Sternberg 1994:78). There is no doubt that the upbringing, our parents’ personalities, our schooling, physical surrounding (ie our environments) greatly affect who we become. How ever, how much of genetic effect is not very clear. Gene, is a fundamental unit of heredity. It is a unit of inheritance, a piece of the genetic material that determines the inheritance of a particular characteristic or group of characteristics (trait) – The reference is made to how tall or short; dark or fair skin colour; brown or blue eye colour a person possesses. Genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism, which is hidden and transferable from parents to their siblings. The phenotype is the physical expression. The genes contribute to our traits and our behaviour. 2 Nature (genes) and nurture (environment) both affect the way we act. By nature and nurture our intelligence is affected. The interaction of genetic and environmental factors can affect our intelligence and many other traits. Genetics and environment therefore affect our intelligence ( thinking, idea organization, processing, problem solving, imagination, creativity, recalling, retention etc).. Objectives The unique features of this book are : i. What memory is? ii. Types of memory, iv. Memory and learning vi. how memory can be improved; What is Memory? iii. Memory and brain structure v. Cause of memory loss vii. Conclusion. (Psychology) is a faculty mental ability by which things from the past are brought to mind or retained there, or that which is recalled. Memory is our distinctive characteristic. Our unique memories define who we are, a record of our personal past that also acts as a guide to our present and future. Memory defines your destiny and personality Memories Endure: Recall of remote childhood can be brought to the fore. Though cells will have been replaced many millions of times, yet memories persist and with them our sense of identity. Since memories are so essential for man’s living, anything that gets it damaged like the Alzheimer’s disease is so devastating. This disease shows cardinal symptoms 3 of loss of memory. Since the 19th century, scientific study of human memory began on losses of memory resulting from the brain damage or alcoholism began to be catalogued. Again, Hermann Ebbinghaus experimentally studied normal human memory and asked people to remember lists of words or nonsense syllables. His finding indicated that within the first hour or so, a large proportion of the words were forgotten. But those items which remained persistently in memory gave rise to the short term and long term distinction. Hence, the psychological study of memory, has been built around the two poles of normal and abnormal ever since. Types of Memory Taxonomy of normal human memory are: 1. Long term memory 2. Short term memory 3. Procedural memory 4. Declarative memory a. semantic b. Episodic/autobiographical memory 1. Long term memory: Relates to information held for life time, memory which is persisting. It is an indicating of memory span. 2. Short term memory: “Working memory” relates to information held for a short time, minutes or even seconds. It can be transferred to Long Term memory through repetition and rehearsal. This is also an indications of memory span. 3. Procedural memory : Memory of skills or how to do things eg, ride a bicycle. 4 4. Declarative memory: This is divided into semantic and Episodic/autobiographic. a. Semantic memory: Is a way of describing our store of knowledge, much of which we share with others (eg. the names of objects: A dog is a four legged domestic animal. b. Episodic/autobiographic: Has to do with remembering an activity done -eg I went riding a bicycle last Tuesday (Steven Rose & Igor Aleksander Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia). Most of the thoughts (cognition) which occupy our mind, appear to rely on mechanisms of memory. Cognition has to do with knowing, perceiving and thinking. Imagining; creativity Memory and brain structures The Human brain It is located in the brain and the brain is that part of the central nervous system within the cranium having to do with the thought, memory and emotion. The brain contains the higher centres for various sensory impulses and initiates controls, and coordinates muscular movements in human and vertebrates. The human brain is a master organ of the body. It looks like a walnut of a--3 pounds size sitting on top of the spinal cord (Davidoff, 1980). Shelved in a cranium. Although the size varies, the average weight of that of male is 1600 g or 3.51bs and that of the female weights about 1450g. However, in terms of brain weight per body weight, males and females have equivalent brain sizes. The brain is a pinkish gray tissue with wrinkled surface that looks like a cauliflower. It is a collection of neuron groupings which are intricately interrelated. The brain and the spinal cord 5 make the central nervous system which is a component of the nervous system. Mamninon (1995) stated that the brain is composed of approximately 100 billion neurons and an equal number of neuroglial cells which support, protect, and nourish the neurons. Development of the brain Davidoff stated that, the brain starts as a bumpy tube (sealed at the two ends) which is divided into three main subdivisions: Fore brain, midbrain and hindbrain. Due to growth, the forebrain gradually expands. As the organisms capacity for processing information increases in quantity and quality, the forebrain enlarges. (Support with a diagram). Then the midbrain decreases in size but the hindbrain remains approximately the same size. The hindbrain forms the cerebellum (small brain) pons and medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is for balancing coordination and muscle tone Damage to it causes motor problems Jerky movement. The Cortex The forebrain and midbrain form the cerebrum. Cerebral cortex or cortex meaning “rind” or “ bark” covers a vast region of forebrain and midbrain. The cortex gives enormous information processing capabilities. It receives and processes sensory information, thinks and performs other cognitive processes, plans and sends motor information. The more the organism is capable of intelligent behaviour the more cortex it appears to have. The cerebrum is often used when referring to both the midbrain and the forebrain. 6 The Cortex of different species: - Reptiles and birds have tiny cortex - Mammals (dogs and cats, for instance) have small cortex - Primates ( Chimpanzees and human beings) have large cortex. - Fish and amphibians (frogs and turtles) have no cortex. (Davidoff, 1980:109). The human cortex is a massive structure 1/10 of an inch thick, contains about three quarters of the brains neurons. It looks wrinkled and folded with ridges and crevices. There are deep cracks (Longitudinal Fissure) dividing the brain into nearly symmetrical halves called hemispheres. The brain is one but has two hemispheres, left and right hemispheres joined together by a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres work together, are connected and share information through the corpus callosum. Both hemispheres are able to analyze sensory data, perform memory functions, learn new information, form the thoughts and make decision. Besides, the opposite sides of the body are controlled by each hemisphere. For instance, the right side of the brain control muscles on the left side of the body and the left sides of the brain controls muscles of the right side of the body Sensory information from the left side of the body crosses over to the other side of the brain information from the right sides of the body crosses over to the left side of the brain. As a result damage from one part of the body will affect the opposite side of the body. Various surface landmarks (sulcus and fissure ) divide the cortex into four subdivisions called lobes. These are: 7 the frontal lobes are in the forehead area 1. Frontal lobes - 2. Parietal lobes- 3. 4. Temporal lobesOccipital lobes- Speech production information processes; integration ;cognition; formulating plans; processing memories languages and problem solving. The frontal lobes of the human brain are the most highly developed part relative to other animals. People with damage to frontal lobes exhibit changes in behaviour of information leave the auxiliary verbs ---ing; es/ i, prepositions-/on, under, of etc Speech, sensation of temperature, touch, pressure and pain from skin. hearing and understanding /comprehension Visual information Limbic System (Some called, It “emotional brain”) “Limbic” means “border” This is an area just lying beneath the cerebral cortex. It is a collection of highly interconnected neuron groupings within the forebrain. Distinctive features of the limbic system It includes the - amygdala (deals with anger and aggression and registers the emotional content of memory) - hippocampus (influences learning and memory) - Septum(deals with anger and fear) - Cingulate gyrus (unknown) - portions of the hypothalamus (make us feel hungry, Thirsty feel sexy/mating, stressed, cold and it prods us to take action . (Sternberg, 1995) - thalamus: Is a large collection of cell bodies in the 8 forebrain that looks like two small foot balls. It relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex. It also takes active part in controlling sleep and wakefulness (Davidoff, 1980:113) All these organs are found lying roughly at the inner borders of the cerebral hemispheres. The limbic system is also described as involving portions of both subconscious and conscious brains. It contains the neural path ways which connect portions of the frontal lobes, temporal lobes, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus (see figure). Functions of the Limbic System The limbic system is noted for expression of motivation and emotion. This system is also noted for also playing the essential rules in hunger, thirst, sleep, waking, body temperature, sex, aggressive, fear and docility (Davidoff 1980: 114). Mamnino (1995) also stated that the limbic system deals with memory, pain pleasure, rage, affection, sexual interest, fear and sorrow. Where is memory located? Memory lies in the area of hippocampus and amygdale. Hippocampus: Serves important function in memory and organizing information about animals and location in space. This areas is necessary for short term memory and transfers from short term to long term memory (StephenRose-microsoft-Encarta Encyclopaedia). 9 Amygdala: Is necessary for registration of the emotional content of memory. It is linked with social behaviour. It deals with anger and aggression. The limbic system is particularly involved in emotions and in the processes of learning and memory. Learning requires memory. The limbic system is essential for both short-term and long term memory. When do you get worried on memory loss? Dr. Grossberg states that you get worried when the changes you experience affect your daily ability to function. If the severity of forgetfulness is very frequent and it does interfere with your ability to do your job, for instance, you should see your doctor. Memory and Learning When monkeys were taught to remember computer clip art pictures, research findings indicated that they reduced the level of detail by sorting the picture into categories of recall, such as, people, buildings, flowers and animals. The categorizing cells were found in the hippocampus – the brain area that processes sensory information into memory. Likewise, when you have meetings you need to remember the people you met. The brain probably does not memorize each person’s facial features to help you identify them later. Instead, it records vital information such as hairstyle, height or age, all classifications that are familiar with from meeting people in general. ( Deadwyler, 10 Sam, 2004 http://www.advance for spanda.com/common/News/iak/daily News/watch.aspx). My experience is familiarization of faces and where people sit. How does the hippocampus process the information? The monkeys’ hippocampus processe the information to retain and retrieve memories by effectively separating the pictures into categories. It is likely, that humans use a similar process” Hampson Robert (Ph.D) Recollection depends critically on the hippocampus but how it works is yet to be known. New finding suggested that we are reminded of things experienced before as a result of the hippocampus neurons categorization. (Deadwyler, Sam. & Hampson, Robert (2004).http://www.advance for spanda.com/com/common/Newstink/daily/Newswatch/ aspx). Current theories on how the brain processes sight, sound and touch reveal that the initial view that information is processed on sense-by-sense brains, does not come together until much later has been challenged by studies (Wallace, mark 2004). The new view is that “the visual processing can be influenced by hearing and touch”. The neighbouring cell in the borders between them can share information from both senses. This new view also might explain how individuals who lose one sense early in life often develop greater acuity in the remaining senses. This new view represents the idea of multisensory integrating of cells sharing information in the cerebral cortex but how this happens among the different senses is yet to be understood (Wallace, Mart( PhD) – Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. February, 2004). 11 http//wwwadvanceforspanda.com/common/Newlinks/dailyNewswatch.aspx 6/23/2004. Causes of Poor Memory Research based causes for poor memory are: A. - Dementia - Diabetes - Poor nutrition - Genetic predisposition - Biological abnormalities (eg) smaller hippo campus. Dietary Problem B12; B vitamin, folate deficiencies result in poor memory. B vitamins help in mental functioning. Lack of it causes learning difficulty and spina bifida in neonate. B vitamins are found in cereals; vegetables, milk; diary products, fruits and bread. (Gadagbui, 1999 GEMTAJ) Glucose is the format sugar obtained from carbohydrates. The brain runs on glucoses and the blood sugar is obtained from carbohydrates (grains, legume fruits and vegetables. Glucose enhances heaving a memory. Glucose is the fuels normally used by the brain cells. The brains (maize, rice etc) legumes peas & beans, groundnut and Soya beans which have protein (The human brain carbohydrate:file//E:\20human%20Brain%20-%20 carbohydrates htm. 12 - Poor nutrition - Undiagnosed vitamin B deficiencies (Neuropsychology , April 2004. https//www.advnceforspinda.com/common/ C. Genetic predisposition (eg. Azheimer’s Disease This disease is for elderly people. It is noted for forgetfulness, misplacing of reading glasses and even to use it ; difficulty to remember people’s names even close relatives it causes depression in the early stages (Becky Ham; a staff writer of the Health behavior News Service. http//www.advanceforspanda.com/common/News/inks/dailyNewswatch.aspx: 6/23/2004 D. Oxygen deprivation Hypoxic injury in the womb or at birth can lead to brain defects. E. Dementia: Is a progressive brain dysfunction due to destruction of brain cells. Symptoms: This brain dysfunction is characterized by loss of recent memory; difficulty in performing familiar tasks; problem with words; confusion with time and place, poor judgment, problems with abstract thinking; changes in mood and personality; loss of initiation (Annals of internal medicine, June 3, 2003). -People at over age 65 are at risk of dementia. F. Smoking: In the elderly have also been found to reduce cognitive abilities in the elderly. Research shows that alcoholic drinks and smoking destroy the neurons of the brain. Neonates also suffer due to passive smoking. Prenatally, fetus suffers from Fetal Alcohol syndrome resulting in mental 13 impairment, low birth weight, heart problems, behaviour problems, and some physical disabilities (smith and Luckusson 1992 cited in Avoke 1997:24). G. Diabetes: Poor uncontrolled diabetes seems to cause cognitive problem in elderly. There is an association between diabetes and dementia in older people (Neurology, March 23, 2004- NewslinksdailyNewswatch.aspx) H. Interference and decay: Interference means Competing information and decay also means passage of time cause forgetfulness I. Inaccurate /Poor storage /or retrieval of materials : When mind is 10,000 miles away it brings about encoding failures in Long Term memory (Davidoff, 1980: 253). Improving Memory Dr. Grossberg’s Recipe for Brain Health- Geriatric Psychiatry St. Louis University School of Medicine (USA). Dr. George Grossberg is an internationally recognized researcher in Alzheimer’s disease and a geriatric Psychiatrist in St/Louis University, USA. A. Grossberg Suggested that when someone needs to improve the memory the following procedure should be followed: 1. Figure out what is causing the forgetfulness. May have many things to do at once. (Eg. making wrong turn when talking on mobile phone and listening to the radio? Having many interactions with people and books or office work so you forget the next person you have appointment with). 14 2. Exercise the body. Depression causes cognitive impairment and is a risk factor to Alzheimer’s disease. 3. Exercise the mind. (Find a new hobby, Play chess; use your non- dominant hand or study a foreign language why? Research shows that Mental challenge rewire connections in the brain. 4. Take care of self , eg. Nutrition to control the risk factors of cardiovascular disease, such as, high blood pressure, smoking, high cholesterol and obesity to help decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s. 5. Get a good nights sleep Not getting enough deep sleep and restful sleep causes cognitive impairment later in life. People who do not get enough sleep (sleep deprived) cannot think clearly and are more likely to forget things. 6. Feed the brain The B Vitamins, particularly B 12, and folate are important for brain cell function. 7. Check medications taken: Over the counter drugs and some prescriptions can cause memory or concentration problem. particularly needful for Doctor consultancy is discussion. (Grossberg. http://www.advanceforspanda.com/common/Newslinks/dailyNewswatchas px). 15 B. Habits for healthier Brain A lead author, Ian cook MD of the Neuropsychiatry institute University of California, Los Angeles stated in the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, (March 2004) that brain damage from mini-strokes related to normal aging progresses more extensively in people with common heart health risk factors such as smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol and high blood pressure. Dr. Cook (2002) stated: Some people age more successfully than others, and our findings suggest everyday behaviour and preventive measure may be able to make difference in the health of our brains. If we don’t take care of our physical health, our brains and mind pay a price as well. The new study by the University of California suggests that medication, diet, exercise and other lifestyle choices common to good heart health could promote healthier brains as well (American journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, March, 2004. http://www.advanceforspando.com/common/News/link s/daily News watch.aspx/7/8/2004). Mnemonics “Mnemonic” is another word for “memory tool.” Mnemonics are methods for remembering information that is otherwise difficulty to recall. Mnemonic strategies are intended to facilitate recall of school-related content. Mnemonic strategies are types of reconstruction of unfamiliar or abstract words into more familiar form which include techniques as “key words” and “ peg words” which rhyme with numbers eg. one is bun; two is shoe, etc. to facilitate recall of numbered or 16 ordered information. For instance, how will you remember the word “ Parkinson disease?. The key word is (Park) for Parkinson is expanded with a peg word “ in son” for “inson”. Key letter/P/ is first to remember. Research shows that mnemonic techniques are used to facilitate recall of scientific information as well as other content areas such as social studies. Advantage in using mnemonic instruction is essentially a verbal memory to enhance strategy and does not appear to impact on comprehension. It helps students to retrieve more information than can be employed on comprehension tasks. For the learning disabled mnemonics may represent the best chance for them to succeed in the mainstream environments although they need to have sufficient vocabulary and hands- on science implementation. Types of Mnemonic activities to improve memory - Mind maps and using mind maps to remember structured information. Mind maps help to lay out the structure in your mind for easy remembrance. Help in note taking, linking points and raw facts. - Remembering very long numbers by using key letters to associate with figures. - Use links and story methods - Number/Rhyme mnemonic (One , two, buckle my shoes 3, 4,) “30 days has September... 17 - Number/Shape mnemonic (Numbers are represented by images eg. body shape, hand shapes; candle. - Alphabet Techniques (Aa is apple, Bb is Bee). - The Journey system Associate landmarks to the imaginary journey (eg. traffic; queue etc. (File://E:grace 8.htm). D. Some links on positive reading skills and habits (Taylor and Asilevi, 2005). 1. Preview the chapter - get the general idea of what the next passage or chapter is about. This helps you to see how the material is organized; helps in you comprehension, improves your concentration, motivation and interest. - First, read the title, author and its printing history. - Read the chapter introduction for some background information. - Read the heading of each section, then subheadings. - Read words in italics or bold print which is often important terms. - Look at illustrations for more meanings with what you are reading. - Finally, read concluding paragraph or chapter summary. 2. Make some predictions/educated guesses of what will follow next . 3. After reading introductory comments, chapter titles etc. review in your mind what you already know about the subject or topic. 18 4. Ask and answer questions to guide your reading or see if the author has questions at the end of the chapter as a study guide. First read such questions before you read the chapter. 5. Review by rehearsing what you read from short term memory, recall your question and answers and recite or write it from memory. Take time to rehearse important points 6. Create interest in what your read 7. Use the SQ5R techniques in reading i. Survey; Question, Read, Recall or Recite Reflect Record Revise or Review. Survey: Look through whole book for its plan or organization read front and back over publisher’s name and publisher’s blurb ( biodata of the publisher, what the book is about etc). - title page, copy right, printing history - table of contents - preface/introduction - index, glossary, appendix, bibliography or references, chapters ere: ii. Questions: has to do with all the “wh” questions on relevance of the chapter which put to use, date of publication too old or relevance. Have a set of questions to urge you to read on. iii. Read: Mark salient points. Don’t make notes, only make notes after you finished reading. Engage in active and careful reading. Trying to read and write at the same time will slow your reading. 19 iv. Recall/Recite: Say main parts aloud- This locks the information more firmly in your memory. Re-read if you can’t recall, recite it again and try to answer questions. v. Reflect: think of the information read and connect it to previous knowledge. Apply the information to real life situation personal experiences or evaluation. vi. Record: The essential information you marked down during reading can be written down as notes. vii. Revise (review) Revisit what was read and see if you can recall correctly. Look again critically, from a summary or discuss it comprehensively. Or read another book to confirm information and add further or expand information Faster reading speed a. Eye fixation of words When you read your eyes should see four or more words at each fixation. It is not an easy road to success This is a quality of a good reader. Researches say the eye can see between 500600 words per minute. Research shows that the average adult reads at about 250 words per minute. 20 No. of words = Speed (i.e) Time taken to read x = z y So if you took 5 minutes, to read 600 words 600 5 = 120 Words per minutes, then you are a very slow reader. 450 – 550 + : you’re a very fast reader; 75-125: you are very slow (Taylor and Asilevi 2005: 130). Improve upon your reading habit and rehearsal skills. Read several weeks of 10 to 15 minutes of daily practice; grasp a phrase at a time rather then reading one word at a time, try to understand what you are reading. This depends, however on what you are reading and techniques for reading. If you are reading text books and journals, the average reader is expected to read between 200-300 words per minute because you need to grasp the information. Managing stress The repository of a healthy body lies in our own human brain. A healthy brain in a healthy body depends on many factors; exercise, diet, relaxation and our own life styles. However, the world around us can determines or shapen our emotions and attitudes. How do we overcome stressors which fight against healthy brains? 21 Orstein and Sobel (1987) stated what they termed as a “sense of coherence” which make people survive trauma, and problems. These include three basic attributes: comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness. Comprehensibility: Means that the demands made on the person are ordered, consistent, structured, clear and predictable but not chaotic, disordered etc. Manageability: Means that the person feels the resources are at his disposal adequate to meet the demands made upon them. The resources can be controlled but access to the resources is available to help him cope. Meaningfulness: Refers to the feelings that the demands posed are viewed as worth while not as threats but challenges. The “sense of coherence” that life is meaningful, that one has resources to cope with and that life is ordered and predictable may allow you to engage in more health-promoting activities and avoid those that endanger health are worth thinking of and pursuing. Many people are “health optimists”. This means they view themselves as healthy despite negative reports from their doctors. On the contrary, there are “health pessimists” who view health as something slightly greater risk of dying. Our perception of the worlds around us determine or shape our emotions, behaviour and the recall into memory bitter experiences. How do you perceive the world in which you live? Do you see it as a threat or challenges? 22 The classical example was given by Antonovsky, an Israel Medical Sociologist cited in Orstain and Sobel (1987) about the women in the Nazi concentration camps during the World War II. Despite the inhuman experience, some women were assessed physically, psychologically and socially, functioning. They were healthy, happy, raised families, worked, had friends and were involved in community activities. How did they make it? These women had the “sense of coherence”. They believed that life was meaningful, they would manage and saw life not as stress but a challenge. I believe you could grow to be psychological hardy in times of trauma, ill health and assign happiness and meaningfulness to living. Conclusion A good mind in a healthy body needs exercise, good diet, relaxation, psychological hardiness and the positive perception of the external environment, good relationship and family support, rehearsal, attention, organization, acquiring improved methods of recording facts and appropriate spacing of learning sessions can improve learning. All these support, enhance the brain states, mental attitudes and emotional states. As students, you need to find convenient learning strategies, easy-to-grab methods to learn, store accurately e meaningfully. Manage time well and stop time wastage activities. Focus, rehearse often times and have a “ big dream” to pursue your visions no matter what- you would get there!. 23 REFERENCES Avoke, M. (1997). Introduction to Special Education for Universities and Colleges Accra: City Printers. Davidolf, L. L. (1980). Introduction to Psychology (2nd Ed.) New York: McGrawHill Book Company Gadagbui G. Y. (1999) Technology for eliminating disabilities and handicapping conducting in the Ghanaian Society Ghana Educational, Media & Technology Association Journal, (GEMTAJ). Mind tools mnemonic techniques and memory techniques file://E:\Grace.htm. Mnemonics and mnemonic techniques from mind tools. File://E:\Grace.htm. Mamnini (1995). Ornstein R. F. Sobel, D. (1987). The healing brain New York: Simon and Schuster Ostrander, S., Schroeder, L. & Ostrander, N(1979). Super Learning. New York: Dela corte Press. Steven, R. & Igor A/eksander. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Sternberg, R. J. (1995). In search of the human mind. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Taylor, M.E. & Asilevi, F. K. (2005. A Handbooks on Study skills. Kumasi, UG.C Publishing House. 24