1. business and industrial
2. chemicals industry
3. adhesives

PRACTICAL
TREATISE
ON
HOW
TO
OBSERVATIONS
ON
LIMES
By
07
AUTHOB
"A
CONCRETE,
MAKE
THE
USES
AND
OP
CEMENTS,
MOETAES.
HENRY
PXAOTIOU.
IT:
C.E.,
BELT),
OK
TRBATIBB
THB
1HNDTJCTUBM
OT
FOBXLAPS-
LONDON:
B.
4
F.
N.
8P0N,
48
CHAKING
CEOSS.
^"
U
UNIVERSITY
HARVARD
20
JUN
1917
TRANSFERRED
"
t*iif*rW
TO
WU4Q|
fc|"*AftY
Lokdoh:
Tkoted
bt
P.
Gbxrt,
8
akd
4,
Ivr
Lavs,
Fatkehobtsb
Eow,
E.CL
"
"
PEEFACE.
The
of concrete
importance
attention
to
have
given
book.
this
prepare
and
materials
for
removing
such
apprehensions
offer
work
to
this
There
have
awaken
the
to
novel
for
for
this
and
purpose,
The
introduction
of
understanding
gradually
"While
and
much
of
lias
a
the
reliable
as
the
progress
manipulation
The
possessed
of
generally
used
too
natural
practical
binding
ignorant
to
cements
such
the
for
success
were
;
admit
artificial
better
is
chalk
concretes,
telligent
in-
necessary
was
too
loss.
subject.
various
the
either
to
a
plication,
ap-
question,
their
for
;
and
important
on
material
properties
purposes
their
with
the
ding
impe-
originally
of
together
to
tion
objecin
limes
of
I
various
usual
manner
this
on
ensure
the
of
succeeded
chemistry
of
attempts
dissatisfaction
impossible
was
but
of the
much
best
operations.
suitability
;
material,
new
dangerous
for
the
solely dependent
were
limes
in
the
confidence,
building
recently,
confidence
imparting
builders
the
me
concrete
to
as
repeated
character
resulted
naturally
in
house-building
variable
The
with
imparting
on
creasing
in-
object, therefore,
been
has, until
processes
progress.
time
to
interest
necessary
mixtures
concrete
used
time
and
the
induced
building
the
interested
those
has
uncertainty
with
purpose;
from
in
and
purposes,
subject,
failures
doubt
the
building
that
to
Past
much
caused
for
coming.
forth-
never
expensive
of
cements,
their
or
being
however,
IV
FBEFACE.
occupying
intermediate
an
have
cements,
fortunately enabled
of both
-without
introduction
first
interested
to be
cements
several
due
;
have
with
consequent
established
now
and
builders
all others
used
through
claims
must
ought
and
use
such
architects
of their
in
the
as
the
question of
point
to
building
the
be
the
out
which
have
purposes,
used.
crete
con-
that
so
Builders
"
frequently disregarded
too
localities
and
them
of their
tions,
opera-
occasionally through
which
subject
materials
such
we
acted
buildingsin
from
may,
merits, be considered
important
with
of
rials
specificationsstill specifymate-
using
to be
meet
of
limes
tion
investiga-
guidance
character
have
"
of their
this
on
for
the
tended
Ex-
using it.
endeavour
ignorance,
for
everywhere
make
ages
Many
knowledge
what
remains
and
from,
forms
Vitruvius
do not
for
suitable, shall
motives.
and
decide
in
cementitious
many
of stones
interested
also
operative
sometimes
increased
a
when
materials,
professional and
the
dangerous peculiarities
scientific
interested
of
materials
various
Portland
of
use
increased
rules
less
doubt-
were
manufacture.
safe
shall
preparations, I
local
of
discussing in the following pages
While
been
the
to
artificial
the
There
of
works
ignorant
on
practical experience and
have
value.
objections
Their
difficultyfrom
(Portland) of
one
tages
advan-
either.
of
engineering
frequent development
and
the
much
recent
of great constructive
the
to
but
proved
reasonable
from
separate dangers
natural
and
command
to
us
attended
opposition
great magnitude
cement
the
was
limes
place between
can
well
as
are
for
most
find."
up
various
to
wrote:
our
obsolete.
do
"I
not
walls, because
desirable
The
this
countries
;
but
Eoman
precept,
we
we
neers
engias
the
testify. Even
PREFACE.
in brick
be
and
with
attended
building
is
should
be
As
taken
it is necessary
values
of the
I have
endeavoured
that
those
item,
and
will
concrete
carriage for
care
every
figures.
in
the
relative
making,
concrete
reliable
most
information
of further
garding
re-
investigating
initiatory knowledge
necessary
information
Such
purpose.
of
thoroughly
desirous
the
command
subject may
for their
give the
cost
used
rule
of
case
lowest
binding agents
to
so
the
it to
understand
to
various
them,
the
reducing
in
The
formidable
a
that
to
the
in
applicable.
more
all times
at
adherence
and
advantage;
it is still
materials
the
structures
stone
V
is of
necessity
limited
;
"
but
it may
lead
have
it has
chapters
these
have
the
of
their
on
several
the
for
that
be
considered
may
that
be
to
exact
which
may
of
be
of
the
in
its
expected
intelligence
lars
particu-
clear
arrived
useful
subject.
for
concrete
use
a
and
and
standing
underThe
at.
the
nery
machi-
general application,
more
containing
as
branches
or
of
and
analyses
so
object I
limes
well-known
necessary
properties
that
With
various
elucidation,
are
purpose,
several
amount
the
with
dogmatism
cement-setting, concrete-mixing,
scientific
success
the
associated.
the
of
of
information
house
building is
character, still the
will
which
depend
may
the
Although
be
HENET
quired
re-
not
of
amount
pretty much
applied
and
on
in
preparation.
October, 1869.
and
knowledge,
accurate
more
subject
added
purposes
knowledge
very
the
separately
and
for
for
generally
been
discussed
cements,
may
desire
a
disencumber
thereby
which
to
EEID.
on
its
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTEODUOTION
1
UMES
6
Pae.
1.
Geographical
2.
Classification
3.
Indifference
extent
.*....
6
builders
of
to
as
quality
7
...
of
simple
4.
Form
5.
Object
6.
Unreliability
7
analysis
8
analysis
of
physiognomical
of
test
8
...
7.
Analysis
of
blue
lias
lime
from
Begis,
Lyme
shire
Dorset9
should
8.
Lime
9.
Proportions
be
fresh
used
of
gravel
9
sand
or
9
"
9.
of
Analyses
.
,
"
.
limestone
English
.
10,
11
....
-9.
Mortars
in
used
the
construction
London
of
Docks
extension
9.
Mortars
11,12
used
Liverpool
at
Docks
12,
13
...
9.
Description
of
lime
used
at
Said
Port
(Suez
Canal)
13
"
9.
Specification
9.
Analysis
for
of
blocks
Theil
at
Port
Said
13
lime
14
......
9.
Necessity
of
selection
careful
reduction
by
slaking
and
or
desirability
of
pulverization
treme
ex-
14,
.
lb
CONTENTS.
Till
Pag*
PUZZOLANAS
Pab.
1"
1.
"Where
2.
Varieties
3.
Its
4.
Trass,
4.
Analyses
5.
Santorin
5.
Supposed
found
15
peculiarities
and
mineralogies!
and
how
of
1$
.16
names
by the
used
Bomans
16
...
17
puzzolanas
.
.
.
.
"
earth
18
"
remotely ancient
cementitious
agent
7. Natural
which
causes
of
use
lava, "c,
produce puzzolanas, trass, "c.
Analyses
of
7.
Analyses
of
8.
Similarity
9.
Description of puzzolanas by Vitruvius
Artificial
10.
Tables
Analyses
10.
Table
IS
19
trass
.......
Santorin
earths
volcanic
of
19"
products
19
20
...
20
puzzolanas
of
10.
a
IS
7.
10.
as
analyses
of
clays
volcanic
of various
and
other
experiments
puzzolana
mixtures
21
.
materials
cement-making
with
of
products
lime
of
22
and
23
"
11.
Mode
12.
Selection
13.
of
23
testing
of
clays for artificial puzzolanas
circumstances
Accidental
which
23
.
led Smeaton
.
to
use
puzzolana
13.
13.
General
13.
Analysis
BOMAN
Pab.
Smeaton's
24
Hydraulic
Treussart's
Mortars
experiments,
of burnt
23,
....
table
and
of results
25
gneiss
26
CEMENT
26
1.
Its first introduction
2.
Materials
from
26
which
it is made
4
"
of
various
2.
Analyses
8.
Various
4.
Simplicity of manufacture
4.
5.
Analyses
Certain
29
"
.
.
sorts
27
......
localities
in which
of American
the
cement
"
cement
stone
"
is found
27
.27
"
.
"
"
stones
disadvantages attending the
use
of
28,
30
Description of the processes
7. Pulverization
29
Soman
cement
6.
24
of cements
of manufacture
SO
.
"
31
"
CONTENTS.
Vaqm
Par.
8. Under
circumstances
certain
be
can
advantageously
31
employed
8. Table
Medina
and
with. Boman
made
experiments
of
31
cements
9-10.
11.
adopted in testing
mode
the
of
Description
intention
Contemplated
12.
Great
Pab.
32
13.
Experiments
32,33
33
bricks
cementing
.
.
"
.
33
CEMENT
3.
Description
4.
Natural
5.
Analyses
5.
Account
........
.
.
.
34
clays and
cement
chalk
5.
Analyses
6.
Proportions used
and
35
cements
.
the
which
from
35
obtained
is
"
.
formation
geological
the
35
stones
artificial Portland
and
natural
artificial Portland
of
.
manufacture
of
Portland
of
34
led to its introduction
which
of
to
33
its merits
Causes
architects
engineers and
of
Apatheticindifference
2.
32
.
Getting into disuse
in
32
in
found
being
stone
localities
13.
1.
stone
probability of cement
many
PORTLAND
ers
protection against foreignthe English coast
from
of
the cement
talking
31,
"
....
86
clay
v^
Indifference
of
Description
its being
10.
Power
10.
Table
36
a
a
of
11.
Deductions
12.
Experiments
results
13.
Deductions
14.
Varieties
it with
of
from
these
of
with
led to
the
for
reasons
37
character
compound
to
testing,and
of
.
.
neat
"
action
injurious atmospheric
experiments with
tensile
quality
36
mode
of resistance
mixtures
to
test
the
of
of
as
consumers
of
institution
9.
....
of manufacture
7. Nature
8.
36
in manufacture
37
and
cement
38
sand
experiments
38
.
...
compressive value and comparative
known
building materials
best
39
.
39
therefrom
......
of
Portland
cements
and
the
best
kind
to
39
use
15.
Description of testing machine
16.
Simple
mode
of
testing
40
.
....
.40
.
CONTENTS.
X
Vaqm
Pab.17.
chemical
the
of
Theory
formation
of
Portland
cement
41
Abundance
18.
of
materials
for
its
manufacture
in
England
41
German
of
18, Analyses
MATERIALS
with
experiments
42
.
and
cement
42
AGGREGATES
AS
Portland
"
lime
stone
gray
cements
.
Comparative
19.
Portland
MORTARS
FOE
AND
CONCEETES
42
.
Pae.
knowledge of mineralogy
to quality
as
1. A
2.
General
abundance
of
aggregates and
absence
scarcity
or
Rocky
4.
Various
4.
Peculiar
neglected
of
Firestone,
6.
7.
The
of
and
their
and
gravel,
of
mode
treating clay
in their
44
deposits
45
....
in Prance
at Rivieres
illustrative
and
45
"
experiments
to
value
45
suitable
a
which
rules
43
clays
materials,
their
test
42
sand
mineral
treatment
Selection
5.
to discriminate
necessary
characteristics
various
3.
.
46
aggregate
should
guide
....
able
of suit-
in the selection
materials
TiTME
Pab.
AND
1.
46
Theories
47
SETTING
CEMENT
advanced
2.
Definition
of the
3.
Influence
exerted
subject
the
on
terms
Setting
"
and
"
Hardening."
.47
mortars
3.
Dr.
3.
Mr.
"William
Wallace's
3.
Experiments
3.
Table
4.
Knowledge
5.
Rich
6.
Twofold
with
of results
limes
character
of the
Natural
Parian
and
setting of
stalactite
49
49
of
...
.
by
gypsum
alumina
play
ancients
the
.
.
.
tion
comminu-
extreme
50
.
"
important part
an
.50
mortars
.
forming
49
49
setting energy
of
and
cements
"
lime-setting;
particlesbeneficial
7. Silicates of lime
8.
in
48
"
value
deficient
48
mortars
experiments
the
of
mortars
.
of ancient
Keene's
of
ancient
of
analyses
Spiller'sanalyses
in the
47
hardening
in
acid
carbonic
by
47
....
"
process
.
"
.
...
.
51
xi
CONTENTS.
Pa"m
Pab.
9.
Natural
soluble
; natural
Iceland
10.
of
sources
silica ; Geizer
analogous
limes
and
the
of lime
12.
;
52
14.
to
Reference
in
15.
Improvement
15.
Liability of
quality
subject
the
studying
carbonic
tables
the
of
acid
"
and
ancient
rapidity
54
cement
mortars
lime
and
;
cement
by adding
soluble
to deteriorate
landing
its
when
.
setting
54
utility
setting
55
silicates
55
under
56
cover
16.
the
17.
of ancient
Analyses
of
effects
mediaeval
or
and
mortars,
time
better
their
than
having
those
in
resisted
Norman
buildings
Illustrative
56
of
explanation
various
the
ancient
mortars
18.
"3
.
.
of
of rich limes
;
.
materials
the
of lime
of
subject
York
-
.
of the
Importance
.
.
accomplishing the reoarbonating
neglecting this
of
the
by
;
greatest value
of
power
influenced
13.
in
danger
Penetrative
springs
cements
of water
Necessity
51
,
of certain
.
11.
in
processes
Description of the petrifying action
example to follow in extracting
from
springs
57
Description
19.
Mr.
20.
Chemical
of
the
the
Spiller on
ruins
Castle, Suffolk
Burgh
silicazation
of the
value
of
58
.
theory
59
matrices
60
....
20.
mechanical
value
60
...
of
Analyses
21.
their
and
Aggregates
Eoman
of
mode
mortars;
testing
described
21.
Analyses by
21.
60
M.
John,
Berlin
60
M.Vicat
6.
Dr.
Malcolmson
61
Dr.
William
"
21.
,,
21.
Wallace
62
....
"
Mr.
21.
Spiller
"
Characteristic
21
63
table of Roman
the South
from
mortars
.
of
France
64,
22.
Size of cubes
and
23.
Experiments
on
the
mode
cements
by
in
which
they
glass
were
tubes
tested
and
66
the
results
PREPARATION
Pab.
66
OF
1. Review
and
65
of the
CONCRETE
66
general practice of concrete-making,
in its preparation as practised in
carelessness
England
66
.
Xli
CONTENTS,
Paob
Fab.
Neglect
3.
Buildings
in
various
3.
by architects
of concrete
2.
countries
other
and
England
67
....
with
68
concretes
Proportions of
mixtures
concrete
in the
used
Island
of Santorin
69
between
the rival systems of block
Comparison
frame
building with concrete
4.
and
69
....
Scarcity of information
5.
Yitruvius's
5.
UME
Pab.
with
reference
to concretes
70
"
cement
specification-for
70
...
OONCEETES
71
2.
cheapest matrix
Proportions of sand or gravel with
2.
Best
1.
Lime
the
.71
.
.
.
which
.
it may
be
mixed
3.
Poor
71
preparing the limes
of
modes
limes
suitable
most
for
for concretes
72
"
73
concrete
...
4.
Advantages
4.
Particulars
to
lime
of using
of size
of
by the beton
73
process
"
kinds
the best
aggregates and
73
use
COMPOUND
MATRICES
CONCBETES
FOE
75
...
Pab.
1.
Lime
1.
Proportions of
used
in
conjunction with
by General
used
trass
puzzolana, trass, "c.
Treussart
on
the
.75
Bhine
1.
Proportions of puzzolana also used
2.
Different
3.
Concrete
75
in
used
used
3.
,,
Germany
in
the
75
.
.
.
"
material
required for each
treatment
mortars
by him
76
76
....
harbour
works
of
,t
76
NieuweDiep
3.
Concrete
Concrete
used
,,
Santorin
walls
5.
Santorin
foundations
of
Traject Anstalt
the
Homburg
76
.
"
...
at Berlin
at the
4.
5.
the
Bhein
Buhroster
4.
in
used
Harbour
"
earth
mortar-concrete
77
of
Cologne
77
.
in
used
the
"
quay
of Trieste
earth
78
mortar-concrete
used
at Venice
78
"
6.
Practical
limited
7.
value
of
these
mixtures
necessarily of
application
Necessity of rejectingall aggregates of
clayey character
78
a
loamy
or
78
003TTE3TS.
Pab.
8.
Passage
of
9.
BOMAN
Diodorus
from
rock
tne
toi
relative
Girgenti in
at
to the vessels cut out
Sicily
Undesirability of tipping concrete
CEMENT
70
....
from
height
a
79
"
CONCRETES
79
....
Pab.
1.
2. Treatment
3.
3.
of natural
Composition
Mortar
4.
Its
Pab.
used
Kind
of cement
5.
Analysis of cement
and
Grinding
7.
Comparison
2.
3.
4.
an
Proportions used
at Copenhagen
Description of
80
81
.
Bosendale
82
82
,,
82
American
and
English
cements
concretes
quality
.83
.
.
.
"
.
"
of the Sea
construction
.83
Forts
84
used
mortar
at the
Works
Drainage
concrete
Southern
Houses
of Parliament
of London
.
and
Thames
its
84
of manipulation
Description of best method
of mixing machinery
absence
in
.
the
85
...
6.
6.
Successful
results
breccia
Granita
obtained
and
84
ing
proportions in build-
Embankment
.
6.
82
83
average
in the
Main
using
the
Harbour
from
all other
over
of
Advantages
of
Bichmond
CONCRETE
Superiority
Mode
Fort
at
of Forts
composition
from
between
and
5.
.
weight
CEMENT
1.
York
its
;
5.
6.
construction
New
Tompkins,
manipulation
PORTLAND
80
"
used
mortar
80
80
in the
used
and
absorbing water
compound
of
engineers
U.S
Warren,
4.
in
79
by American
cements
Variability of cement
quick-setting
to its
TJnsuitability for concrete, owing
properties
by careful
its successful
treatment
85
"
manufacture
85
.
of machine
7. Preference
for
of machine
8.
Portland
cement
"betons
that
9.
to
hand
mixing
;
description
mixing
used
85
in the
agglomerls;"
preparation of Coignet's
mode
of
treatment
for
86
purpose
Intelligent treatment
satisfactoryresults
of
such
preparations
ensures
.
.87
xiv
CONTENTS.
Pagb
MACHINEEY
MOETAES
MIXING
POE
AND
CON88
CEETES
Pab.
1.
2.
of
Importance
Mortar
mill
the
London
mechanical
using
used
Docks
Liverpool
the
at
for
means
mixing
88
.
ditto
;
at
extension
Docks
88
....
3.
Horse
mill
mortar
5.
mill
mortar
Description
7. Mode
8.
of
paste
of Port
90
the
"
.
paste
.
90
....
machine
mortar-mixing
of
.90
"
.
of
.
.
construction
the
mill
works
89
process
Plorida, U.S
introducing
Description
drainage
in
used
the
of
the
by
mortar
Taylor, Key West,
6.
Boston
89
of
Preparation
Steam
Warren,
U.S
Harbour,
4.
at Port
employed
used
Boulevard
the
de
in
the
Sevastopol,
Paris
9.
10.
91
of
Importance
Danger
in
mixing
thorough
using
a
certain
.91
.
.
.
of machines
class
unless
intelligently
supervised
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
EEMAEKS
Mortar
should
mixing
operations
Compound
Bridge,
West
in
used
the
building
two
Dirschau
92
preferable
Concrete
in
used
machinery
works
and
the
improvements
of
machine
used
description
river Theis, Hungary
ON
into
Prussia
machines
Beton-mixing
divided
be
properly
92
machine
of the
Any
92
to
hand-mixing
the
of
93
.
Main
Drainage
Tyne;
the
bridge over
river
the
in the
93
machine
94
.
BUILDING
.
.
*
.
.
PEAMES
BY
94
...
Pab.
1.
General
action
2.
Danger
suitability of concretes
atmospheres
to
resist
injurious
of vitiated
of
too
ready
and
94
....
careless
acceptance
of
frames
95
.
3.
Impetus
offered
4.
Extreme
given to concrete
by machines
necessity
of
building from
the
facilities
95
careful
testing
when
using
frames
5.
96
Quality
of materials
the
of frames
use
nor
their
cost
not
reduced
by
97
.......
CONTENTS,
Faob
Pab.
6.
7.
Certain
Blocks
and
how
their
in
disadvantages
...
them
make
to
97
use
97
....
GENEEAL
OBSEBVATIONS
98
......
Pab.
1.
Suitability
various
2.
3.
4.
of
Successful
The
secured
first-class
of
being
the
98
use
quality
roads
it for
of
application
its
by
and
concrete
98
"
.
footpaths
and
99
Edinburgh
General
6.
Importance
of
of Portland
adoption
of
cement
100
....
cement
walls
concrete
in certain
concrete
objectionable
be
to
proves
5.
Portland
of
excellence
cases
7.
its
for
cement
advantages
Necessity
in
Portland
of
abroad
concrete
from
hygienic
a
100
point
view
101
Advantages
of
washable
recognized
walls
French
by
hygiemsts
Extract
from
Devey's
Edwin
Paris
1867,
13.
walls
of
absorbent
Death-rate
built
14.
15.
16.
C.B.,
which
the
of
on
Parisian
in
built
Use
of
terra
on
in
the
by
cottages,
building
too-early
of
estimate
stones
104
.
of
use
newly-
London
105
aspects
equally
of
cotta
be
avoided
105
.
.
106
....
cement
without
and
to
dangerous
Portland
speedily occupied
17.
of
of
materials
the
Ansted's
Professor
;
northern
houses
Houses
103
walls
by
properties
influenced
with
washable
on
moisture
built
are
houses
Bedrooms
.
....
absorption
;
.
102
103
Chadwick,
"c.
.
his
report
improvements
...
Edwin
.
from
extract
O.B.,
Exhibition,
dwellings
12.
.
do.
Chadwick,
the
102
.
do.
Do.
10.
Famille"
de
Hygiene
"
Do.
9.
11.
101
concrete
danger
be
106
.
for
earthenware
may
.
decoration
.
in
building
18.
19.
Absorption
Imperfect
use
of
106
of
system
water
by
water
in
Portland
.
and
mortar-making
of
their
107
cement
mixture
.
improper
108
....
2
INTBODUCTIOW.
Italian
be termed
pisa, may
for
concrete,
of several
amalgamations
the
of introducing
merit
assigned
Bobert
used
it on
Smirke, who
foundations
of Millbank
relates
cements
eminent
the
in
concrete
respectively
are
and
Pasley has
England
in
his
in
the
work
which
circumstances
Sir
to
scale
extensive
an
Penitentiary;
accidental
they
General
materials.
led
on
that
preparation. It is
immaterial
who
the
inventor
to us
adapter of one
or
was
kind
other of the different varieties of concrete, although
or
be justified in
we
origin of great
ascribing to it an
may
of clay only,
of conglomerate
antiquity. The use
masses
in combination
with
other materials, continued
or
through
of
the
world's
history until the discovery of
many
ages
iron working, when
enabled
to adapt
man
was
by its agency
and
shape stone to the required forms.
Subsequent chemical
architect
knowledge
led
the
to
binding
or
carbonates
of
that
purpose.
and
cements,
adoption of the
to the
of
use
materials
cementitious
for
necting
con-
clqy, bitumen, sulphates
severally used
puzzolanas were
stones
and
;
limes, and
and
for
chemical
science,
Advancing
engineering and
of
the
varied
conjunctively experimenting on
properties limes
have
possessing the valuable
and
in
succeeded
of
introduction
the
cement
a
quick setting
qualities of moderately
induration.
permanent
Vicat, Pasley, and
assisted
in
laborious
this
consummation
researches
Smeaton,
in
by
his
their
experiments
have
to
ably
and
painstaking
artificial
and
limes
on
however,
suitable
practical investigators
other
ascertain
cements.
the
-
most
the
Eddystone
which
lighthouse, initiated the method
eventually resulted
in the
lime
in
cement.
Although
discovery of Portland
combination
with
products had
puzzolana or other volcanic
been, from the time of Yitruvius, used to resist the injurious
torily
action
of water, their beneficial conjunction was
not satisfacexplained until the time of the Eddystone experiments.
Modern
mortar
with
which
has
experience
somewhat
but, nevertheless,
indebted
causes
to
him
of their
for
to
we
modified
consider
may
knowledge
hydraulicity.
a
construct
of
Smeaton's
ourselves
hydraulic
limes
clusions,
con-
much
and
the
the
and
concretes
analyses of mortars
prove
importance of a thorough and perfect amalgamation of the
materials.
Any negligent departure from the true principles
Chemical
oi this process
will
assuredly result in disappointment* The
3
INTBODTTCTION'.
best
sands,
cements,
gravels will
or
good quality of mortar
in an
intelligent manner.
a
and
mortar
concrete
consequent
was
was
period
pounded
in
word
our
call
years.
"
mortarium
being
but
mortar,
a
"
the
mortar
The
and
sand
The
of three
from
used
for
us
the
a
manual
for
cement,
a
which
still
we
different
a
then
were
into
vessel,
very
an
lime
slaked
lime
converted
in
mortar
that
been
prepared
and
derived
now
it had
until
used
be
to
good
tells
Plinius
bestowed
care
considered
Eomans
preparation. The
indispensable necessity, and
allowed
the
on
insure
they are combined
quality of ancient
excellent
The
their
not
unless
concrete
or
of themselves
not
purpose.
is
labour
expensive
necessity
now
seded
superwhile
which,
successfully incorporating
by machinery,
the
the
desired
also
materials,
accomplishes
separation
of the
the
in
of
lime
most
At
perfect manner
particles
and
60
to 65
analyses of ancient
are
comparatively
pages
the
for
modern
mortars,
importance of time
as
precautions are
necessary
There
will
to which
reference
a
indurating
an
observed
to
clearlyprove
the
agent, provided
that
ensure
the
result.
to introduce
lime
attempts made
and cement
for house-building, but, in consequence
concrete
method
of the
careless
and
irrational
adopted, the results
The
of a satisfactorycharacter.
not
subject is again
were
the general desire to improve
the
becoming important, from
of cottage dwellings for the working classes ; and
condition
it
have
is essential
that
the
preparing
knowledge
their
success
in
have
great
been
care
disaster
efforts
the
the
several
selection
of builders
that
for
concrete
of
govern
several
been
it
and
be
is to
the
be
taken
to
in
avoid
hoped,
the
in
intelligent
which
reasons
materials.
building with concreted
of
owing to ignorant treatment
must
directed
An
purpose.
mixtures
will,
be well
may
now
secure
Past
the
failures
lime,
and
loss
and
future
the
various
on
ready dependence
for
aid
machines
devised
The
of
speedy construction.
of labour
mechanical
for lessening the
cost
contrivances
is an
advantage, provided its adoption does not lead to a
in this
which
disregard of the chemistry of the process,
case
from
is of much
a
too
importance,
and
may
engineers have given much
of concrete, and they as well as
larger masses
employ it in much
French
be
considered
attention
Italian
and
mount.
para-
the
to
engineers
for
tion
quesrally
gene-
variety of
a
b
2
4
INTRODUCTION.
for which
it
England have hitherto considered
unsuitable.
English engineers are, however, becoming
more
better
and
with
increased
dence
confia
daring ; and
knowledge
in the cementing
in works
which
agent, apply concrete
purposes
a
few
years
ago
Architects
we
would
in
have
been
executed
in
stone
experience
with
concrete
favour, and begin also
more
its merits.
Facilityof executing the most
upon
profiting by engineering
in
ornamentation
ultimately
Portland
its
cement,
mortar,
brick.
or
look
now
to
ciate
appre-
detailed
will
concrete,
or
In
general adoption.
the
on
preparation
Germany
great
of
is bestowed
a
variety of
in
of
articles
connection
with
building; and machinery
Tarious
Jrinds is used for moulding and shaping architectural
in this country
details which
are
performed by the expensive
of the plasterer or
stone
carver.
Pipes for sanitary
agency
for many
made
and
are
are
by machine,
reasons
purposes
for
the
of
suitable
miles
most
Many
conveyance
sewage.
under
of
of sewers
the
city of Paris have been constructed
betons
agglomeres," a kind of concrete
possessing many
valuable
peculiarities.
of
construction
secured
in the
The
several
advantages
the
with
houses
the
terials
maconcrete; and
facility with which
for
of almost
be adapted
the
locality may
pose,
purevery
the
of
least important
is not
one.
means
Improved
influences
of our
sphere
changeable atmoresisting the climatal
secure
attention
"
is commanded
by the
sanitary improvements
Its
of
use
secured
are
walls, and
concrete
by
comparatively
and
the
which
comfort
improvement
it may
to the
Although
valuable
natui
non*absorbent
which
inmates
in
and
it effects
of
a
house
cement
may
distinct
heads
others, the
for
the
has
author
purpose
of
cement
with
material
any
of
amount
be
considered
there
The
it.
Portland
constructed.
object, therefore, of simplifying the
cementitious
to induce
products, and
after
on
sphere
atmo-
are
the
most
other
many
for that
suitable
the
search
vitiated
damage
of
mates.
cli-
severest
so
preparing concrete,
cements
resist effectually
maximum
the
secure
the
most
character
united,
Portland
agent
al limes
be
in
merous
nu-
application.
it to
enable
progressive hardening properties
of frost
the damaging
influence
Deleterious
ingredients of the
otherwise
fail to disintegrate or
its
use
With
purpose.
of all well-known
investigation
classified
the
under
them
ready reference,
in
so
as
to
5
INTEODTJCTION.
confusion
prevent
on
lime
in
and
awakening
connected
construction
it
importance
in
its
discussion.
in
warrant
all
events
the
degree
and
houses
it
space
is
paid
is
great
a
ject.
sub-
important
attention
any
building
At
to
if
influences
with
generally.
sufficient
occupied
little
very
of
view
the
with
that
of
chapter
The
question.
offered
is
investigation
although
operations
the
of
setting
thoughtful
matter,
study
cement
Unfortunately
this
the
to
the
of
works
of
considered
in
this
book
LTMES.
The
mineral
from
large portion
being
of
without
the
it
chalk,
dispersed
geological
more
measured
When
used
the
amount
by
contains
and
;
the
First
Second
:
Bich
:
Poor
silica,
cent,
Slightly hydraulic,
alumina,
5
Fifth
silica.
of
as
lime,
6
per
and
from
without
for
from
and
pure
alumina
their
having
is
as
to
;
limes
by
puzzolana
in
England
and
and
obtain
particles.
the
water.
to
by
The
when
the
the
introduction
Italy,
France.
trass
this
overcame
in
of
Whatever
and
quality
of
days,
obtained
of
amount
The
silica
of
use
liabilityto
is
care
sary
neces-
comminution
of
difficultyin using
;
pounded
of
setting
is
foreign materials
Germany
moderate
fourteen
which
of
to
selecting lime
In
great
amount
utmost
value
of
extreme
slaked
of
inert, and
class.
their
being
increase
third, fourth,
to
less
a
second
from
Bomans
time
reject that
analysis
of
The
gravel.
indicating
"
with
set
per
cent,
per
are
The
three
82
give
and
from
or
advisable,
not
moisture
value,
sand
those
that
energy.
:
:
carbonate
an
classes
second
ranges
of
than
limes
so
of
it is advisable
limestones
absorb
and
in
limes
of
lime
of
per
cent,
per
11
silica
ingredients
first
admixture
concrete,
per
3
cent,
per
8
Third
Hydraulic,
cent,
carbonate
two
out
or
classes
an
14
80
lime.
lime,
lime,
alumina,
cent,
degree of setting
in
:
hydraulic,
improve
of
Fourth
of
alumina.
cent,
per
per
pure
The
classes
five
these
a
minimum
either
energy
6
the
limes.
a
possess
fifth
and
silica.
of
carbonate
carbonate
alumina,
alumina,
hydraulic
1*5
cent,
per
lime,
cent,
adopted
carbonate
cent,
per
cent,
sand,
Eminently
:
they diverge
silica
rich
of
100
per
cent,
per
carbonate
cent,
70
80
it
which
been
has
is
descriptions.
cent,
per
from
its value
impurities
classification
having
limes,
certain
of
occurs,
derived
building,
for
mortar
as
several
limes,
26
quality
various
lime
lime
of
ter
charac-
the
;
of
carbonate
the
following
the
distinguish
to
kingdom
is
limestones
argillaceous
the
of
which
in
influencing
rocks.
and
Britain
varied
of
a
localities
few
Great
large deposits
district
every
occupies
surface,
other.
or
oolitic
formations
or
their
magnesian,
less
and
form
having
obtained
are
crust
some
in
through
limes
earth's
in
especially favoured
in
which
lime
they used
bricks
maybe
in
used
7
LIMES.
that it should
it is necessary
be reduced
to the finest powder,
either by slaking or mechanical
pulverization. In preparing
it to mix
with
sand
gravel it
or
moisture
to
The
process
maximum
the
ensure
is necessary
cient
impart suffi-
to
of
amount
tion.
cementa-
acid
from
the
absorbing carbonic
the
Atmosphere
only be successfully accomplished when
can
is in
the
lime
of
A
a
hydrate state.
good illustration
in the examination
be found
a
necessity of such
precaution may
of the
south
side of buildings hurriedly built during
An
lot weather.
to
inspection of the joints will show them
be in a powdery state, caused
by the too hurried
drying of
the
for it is only possible to convert
mortar
:
hydrate or
a
slaked
into
lime
Grout
when
it is
seldom,
in
bestowed
The
however,
its
is sometimes
or
in
;
is
of
In
of
the
consequence
rocks
in
slight reason
influence
into
is exerted
of
having
result.
action, and
mechanical
ence
influ-
obtained
a
from
considerable
constitution.
their
not,
Sand
properties.
a
;
is
care
desirable
that
adhesive
to
carbonate
a
amount
necessary
ensure
moisture.
satisfactory
most
its cohesive
to
lime
of
some
chemical
to
of
agency
aggregate only exerts
they are
except when
carbonate
there
the
is due
mortar
remains
disintegrated
cases
or
mortars
of
that
supposed,
dilutent
any
the
by
preparation
of
hardening
as
carbonate
a
properly prepared provides in a
of the
the conversion
hydrate
for
manner
of
the
centage
per-
In
such
able
supposing that a favourin accelerating the lization
crystal-
for
carbonate.
of the
indifference
of builders
to
the
ties
quali-
has
been
they use, no very satisfactoryprogress
in their preparation in this country.
attained
Engineers and
do not
architects
to attach
seem
enough importance to the
considered
allsubject, and, consequently, that which
was
construction
receives
hands
but
at our
important in ancient
indifferent treatment.
A disregard of this subject has
vented
prethe necessary
of
diligent investigation of the merits
of mortars
our
and
lime
cement
stones.
The
introduction
buildings will in all probabilitylead
information
should
of
we
a
govern
on
the
their
qualitiesof
selection.
to
limes
As
a
a
of
desire
and
proper
the
concrete
for
farther
rules
which
understanding
by analytical observation,
question is only obtained
of analysis.
here give a simple mode
then
Pound
and
it through
the sample in a mortar,
pass
Put
150
fine sieve.
it
grains in a capsule, and pour upon
the
8
LIMES.
gradually diluted muriatic acid, stirringit during the time
with a glass rod or piece of wood; add the acid until the
effervescence
Then
tained
ceases.
evaporate the solution thus obconverted
heat
until
into
The
a paste.
by a gentle
is then diffused in a quart of water and filtered. That
mass
remains
the filter is an
which
on
impurity which may either
sand.
To
ascertain this,separate them by washingbe clay or
If clay,the lime will be hydraulic; if sand,
or decantation.
and poor, like those of the second class. The weight
weak
of clay as
compared with the originalweight (150 grains)
the hydraulicity
of the lime.
the
above
of
analysis is to ascertain primarily
object
of lime in the sample. The residue of impurity
the amount
stone
is requiredto be carefully
ascertained, for if sand, the lime-
will determine
The
"
is
comparativelyworthless
; should
it be fine
taining
clay conof good
quality.
adoption
of an unknown
lime, it is advisable to erect a small sample
kiln and decarbonize about one-hundred
weight of the stone,
be enough to prove in a more
which quantitywould
practical
the lime made
silica,
from it will be found
before decidingon the
To test the analysis
form
the value of the lime.
of the
The
search
of limes and
qualities
cements
after and
is
a
tion
determina-
duty required
architect ; and Vitruvius tells us that he
sought for information on the subjectfrom the works of the
architects.
Grecian
Ignorance of chemistry,however, prevented
engineerand
of the
him
from
arrivingat
conclusions.
any very satisfactory
impossibleto ascertain the lime value of any stone by
a
knowledge of its physiognomy. The hardness, fracture,
colour, "c, may indicate its value as stone for building,but
afford no
these qualities
mical
guide when it is subjectedto chein
its
conversion
into
lime.
It
has
been
change
attempted to establish rules for the selection of limes by
a
knowledge of the quality of the stones ; and when
a
he
it
should
from
lime
selected
hard
a
was
good
required
stone, thus endeavouring to show that a hard crystallized
limestone, of high specificgravity,would produce a lime
would
which
ultimatelyequal in hardness the stone from
which it was
produced. There is no case which practically
receives such a solution promised by that method ; although
in the case
of blue lias and other argillaceouslimestones
It is
some
reasonable
theory.
The
cause
marbles
exists for the
do not
make
of such a
proposition
good buildinglimes,and
-A
10
LIMES.
Table
At
the
lias stone
Dock
the
London
Docks
obtained
Company.
decarbonisation,
of
direction
to
the
class
at
the
and
two
The
the
Company's
contractors.
and
in
Lyme
second
There
class.
1856-57,
best
lime
the
Regis and
burnt
of
was
Analyses
of
made
at the
from
works
attention
by
its
was
given
the
prepared under
engineer, and supplied by them
mortar
were
to
was
four
qualities; two
first-
11
LIMES.
Various
English
Limestones.
I
-2*1
II
00
08
1
g
3
I
"a
I
"a
I
8
"a
"1-4
Remarks.
o
( York
0-40
19-36
30-0
46-2
44-6
2-25
0-25
"
""
"
""
"
""
"
""
"
t
"
"
"""
1-7
11
1-57
"
""
"
"
"""
2-8
"
"
"""
"
1-2
08
7-0
11
1-5
402
1-8
33
41-37
0-30
1-61
39-4
0-7
1-6
41-6
0-4
2-3
2-90
0-80
Trace
2-71
2-50
1-20
Trace
1-78
the
with
contact
Bed
new
38-0
in
conglomerate
A
375
is built
Minster
of this stone.
(
Sandstone.
1-4
III
a
"
s
B41U
8
s
1-20
0-50
Trace
1-94
4-10
0-90
Trace
2-83
3*8
1-3
Trace
1-5
5-2
8-3
Trace
2-5
3-7
20
Trace
4-2
"
8-S-S
0-60
0-25
Alkalies.
1-35
0-5
No.
2-21
1, for first-class masonry:
Slaked
lime
Screened
Forge
sand
ashes
Puzzolana
74*73 soluble
{25-27insolble
0-79
"
70
bushels
90
10
10
""
180
bushels,
)
in
j acids.
12
LIMES.
dry made
measured
7d. per cubic
and
repairs
lis.
fuel
cost
therefore
the
mill.
No.
2 for
The
same
in
made
for
cubic
per
The
second-class
of
The
plant)
total
cost
40
minutes,
20
minutes,,
ground
was
"
:
masonry
only
"
lime
Slaked
of
cost
a
tear
yard.
mortar
first-class brickwork:
8 for
at
and
wear
proportions, having been ground
cube yards at a cost of 12s. 9d.
5-29
No.
9d.
2s.
4d.
14s.
was
interest
(no
of mortar,
yards
wheeling, mixing, engine-power,
The
yard.
additional
an
cubic
5*06
bushels
70
...
Sand
110
.
.
.
.
,,
Puzzolana
10
.
.
"
.
.
bushels,
190
measured
dry made
yard;
per
lid.
9s.
8d.,
Is.
or
a
ground
was
No.
the
of
total
cubic
6
mechanical
and
labour
7d. per
lis.
at
mortar,
cubic
a
cost
The
yard.
cost
of
being
mortar
minutes.
20
brickwork
second-class
4 for
of
yards
Slaked
:
"
lime
bushels
70
...
Sand
120
....
"
bushels,
190
6 cubic
made
the
and
of
8s.
yards of mortar, at a cost of 7s. 8d. per yard*
of mixing
and
machinery Is. 8d., or a total
cost
lid.
per
cost
of
cubic
The
yard.
mortar
ground
was
20
minutes.
The
Docks.
the
burning,
more
than
of
The
Docks
the
and
has
costing
labour
the
9d.
10s.
was
21s.
per
ton
and
account
for
ton
at
selected
was
These
day.
4s. per
per
prices are
the
high
mortar.
used
been
well-established
years,
culm
limestone
usually unfavourable,
mortar
has
lias
Welsh
for
cost
the
the
construction
of
the
Liverpool
and
for its excellence;
long celebrated
during a period of
reputation, earned
resulted
preparation.
in
Two
from
the
careful
qualities were
attention
prepared.
bestowed
its
80
in its
]3
LIMES.
Best
quality:
part of slaked
1
1
lime
\
.
sand
sea
part of slaked
2
lime
sand
sea
"
.
of
of
both
contractor
the
should
that
so
:
receive
considered
was
and
10
pp.
who
have
the
supplied
was
careful
most
unattainable
of
to
the
of
sary
neces-
lation,
manipu-
if entrusted
to
stone, its decarboni-
combination
confided
was
feel
to
reason
every
11.
to
satisfied
with
attained.
success
considerable
of
"Works
at
one
is from
lime
The
concrete.
magnitude
ports (Said) of
the
of
character.
in
is
being
are
now
the
Suez
in
Theil,
Canal
Ardeche,
It
according
the
to
structed
con-
with
France,
is
burnt, and
where
Mediterranean,
hydraulic
to the
packages by the makers
it for block-making
use
and
Table,
mortar
selection
the
mechanical
ultimate
Engineers,
lime
Docks,
mortar
this
zation, and
in
appears
and
the
It was
by the commissioners.
one
engineer to superintend its preparation.
these
it was
considered
important works
the
and
the
to
mixed
in revolving
ground, and
10
The
shillings per cubic yard.
from
obtained
shire,
Holywell in Flint-
which
the
at
the
that
the
8
of
analysis
contractor
In
from
(blue lias)was
burnt
duties
well
were
cost
an
)
.
"
mortars
and
"pans,
limestone
.
ashes
furnace
"
the
measure.
\
.
,,
was
by
.
"
1
It
measure.
quality :
Second
Both
by
)
ashes
furnace
"
"
.
,,
in
sent
the
tractors
con-
following
:
specification
The
blocks
width, and
metres
in
cubic
metres.
blocks
blocks
8
will
of
under
10
kilogrammes
be
or
furnished
admixture
less
by
than
M.
of lime
The
that
Theil
in
the
these
lime
with
external
kinds
in the
dry powder
Company
reserves
of lime
a
to
the
the amount
Savin,
length, 2
height, or 10
constructed
Both
and
in
in
condition
only.
sand
of sand.
the
centimetres
the
metres
825
centimetres
centimetres
jettiesmight be
of beach
right of altering
more
kilogrammes
lime
the
40
50
formed
of
metre
metres
1 metre
metres
composed
are
8
of
Part
of 4 cubic
parts be
be
must
of
the
of
portions
proto 1
the
of
amount
25
mentioned.
The
Farge,
Theil
at
ing
less, as
xal of
:
"
45-68
1-70
039
woo
o-8o
i-sa
obtained
that
is
limes
b
allowed
be
may
the works,
under
is
be dried
mast
blocks
The
same
packages must
All the
-.
the
of
lime
a
wing analysis:
2-6.
Ac,
-2 ; Water,
inies
"
eohe-
in
weaker
are
differ from
respect they
ranch
greater neoessity
the largest
to
ensure
as
is
a
jo
mortar
of
mass
to make
suffice
will
ime
rich
the
to
reference
a
performed.
is well
arsion
con-
or
or
character
hydraulic
a
the part
perform
of
to
as
ns
them
to
aggrethat
found
be
it will
dis-
the
with
contact
"
enable
of
a
,
in
lime
to
cohesive
its
for
it is otherwise,
mixed
when
than
ment
ronger
the
i of
ency
of
lime
; for
lime
particles
of
water
inability to
witage of a good porous
ich
so
as
circumstances,
er,
the
a
east
of
retention
.
a
its
from
Fat
matrix.
"
rarnt
uly be
core
measured
or
rich
bygrind-
benefited
or
which
;
bnt
by
the
the
15
PTJZZOLANAS.
value
imperfectly-carbonized portion
of the
as
an
adulterant
be
considered
aggregate.
or
cohesive
The
of
power
its capacity of
rather
lime
perhaps
may
to
crystallization; it adheres
it may
in contact,
and
be brought
body with which
of forming crystals is built thereon.
process
suitable
a
the
mate
ulti-
PUZZOLANAS.
These
natural
Puzzolana
the
is
colour
volcanic
of
are
been
having
substances
The
"
cements
originally
found
by them
generally brown,
at
origin, the
given by
Puteolii,
near
but
name
Eomans
the
to
Vesuvius.
varies
according to the
it occurs
it is yellow or
locality in which
; sometimes
gray,
in Pausilipp and
and
occasionally white, such as that found
Vivara.
The
kind most
the
is procured from
highly valued
and
Italian
St. Paul
Eome,
near
engineers usually
quarry,
for
portance.
that
works
of
than
specify
description
more
ordinary imIt
used
and
Leghorn
supposed to have
of
called
from
the
in
the
Spezzia.
On
was
construction
in
tufa, found
absence
of
of
the
Ehine
the
used, instead
of
the
puzzolana,
Eifel
the
harbours
Eomans
volcanic
a
In
mountains.
it trass
adhesive
the
tiles
both,
The
builders.
The
Dutch
tyrass
or
galleries,as
There
is good
is
a
It
material
slate
tufa
from
in
their
meaning
"
substance.
fact of the
terrace
used
is
language
occasionally termed
having been excavated
in Wales
and
lime
Eoman
called
binding
a
or
mortars
the
and
Ehme,
is
worked
now
the
duct
pro-
Britain,
they substituted
pounded
of
ingredient in
clay.
importance
an
to
having the capacity of imparting setting energy
understood
well
was
fully recognized and
by the
burnt
are
or
terrace, from
in
other
retreating
countries
"
reason
mere
for
the word
supposing, however,
of
the
Dutch
original
corruption
name
that
tyrass.
Puzzolanas
all localities
is
and
where
their
several
active
and
or
varieties
extinct
loses water
be
may
volcanoes
obtained
exist.
in
The
being subjected to heat ;
when
treated
is completely decomposed
and
so
by sulphuric
acid.
Their
for
the variability
of
peculiar origin accounts
their analyses, and, in consequence,
their extensive
is
use
mass
magnetic,
on
16
PUZZOLAtfAS.
inadvisable
unless
when
native
knowledge.
The
lanas,
of
will
values
:
best
the
known
the
show
discrirni-"
guided by the necessary
following table of analyses of puzzo-
great difference
in their
volcanic
several
tricts,
dis-
chemical
"
cementitious
These
volcanic
products
mineralogists a variety of names,
are
puzzolana, travantine, tufa,
cite, and
andecite, besides
origin.
It
their
various
from
sorts
is
other
to
unnecessary
the
tufa
have
received
familiar
more
from
of which
stone, trass, augite, leu-
names
having
allude
more
purely local
particularly to
a
several
in a lesser
peculiarities,as they always possess
of
or
imparting hydraulicity
greater degree the property
is thus
limes.
Attention
called
to rich
to the
subject of
of directing
these hitherto
for the purpose
neglected minerals
in all districts of extinct
attention
to their plentiful existence
volcanoes.
active
or
other
countries, although
puzzolana,
as
the
necessary
lime
weak
volcanic
The
fit
for
silica
valuable
found
alumina
perties
pro-
contain
to
render
to
of
concrete
purposes
in a friable
or
sandy
general
is found
When
and
and
own
our
such
be
nevertheless
of
of
possessing
not
may
quantity
rocks
a
making.
puzzolana
condition,
of
with
lime ;
more
inexpensive amalgamation
capable
in
natural
its
used
and, although generally
condition, it is
found
that some
qualitiesare improved by being slightlyburnt.
The
analysis (No. 15, p. 17) of lava recently erupted from the
it is
indicates
of Vesuvius
crater
useful
these
silica, alumina,
samples,
and
Trass,
the
by
not
that
when
as
the
it
that
Dutch
for
nearly
Van
Santen
two
used
have
hundred
erected
a
in the
for
is
older
the
by
the
is
of
Ehine
stone
1682
Ehine
in
it is assumed
purpose,
and
evidence, however,
hydraulic
In
the
that
for
lana
puzzo-
following
character,
for building in
; and
conclusive
it for
cements.
the
as
solid
more
only used
on
of volcanic
cation
classifi-
from
sufficiently
instead
on
distinct
a
distinction,
years.
mill
with
differ
It
was
There
cement.
a
producing
proportions of
accounted
treating
to
that
to
analyses will show.
used
was
by the Eomans
localities of its deposit
writers
be
favoured
been
of
some
unchanged.
more
perfect than
may
in
process
The
soda
however,
entitled
be
to
and
appear,
natural
matter.
authors
some
not
are
of
excess
tyrass, has
or
from
It does
lime
erupted
of the
freshness
table
the
is
cements
and
the
that
a
works
in
Dutchman
for
grinding
Holland
named
trass.
18
PUZZOLAtfAS.
There
is another
of Santorin
Santorin
useful
(the ancient
earth.
as
Santorin
has
found
the island
on
it receives
celebrated
been
of volcanic
centre
a
the
descriptionof tufa
Thera), from which
and
name
time
from
disturbance,
its
memorial
im-
recently
so
The
subject to such influences.
year
exhibit
following samples of analysis of the earth
an
affinity
trass ; but
to puzzolana and
they differ considerably in their
silica values, which
will account
for their being more
friable,.
silica
them
resistive
such preponderance
of
a
imparting to
the
such
and
for
to
action
of
acids
some
capacity
;
purposes
as
it
1866
was
"
.
a
is valuable.
property
There
be
can
only
"""'display
no
doubt
information
that
of
of the
kind
exact
an
above
the
although
tables.
cementitious
there
are
products of Italy, France, and Germany,
for supposing that
strong reasons
they exist in every quarter
of the
occur.
globe where
analagous geological formations
Eoman
Historical
limit our
records
period
knowledge to the
is
of
but
volcanic
cement
of its use,
it
supposed that the value
historic
to
known
extinct
nations
and peoples of whom
no
was
remains.
trace
On
the South
Sea Islands
large statues
very
volcanic
been
have
aid
of
found, which
could
cementitious
some
investigations of
circumscribed, owing to
the
but
present advanced
in the acquisition of the
and
cements.
have
built up
been
by
the
agent.
The
of limes
only
architects
Eoman
necessarily
were
knowledge
imperfect chemical
state of chemistry offers assistance
their
data
reliable
most
great natural
The
for
the
;
selection
operating in
causes
lavas
production of mud
(puzzolana, trass, and Santorin
degree by the following theory ;
earth) are explained in some
action
The
internal
are
produce volcanic
agencies which
in ejecting portions of rock
exerted
belonging to the trachyt
that
formation
the Archipelago
at least
in Italy and
; and
submarine
such
influence
from
a
being assisted by
source,
the
"
the
simultaneous
by finding
both
reduction
of the
at Vesuvius
and
land
Eifel
the
rocks;
as
mountains
proved
is
organic
remains.
Obsidian, pumice and pearlstone are products of the trachyt
formation, and the analysis in Table No. 1 of the rocks under*
show
and
Santorin
Vesuvius,
a
lying the Eifel mountains,
No. 2 of their
marked
resemblance
to these minerals, as Table
analysis will
Santorin
earth
prove.
partake
Table
so
No.
much
3
of
of
a
pumice,
common
andecite
character
and
as
to
19*
PUZZOLANAS.
1
"sorjTpjooj
fimoixBA
moj^
CQ
p-4
/*-
I
s
I
8
4
i
9
"
i
k
I"
I
o
"
6)
cm
6*
w
1
CO
o
H
cb
CO
CO
cp
CO
CO
CM
o
"
ft
o
CO
0Q
CO
cm
o
00
CO
ft
o
"
J
v-
k
CO
O
09
CQ
*"
h
"
"
"H
CM
CO
"*
"
"
CO
"
"
"
"
vH
iH
*H
CM
O
CO
CM
*-
*""
^*
CM
"H
i-l
o
i
"
CM
I
i
o
o
Ph
O
""""""
""
CM
CM
l
o
O
CO
"b
CM
CO
CO
cp
"b
cb
"
W3
CO
CO
o
cb
CO
00
CO
CO
"o
00
cb
cb
W3
""
s
00
CO
CO
CM
I
W3
*o
cb
cb
cb
w
"0
CQ
CQ
I
tH
CM
CO
"0
CO
*""
CM
c2
20
PUZZOLANAS.
warrant
attributing their production
in
ns
agency.
Indeed, the
lana
trass
and
preceding
still further
Tables
confirm
to the
of
primary
same
analyses
a
supposition.
of puzzo-
in such
us
indicates
the existence
of vapour
Microscopical
cavities in erupted lavas, produced doubtless
by their ejection
from
at a high temperature, in combination
great pressure
The
with acidulous
prevailing stone and glass
compounds.
observation
be considered
distinguished, may
as
been
and
in
having
produced by subsequent crystallization;
of certain
for the improvement
accounts
measure
some
puzzoThe
lanas by the application of heat.
of
description
puzzois worthy of quotation.
lanas by Vitruvius
in the
of Baye, and
is found
the
There
neighbourhood
municipal lands lying at the foot of Vesuvius, a kind of powder
cavities
by which
they
are
"
which
produces
small
it has
stones,
solidity
to
not
effects ; when
mixed
with lime and
only the advantage of giving great
buildings, but
common
forming
of
property
admirable
of
masses
which
masonry,
further
the
possesses
harden
under
for this property
by the great number
of burning soils and
hot
springs,which give evidence of
tion
extensive
subterraneous
fire,occasioned
by the inflammaan
the
Thus
bitumen.
of the
of sulphur, alum, or
vapour
of
earth
fire and the flame passing through these beds
renders
into
withered
them
tufa without
them
a
light, and converts
We
water.
moisture
and
the
being
that
so
substances
three
these
puzzolana), modified
(thelime,
by the violence
together, form a solid substance
This mixture
quickly acquires such
mixed
water.
damp
;
account
may
which
it absorbs, that
the
so
the
soon
as
hardness
dashing
heat,
we
from
of waves,
on
add
the
nor
destroy it."
With
these
analyses for a guide, it will be possibleto use
descriptions of burnt clays in the improvement of rich
many
utilization
of many
waste
limes ; and
the
products of our
the
action
of water,
manufactories
eminent
of
artificial
engineer,
found,
to
gave
before
however,
uncertainty attending their use,
of their indurating strength
"
works
where
ingredients
building
a
in
much
like purpose.
Yicat, the
attention
to the subject
the
introduction
possiblefor
puzzolanas
He
cements.
are
is also
French
able
neither
of
the stones,
a
that
from
more
danger and
the imperfect character
especially in hydraulic
there
prejudicialaction
arose
from
the
sea.
For
purposes,
water
of
where
a
the
maximum
of Portland
was
certain
chemical
ordinary concrete
degree of induration is
PUZZOLAKAS.
21
Hi
"
"
If-d
o
o
58
HH
e{3
HH
"
9 " I 9 ^
c" " ""||S
9
"
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S
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OH.QA
sL
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-3
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O
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^
oo
co
i-r
oeS'*
"
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"
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oo
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"
t^-"^
OS**-
"
co
"
CO
CN
cpcNopcNcpcpcocouarH
"
CO
"*
"
OOrHCOrHCOCOCNrHO
"**-
rH
frgd
coiocooocnoooosSS
CD
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"
CNrH
CO
OS
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CO*
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rH
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"
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00
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OS
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liil
23
PUZZOLANAS.
not
and
requisite,stich artificial compounds may tinder favourable
be advantageously employed.
The
special circumstances
Yicat
following tables, from
the
relative
values
of
on
certain
Cements,
kinds
of
much
throw
clays
mixed
light
with
on
rich
limes.
Table
Showing
the behaviour
of
certain
All
the
had
samples
the
No.
several
portions of
been
2.
substances
rich
immersed
when
mixed
with
Limes.
in water
for
one
year
before
The
of testing
submitted
to the test.
mode
they were
is commonly
the
that which
known
adopted by Yicat was
as
of the
needle-penetrating
essentially consists
system, and
of penetration made
of peculiar conmeasure
struction
by a needle
That
falling by impact on the briquette or sample.
of
mode
and
convenient
testing is superseded by the more
reliable
one
generally adopted by English engineers of
now
the
submitting the samples to tensile strain, by which
means
resistive
The
capacity
selection
to
of
rupture
is
readily and
clays for conversion
into
tained.
accurately ascer-
artificial puzzo-
24
PTJZZOLAlfAS.
lanas
be
will
the
of
the
disintegrated
investigator
analysis.
There
the
be
and
the
A
localityof detrition.
clay bricks will sometimes
the
dispense with
necessity
to
an
interesting circumstance
of Italian
been
the
of
in
into
puzzolana
worthy
mention.
measure
exam*
an
originally
careful
amination
ex-
enable
the
of
accurate
with
connection
country which
this
Until
1757
German
by engineers in England,
properties of puzzolana
comparatively unknown.
were
had
Smeaton
been
about
Belithat time
studying
occasionally used
"Architecture
dor's
been
had
they
burnt
considered
had
trass
which
from
their
introduction
may
of
is
necessary
A
rocks
or
of
the
containing
good index
whereby to
qualitiesof clays is afforded by
approximate
ination
those
to
alumina.
of
amount
limited
Hydraulique,"
there
and
found
evidence
Fortunately at this
time
Civita
of puzzolana
had
been
a
imported from
cargo
Vecchia
offered it at the price usually
by a merchant, who
Smeaton
which
was.
paid for trass.
purchased the cargo,
used
celebrated
of the now
by him in the construction
Eddystone
mixed
with Aberthaw
lime
in the
lighthouse. It was
superiorityof puzzolana
following proportions:
bushels
Two
"
had
to trass.
slaked
of
lime, which
been
used with
to a fine powder, were
previously reduced
of
of
sand.
without
admixture
two
puzzolana
any
The
slaking of the lime had been carefully performed at the
lime
in air-tight casks
sent
to
works, and the powder was
taken
to the lighthouse in
Plymouth, from which place it was
bushels
required quantities.
the
lime
This
in
manner
retained
which
remaining was
executing the
the
navigation
its
it
used
was
properties
packed,
seven
years
critical
most
the
of
river
well, from the careful
that
surplus quantity
a
so
by
afterwards
part of the works
for
experiments and
example led to
combination
of puzzolana, and
its successful
kinds
of
resulted
The
in the
Their
induced
of
proportions
great attention
great expense
bestowed
further
introduction
following table
their
the
limes
in their
research,
of Portland
Smeaton's
improving
and
him
due
preparation.
in
an
extended
with
which
ultimately
hydraulic mortars,
to
some
all
cement.
cost, affords
paid by
was
in
Calder.
Smeaton's
^use
Smeaton
ing
show-
striking evidence
that
of
important subject.
measure
to
the
care
26
BOMAN
Burnt
gneiss has
harbour
been
Brest.
of
Silica.
Its
used
Oadde
21-43
cement
More
a
during
information
that
mix
with
lime
and
trass.
Boman
balls
and
they
is
it
for
used
in
variety
and
found
more
by
of
the
different
or
by these
mortar
demonstrated
enterprising people to
also puzzosometimes
lana
"
the
called
found
"
clay
septeria ""or
"
considerable
in
Kent
and
Essex
coasts.
mineral
other
since
of
made
Portland
of
"
in its
from
in
cement
for
clay, it
products
"
of
is
manufactured
now
stratified
England
unstratified
and
and
from
Scotland.
"
The
distinguished
The
following table of analysis of
indicates
much
similarity in their
kinds
sorts
was
mortar
of
works
engineering and other works
the
from
Although originally made
used
names.
Tunnel
with
introduction
its introduction
engineering
Thames
constructed
districts
well-known
been
celebrated
the
employed as mortar.
setting quickly under
of
construction
"
be
to
has
London
generally known
local
now
previously
been
analysis has
property
abroad.
several
in
is
cement
England.
occupation
subject has, however, dispelled
from
reason
the
universally
septeria" of
a
probably
He
of
condition
valuable
that
Until
was
1796, when
year
it had
parts of the
suitable
the
at home
both
for
certain
a
cement.
1824,
used
made
successfully
The
great importance.
at least
early progress
that
275
puzzolana, in its natural state ; but is
calcination
and
afterwards
finely pulverized
subjected to
before being in
possesses
and
water
;
water.
like the
used
It
Soda.
their
sometimes
are
quantities along
It is not
in the
chemical
sand
cement
as
"
6*92
that
the
on
accurate
; and
pounded bricks was
"
belief
notion
that
the
CEMENT.
from
Bomans
recent
A
:
patent for its manufacture.
giving the name
by which the
known
generally
used
by the
Potash
first introduced
in
in
puzzolana
his
influenced
was
as
8-57
was
obtained
Parker
of
follows
of iron.
KOMAN
This
instead
analysis was
Alumina.
60-83
CEMENT.
of
this
cement
are
chemical
27
CEMENT.
BOMAN
localities
ingredients, although the
of
their
origin
widely separated.
are
Besides
the
in which
the
stone
there
cements
is
procured
Staffordshire.
and
Wales,
above
quantities in the
parts of England.
in the
"
also
It
of
strata
The
various
are
Isle
considerable
in
formations
United
States
North
Wight,
of
occurs
coal
the
localities
other
different
in
America
of
are
having large deposits of this
useful
districts of
cement-stone
dispersed throughout many
the country.
The
the accomquality is generally good, and
panying
here
table
is
the
its extent
and
given to show
is
of
details
in
The
table
the analyses.
copied
given
accuracy
circumstanced
favourably
from
Gillmore
in
Limes
"
on
and
Mortars
Hydraulic
and
Cements."
the
In
much
preparation
of
limes
and
required to adapt them
certainly no
special skill necessary
best
care
condition
great
for
is
care
required
its decarbonization
The
suitable
kilns
Eoman
the
convert
stone
is not
purposes,
into
them
the
however,
cement,
into
and
cement,
and
to experienced men.
only be entrusted
for
its proper
ation
pulverizappliances
in
considerable
conjunction
outlay, which,
can
and
capital,
large outlay
"m
business.
PThe
permanently
fce
is necessarily
sunk
Triuch
expense
when
cost
convert
there
mechanical
involve
with
to
to
With
mortars.
puzzolanas
for building
of
mills, requires
obtaining
the
stone
procured by the process
is greatly increased.
the
erection
of
of
From
Soman
of
a
is
also
dredging
these
cement
considerable,
from
the
sea
unavoidable
manufactories
and
the
cumstance
ciris
28
BOMAN
CEMENT*
Table
Cement
of
Stones.
-di
I
III
Where
"Si
Obtained.
4
1
"62
Sandusky,
'40
1*64
Ohio
Cumberland, Maryland
6*16
202
12*10
19'66
814
8*86
4-64
24*74
16*74
6-80
4*60
1*70
18-62
2*18
1*86
2984
6 74
1-76
89*74
600
1-44
12
1964
7*62
2*88
18
26*00
4*64
1*86
2808
6*72
6*38
18'46
4*22
2*82
27-70
2*84
1*26
11*10
252
1-42
19'80
4*40
"76
88*80
8*96
"88
9...
10
"
I
o
17*84
No.
Ditto
3
1.5
26*20
'88
Shepherdstown, Virginia
/Layer
"3
*
OQ
TJtica,Illinois
^
8
""
o
"""
6
Ditto
55
It
i,
...
Ditto
"
( Ditto
|
"
Ditto
14...
"
i
Ditto
"
...
16...
M
...
\ Ditto
17
"
Lawrenceville,
New
...
16...
"
Ditto
...
Ulster
County,)
J
York...
...
Eric
Akron,
'County,
...
New3WI
York
...
...
Pomt*-aux-Boches,
plain
Lake
...
Near
Hancock,
Cham-
)
"0388
2007
1-7
"8000
271
1-6
t
...
Maryland
(France)
Vassy
...
...
)
cement
(France) limestone
Theil
Thefl
burnt
(France)
ditto
...
"""
6*7
14*0
...
11*6
14*90
when
"""
j
18*20
1*70
1*20
j
From
Balcony
Falls, Bock-'
bridge
Virginia
County,
\HH
W
j
Ditto
...
...
ditto
...
(burnt)
84*22
7-800
49*68
11*288
4
"""
"80
Principally
29
CEMENT.
B0MA2?
American.
"8
41
o
I
1
I
I
I
J
1
8
l
o
By
i
n
68*84
10*88
'48
"40
40*54
17*98
"72
'88
41*80
4*10
2*22
4*98
"
+
"60
"
whom
analysed.
Prof.E.aBoynton
1*22
Ditto.
2*68
Ditto.
"74
8*26
"20
+
2*26
Ditto.
2604
1*96
4*24
'20
+
1*70
Ditto.
88*64
20*80
1*02
6*80
'16
+
2*04
Ditto.
8074
14*48
"66
7*42
"24
"
-72
Ditto.
80*73
8610
*64
4*10
'18
"
18
Ditto.
28*48
82*86
4*72
"26
68*26
11*16
48*80
118
Ditto.
"""
1*60
2*78
"20
86*62
'20
1*68
1*40
46*00
17*78
"26
402
"22
40*00
8904
"22
4-0ft
"26
88*90
84*06
86*60
19*26
68*8
22*6
48*88
1462
87*60
66*0
6*8
68*8
1*6
4*78
"60
618
Ditto.
1*40
Ditto.
+
'44
Ditto.
+
1*88
Ditto.
+
'42
Ditto.
"
166
\
1-60
"
Ditto.
*14
U.
Caleb
Huso.
Ditto.
Not
8*4
named.
Water
land
46*68
'89
bi-
tumen
Ditto*
110
4
60*00
1*82
Ditto*
10-48
Water
and
organio
matten
17*88
2616
9*61
18*77
'600
+
-08
Ditto.
+
16
Ditto*
30
BOMAN
not
attempted
unless
and
favourable
water
CEMENT.
where
large consumption is secured
carriage or convenient
ports for ita
to
distant
the
most
During
parts.
economical
a
shipment
it had
trade
cement
flourishing period of the Roman
with
the heavy cost of carriage ; and
owing to
liabilityto
deterioration
be considered
could
when
manufactured
it
to
tend
con-
its
great
really
never
cheap
the smallness
disadvantage attending its use was
it could
be safely
n
quantity of sand or gravel with which
it was
In
mixed.
seldom
reduced
with
important works
cement.
a
Another
sand
generally
the
piers
for
used
one
tunnel
of
quality
For
neat.
of
volume
would
had
cement
so
essential, and
to
cement
have
not
of
been
been
not
for
until
the
the
Thames
arches
the
volume
one
particularlysuitable
was
of
construction
foundations,
the
The
was
in the
and
;
it
was
half
a
so
to
if this
accessible.
introduction
of
one
a
or
in
sand
of
Eoman
wherein
work
was
used, and
volume
cement
built
it
Tunnel
;
sand.
similar
cement
expedition
great
of Portland
it
was-
in.
stoppage of these works
filled
1828, caused
was
by the river breaking in, the breach
into the
cement
by throwing large quantities of Portland
enabled
the contractors
river, which
again to resume
tions
operahad
been
out.
after the water
pumped
The
of Boman
cement
primary process in the manufacture
of calcination
is that
or
properly speaking decarbonimore
that operation is successfullyaccomplished,
zation ; for unless
is.
follow.
The
unsatisfactory results
point of excellence
the
when
be reduced
minimum
the
to
stone
can
weight;
used.
invariably
During
the
"
should
on
the
that
hand,
one
properties
it
it
are
be unattained,
or
vitrified
destroyed.
should
never
bushel, and
air
result
that
the
fresh
moisture,
In both
other.
in
and
will either be
cement
burned
When
exceed
only when
readilyabsorbs
on
the
with
due
cases
raw
its best
tion,
discrimina-
weight 801bs. per imperial
If exposed to the
ground.
becomes
lessened
in value.
and
essential, and when
Thorough
perfect pulverization
that
operation is accurately performed the highest value in
been
has
When
the cement-stone
strength will be obtained.
be sensibly diminished
in bulk;
it will not
properly burnt
i?
of
the
that
contraction
the
but if carried beyond
mass
point
apparent. Over-burning also results in rendering the cement
slow
languid and
setting, as well as prejudiciallyaffecting
is
its ultimate
induration.
31
CEMENT.
BOMAN
attention
pulverization has received much
of American
at the hands
engineers, and they are so impressed
fineness
that they stipulate
with the
importance of extreme
shall
for engineering works
used
be capable of
all cements
to the
passing through a No. 80 gauge
(6400 meshes
square
of
residue
8
cent.
Such
reduction
leaving
a
only
inch),
per
is seldom
practised in this country, in consequence
probably
of engineers and
architects
of the indifference
to the subject.
this question,
It is not the interest of manufacturers
to press
The
of
question
for the
of mechanical
cost
in the
of
expense
Eoman
forms
reduction
considerable
a
item
manufacture.
in
most
serviceable
always be found
where
hydraulic works
heavy and
slow-setting Portland
jurious
the incements
used, to protect the exposed joints from
are
Before
ledge
knowaction of running or moving
water.
a
will
cement
of
plaster
the
of
natural
Paris
from
the
to
cements
protect the joints
of the
action
variety of Roman
Wight ; it possesses
setting, and is now
"
is
made
Smeaton
understood,
was
of
the
Eddystone
Medina
waves.
from
cement
found
stone
used
house
lightanother
"
the
at
of
Isle
high degree the property of quick
extensively used by engineers for protecting
Portland
cement
joints in exposed situations.
The
following table exhibits the value in tensile strength of
five samples
Roman
cements.
The
submitted
to test
were
obtained
in
several
their
from
fairly the
a
usual
for
makers
the
marketable
of
of that
object, without
any intimation
The
somewhat
results
are
experimenter.
the
which
the
may
in
samples
of
weights
the
were
No.
measure
some
of
be
manufacturer
801bs.
accounted
having been
cement
per
of
purpose
article, and
the
in
taining
ascer-
ance
further-
intention
dissimilar,
for
from
than
of
some
longer kept in the
Their
others.
houses
ware-
average
bushel.
Description.
Breaking
7
days.
Weight
1 month.
per
inch.
square
6 months.
144
116
209
286
160
112
120
96
194
212
108
89
lbs.
1 year.
167 lbs.
89 lbs.
9*
""
60
tt
n
it
cement
was
gauged next,
and
the
9t
183
136
41
lbs
99
99
ft
54
The
of
99
samples
212
tt
immersed
99
in
32
CEMENT.
B01CAK
The
water.
test
testing machine
At
sufficient
off
be
to
entertained
were
chalk
least,
and
of
imposing
if
even
practicallyinexhaustible.
abandonment
the
to
measure
be
could
in
country
tions
representa-
intended
protective
cement
subsequent experience has proved that the
almost
driven
is not
only better, but it has now
Eoman
from
There
the
in
new
the
market.
is every
found
made
this
These
the
of
cement-
deficiency of
a
supplies of which,
pro-
a
and
policy ;
of
article
an
(Portland)
cement
a
clay, the
were
led
as
unnecessary,
occurred,
cement-stone
at
considered
was
all
on
shown
from
the
by English engineers.
foreigners found dredging for the
The
the English coast.
necessity of such a
hibitory tax
was
cement
intentions
serious
stone
Eoman
with
performed
importance to require speciallegislationfor its protection
and during the premiership of the
late Sir Kobert
;
Peel
and
one,
generally used
now
time
one
tensile
a
was
to believe
reason
districts
that
be
may
deposits of clay
exist ; and
more
analogous in
especiallyin those formations
and
to the London
character
Kimmeredge
clays. The stone
be
selected
unless
should
not
containing 40 per cent, of
many
of
carbonate
and
in
analysis given
the
varying proportions
oxide
the
extensive
iron.
of
chapter
The
Limes
on
of
alumina,
simple
will
approximately testing the
of
purpose
with
lime,
silica, magnesia
where
cement-stone
also for
answer
values
of
form
of
cement-
stones.
Eoman
is not
cement
concrete
its
In
in
use
combination
the
strength was
only be used.
if
causes
and
and
may
where
This
might
of time
desirable
it is
for
of
conditions
be
quick
setting
with danger.
be extensivelyadapted to
attended
where
concrete
where
ground
must
but
mentioned;
certain
be
is liable
cement
engineering works
property
to
for, and
air when
length
any
it
lime
sought
not
to the
exposed
Its
hou^sebuilding with
of
purposes
before
hands
careless
with
for
under
it may
employed.
advantageously
causes
houses
build
to
used
special purposes
the
for
except
much
now
cheap matrix
a
to
; and
maximum
could
speedy
deterioration
if from
unavoidable
elapse
keep it in
between
the
burning
using
unground state,
more
an
casks
in
it
if carefully packed
in that conair-tight
dition
may
In some
be kept good for a length of time.
it
cases
be
found
it is
dug
necessary
or
to
quarried
to
burn
and
the
grind
stone
in
it where
the
locality
required for
34
PORTLAND
professionsand
their
subordinates
it may
or
be
in
of details
consequence
to
sible
irrespon-
of
the
more
them
profession having thrust upon
and
conscientious
amount
an
personal supervision,
of which
the tendency of this age
is impossible. Doubtless
of force, regarding quantity more
is towards
concentration
than
quality. This policy, however, will not bequeath to posterity
the
works
St.
such
Paul's,
as
Eddystone Lighthouse,
conceived
for
works
Menai
modern
the
not
Bridge ;
or
are
in the
same
by such
untiring personal
spirit or executed
that
which
influenced
anct
Wren,
Smeaton,
as
industry
when
Telford
structures.
carrying out their celebrated
had
cement
Portland
its origin in the desire for a mortar
eminent
of the
of work
.
depute the control
:
members
CEMENT.
would
that
the
and
speedily set
harden
under
although the base of all cements
argillaceous ingredient, does not
the
hence
sands
after such
researches
to
the
regard
without
thousand
years
for modern
reserved
originated
This
in
character
carbonate
a
were
mortar
the
submarine
land.
on
scientific
and
lime
and
by
The
its
earlier
two
been
the
work
ficial
is arti-
Portland,"
"
and
it has
complete
to
of
intelligentcombination
an
fine
clay of a peculiar character.
of almost
These
two
are
simple and inexpensive materials
and
universal
obtainment,
subjected to the
produce, when
silicate of lime
manufacturing
operation, a double
necessary
and
alumina.
This product is then
subjected to a high degree
of mechanical
pulverization,producing at the completion of
that
also
and
has
differs from
greatest
with
the
mortar
deficient
been
valuable
attained
that
cement
when
heaviest
by spurious
in
Unlike
commerce.
unless
"
manufacture
its slowness
of
"
setting.
slowest, and ultimately attain
qualities set
and
in a ratio
strength of induration
or
;
of departure from
will the
these conditions
amount
amount
with
is most
of
cement
the
heaviest
The
it
cement,
condition
that
Portland
the
process
Boman
the
of
is made
as
in
upwards
but
arose,
industry
fossil
structures,
is
It
desire
first
and
especially directed
more
for
antiquity so remote.
now
generally known
an
cement,
in
of
since
faculty,
it is deficient.
cement
buildings
to
some
of
of lime
a
of
preparation
that
possess
with
puzzolana, trass, and
the virtue of hydraulicity of which
of carbonate
state
pure
to it
impart
to
addition
necessary
mixed
unless
"
"
itself
Lime
water.
which
in ultimate
the
cement
is made
be
indurating capacity.
found
While
weak
and
possessing
PORTLAND
characteristics
valuable
such
35
CEMENT.
it
requires
of
amount
an
telligen
in-
being used, and also differs materially from
if imperfectly made
which
Eoman
too long kept
cement,
or
defects
will only produce the usual
pertaining to imperfect
It is otherwise, however,
with
mortar.
some
qualities of
when
Portland
badly-made
from
of
lime
distortion
of mortar,
mechanical
especiallywhen
more
carbonate
of
excess
an
cement,
of
;
the
it results
for, in addition
work
takes
integrati
dis-
to
place from
exerted
by the imperfectly-slakedlime.
Such
the
dangers are practically impossible, however, when
of thoroughly testing the cement
protective agency
necesary
is adopted.
The
before being used
Portland
name
was
given
to this cement
from
its
by its patentee and inventor
(Aspdin)
the
force
to the
resemblance
close
oolite limestone
There
of
the
real
of
lias varieties
to
in
the
which
artificial Portland
or
Portland
limestone
The
nearly the
very
will show
:
The
marl
is obtained
situated
which
from
from
in the
while
feet
160
"
or
layers
below
natural
important
; but
process.
blue
best
our
the
as
ing
follow-
which
it varies
reduces
the
found.
are
resembles
of
retaining
it
for
from
mass
the
in character,
cost
and
in
which
clay,
which
In
some
the
of its
the
artificial ;
its normal
bulk
considerably
contracts
of
made
Kimmeridge
strata
"
is
cement
Portland
one,
The
of
the
septeria
setting, it is deficient,
during that
homogeneous,
cement
of
some
Portland
natural
the
of
the
most
the
one
pebbles
characteristics
but
in
"
about
Boulogne
also
the
especially those
their
properties
artificial Portland,
approaches
table
cements,
so
from
Dorsetshire.
resemble
;
has
approach in their analytical value
at Rugby
especially those obtained
analysis of the natural
Boulogne
cement,
Warwickshire.
in
as
not
originally made
Portland
France,
and
name,
isle of Portland
natural
in
Boulogne
that
been
having
of the
some
are
its
from
supposed
been
of
stone
it is made
conversion
into
consequently
cannot
d
2
is
a
36
POETLAND
relied
be
always
and
alumina
that
which
the
general quality
to
process
the
by
a
results, and
is
much
materials
two
of
of
possible, under
cement
the
objection
an
even
the
of
amounts
manufacture
it is
ensure
of
of
the
is indicated
the
type
value
facilitates
mixed,
In
Portland
character
simple
is
it
manufacture,
it is made
fluctuating
cements.
circumstance
The
the
which
of the
of
system
from
with
natural
all
artificial cements
good
from
upon
silica
to
common
CEMENT.
creased.
infrom
conversion.
Their
following analyses
:
"
Chalk.
Lime,
; carb.
66*5
acid,
43-0
0*5.
water,
;
Clay.
alumina,
Silica, 68*46;
of iron, 14-80
4
from
to
25
85
should
contain
not
of
exercise
a
ensures
in
75
chalk,
of
cent,
per
of
cent,
per
iron
oxides.
but
when
requires the
intelligentlybestowed,
until
recently displayed by
cement.
been
the
to
such
of
consequence
to
haphazard,
which,
has
regard
14
of
one
good quality of
consumers
in
than
care,
indifference
Much
65
clay, according to their several
but
the
of chalk
be used;
clay
may
is not
special
oxide
lime, 0*75;
of
more
manufacture
The
from
are
cent,
per
kind
qualities. Any
of
4-00.
used
proportions
The
and
soda,
;
carb.
11-64;
quality of
supineness
many
Portland
cement,
doubtful,
and
and
even
dangerous, preparations have been brought into the market.
of a public
During the last ten years many
important works
have
been
character
executed, in which
large quantities of
cements
used, more
high-class Portland
were
especially the
of London
main
and
the
several
ments
embankdrainage works
of
masses
of
superior to
The
cement
the
Thames.
Eiver
walls
concrete
the
best
on.
.supervision,and
In
these
from
works
the
latter
constructed
were
brickwork,
the
at
was
about
used
especially,large
of
a
quality
one-third
under
of its cost.
the
strictest
precautions adopted it was
sible
imposthat
cement
doubtful
a
or
dangerous character
any
the
it was
could reach
point where
Such
required.
security
to the tests, which
by a rigorous adherence
only obtained
was
substantially these :
were
of
"
POBTLAND
"
First.
The
imperial
straked
Second.
It
through
10
should
cement
a
weigh
110
lbs.
per
be
60
and
finely ground,
sieve, leaving
gauge
be
able
to
pass
of
only
residue
a
cent.
per
Third.
When
should,
after
mixed
be
days,
seven
of 200
lbs. to the
square
The
above
compound
test
elements,
strict
a
to test
the
adherence
it
water
tensik
resisting a
substantiallyof
consists
is necessary
the
the
cement
of value
amount
utmost
realised
architect,
from
or
builder
facilityof
; the
three
; the first
second
to
shall
through the
of mortar
and
its strength.
the third
It
concrete
or
masses
;
the enforcement
is necessary
to insist upon
of these separate
of the test, for it is possible a bad
divisions
quality of cement
other
of them
ever,
howone
or
When,
unchallenged.
may
pass
the whole
is implicitly adhered
test
to, the engineer,
be
its
in
inch.
to which
that
so
of
capable
hydraulicity of
its fineness,
prove
immersed
and
neat
up
strain
being
least
at
bushel.
must
No.
37
CEMENT.
rest
may
diffusion
extreme
satisfied
that
no
bad
cement
general adoption
about
bring
soon
testing
in
and
manufacture,
improvement
an
eventually result in
directing the attention of builders to a better knowledge of the
materials
with which
of construction
they have to deal.
the valuable
ing
cement
property of resistzf Portland
possesses
the deteriorating influences
of atmospheric action, and
be kept for a lengthened period before being used ; it is,
may
therefore, better adapted for exportation to distant
places,
climate.
It can
and will continue
be used with
good in any
other
of
sand
than
or
larger proportions
gravel
cement,
any
that
of
and
with
its
ultimate
amount
quality, together
high
for conit in realitythe cheapest cement
induration, renders
crete
The
of
sand
make
first-class
to
making.
proportion
of sand
is usually three
of cement,
to
but for
mortar
one
the proportion may
be increased
to eight of
ordinary purposes
sand
concrete
gravel for mortar
neering
or
or
; indeed, large engiin concrete
with these
works
being executed
are
now
of the maximum
Our present knowledge
degree
proportions.
can
be
used
on
works
so
The
controlled.
.
of
the
above
mode
would
of
.
of
induration
to
which
this
cement
attains
is
unavoidably
38
PORTLAND
imperfect, but
in age from
obtained.
samples
from
The
the
years
weighed 123 lbs. per
in water
until tested
immersed
Neat
Age
samples varying
following results were
on
to two
cement
were
made
experiments
week
one
CEMENT.
bushel,
:
and
the
"
Cement.
lbs. per
1 week
868
1 month
416
8 months
469
do.
6 months
523
do.
9 months
542
do.
months
546
do.
589
do.
square
inch.
.
do.
,,
12
2 years
Mixed
Age
an
with
Thames
of
volume
equal
lbs. per
Sand.
1 week
160
1 month
201
8 months
244
do.
6 months
284
do.
9 months
307
do.
months
318
do.
851
do.
square
do.
inch.
"
12
2 years
experiments
These
resistance
to
rupture
that
the increase
of strength
prove
is rapid ; in the
of neat
cement
case
or
of 61
improvement
per cent, in two
years,
with
of
mixed
sand, reaches
an
equal volume
and, when
of improved
used
in
cement
119
cent,
strength. The
per
of a
these
high character, and selected for
experiments was
of weight gives a
of showing
that
increase
the purpose
an
in value.
The
contrast
corresponding improvement
was
more
in
other
with
experiments
performed
apparent, however,
of
lbs.
of different
Cement
106
cements
weights.
weight
being equal
resisted
a
cement
of
under
a
to
an
tensile
lbs.
180
strain
of 406
an
improvement
an
increase
of
resistance
in
in
210
weight
per
lbs. per
tensile
of
24
square
lbs.
to
is
also
following experiments will show
the
to
bushel
strength
weight
compression
to
lbs.
of
strain
:
"
inch, and
square
could
not
be
broken
inch, indicating thereby
of
nearly
the
very
100
bushel.
per
Its
remarkable,
cent,
by
capacity
as
the
PORTLAND
Bricks
and
2J inches,
ages
At
65
:
9 inches
cement
subjected to
at six
;
old
months
hydraulic
inches
by 4"
at the
pressure
a
To
obtained
from
a
pressure
bed, having
establish
a
cement
and
by
fractured
were
old, by
in their
inches.
they
months
old, by
months
applied
was
of neat
by
ing
follow-
"
three
tons
nine
made
were
39
CEMENT.
pressure
of 120
a
of
a
pressure
tons ; and
of 92
The
tons.
pressure
superficies of 88*25
between
at
these
square
results,
comparison
of a high
other building materials
character, the following experiments were
made,
resulting as
follows
:
"
crashing
Average
weight.
Exposed
surface.
Oldham
red
Medway
gault-clay bricks
pressed
Do.
Stafford
Sq. inches.
Tons.
39-33
40
40*50
17
bricks
brick
blue
48
"
27*
9
50
Fire-clay brick
Wortley blue brick
84*85
65
84*76
72
Portland
39*94
47
stone
39*94
91
landing
88*28
96
stone
Fall
Bramley
Yorkshire
Showing
that
exceeded
in
a
value
; and
Portland
neat
it
best
the
brick
cement
known
at nine
building
months
materials
old
of
this
is
just possible that a greater age may
yet
increase
of
indicate
an
strength, an advantage our
experience
lead
bricks
to expect from
not
does
stones.
us
or
Heavy
is necessarily slow
cement
setting ; and these experiments,
putably
indiscoupled with the best engineering experience, prove
without
that
cannot
obtain
weight
great
you
-strength.
country
Portland
weight
cement
bushel,
per
be
can
but
these
made
from
weights
80
may
lbs.
be
to
lbs.
130
considered
the
The
will set too rapidly, and the
light cement
too
The
of
cost
slowly, for general purposes.
one
heavy
is governed
cement
the
fineness; the
by its weight and
it is, and
it approaches to an
the nearer
heavier
impalpable
two
extremes.
powder,
these
The
the
two
safest
greater
extreme
and
will
be
its cost.
qualities of
most
cement
generally useful
The
is not
of
use
either
of
recommended.
quality is
that
which
40
PORTLAND
weighs HOlbs.
the
per
best
be
bushel
; that
well
cement,
ground,
quality of manufacture,
average
obtained
CEMENT.
and
sents
repre-
from
its
all the
ordinary advantages required for
confusion
building purposes.
recently much
arose
from
the
the
of
difficultyattending
practice
selling and
of capacity.
The
buying cements
by a measure
price per
bushel
led to the
of
of
cement
a
production
light specific
fill
the
of
sack
the
to
gravity, so as
regardless
quality of the
material
intelligent experience, however,
put into it. More
the more
has established
sensible practice of selling Portland
much
sold
cement
at so
by weight, so that it is now
per
hundred
the
is thus
consumer
pounds weight ; and while
protected against paying a high rate for inferior quality, the
of his
is justly paid according to the
manufacturer
value
production. In short, quality and not quantity is sought for,
and weight is now
regarded as the only test of excellence.
Plate
The
shown
on
1, fig.1, is that now
testing machine
the
to prove
usually employed on engineering works
quality
of cement
for
before
It is
mortar
concrete.
being mixed
or
in
check
and
successful
acts
a
character,
as
against
simple
in
inferior
the
from
of cement
use
quality or
dangerous
The
machine
imperfections in manufacture.
requires to be
too
accurately constructed, and its cost is therefore
great to
use
may
Until
adoption
its
ensure
the
responsiblefor
of
will
who
manufacturers
use
the
circumstances,
such
works
in
two
up
and
diameter
circular
half
water;
when
removal
from
the
of them
into
water,
twenty-four
hair-like
of lime
the
be
open
hours'
if there
and
or
they
and
board
the
cement
of
thick,
and
the
immersion
no
fissures, it may
yellow and
be
ochrey,
:
neat
with
other
be
held
the
"
the
in
on
considered
light gray
the
from
in
sustained
cement
six
cement,
examine
indications
thoroughly hydraulic
air should
be
may
inches
in
smallest
quantity of
permit of their
mixed, put one
sufficientlyset to
which
on
they were
are
are
be
if used
under
such
quality. Even
ascertain, by the following simple
cakes
inch
an
Under
purchased
be
its quality, and
which
precautions, it is well to
experiments, the quality of
Make
should
guarantee
damage
character.
moderate
a
cement
article of inferior
an
of
the
open
the
water
its
cake
surface
free from
in character.
contains
too
fully,
care-
of cracks
excess
an
cake
in
if it proves
to
The
in colour, but
After
air.
large
a
pro-
42
MATERIALS
MOBTABS
FOB
AND
No.
Lime
CONCBETES.
No.
1.
57-18
55-78
Magnesia
1-82
1-62
Alumina
9*20
8-90
5-12
6-05
0-58
0-75
0-70
106
of iron
Peroxide
Potash
Soda
23-86
Silica
Carbonic
acid
acid
Sulphuric
22-53
1-90
1-46
0-64
1-85
100-00
remarkable
A
result
8^ inches
Portland
a
lime
of
strength
relative
and
cement.
stood
a
of 25
pressure
limes
of
nature
and
information
various
minerals
of
unsuitable
necessary
; but
mineralogy
selection
will
of the
the
the
to
in
those
is
be
districts
required
the
suitable
where
in
determine
knowledge
efforts
kind
the
Such
combination
the
naturally
little discrimination
barren
to
A
used.
facilitate
most
exist,
some
of
purpose.
ignorant
an
localities
In
sands
and
that
into
of
characteristics
for
crete
con-
introduced
be
of
a
acquainted
well
desirability
chief
prevent
be
to
aggregates
to
as
care
shall
aggregate
should
to
and
of mortar
processes
operator
the
materials.
gravels
considerable
the
of
qualities and
be, it is necessary
may
usually employed
prepared
gray-stone
MORTARS
the
to
as
Hence
is necessary
inowledge
FOR
cements
mixtures.
general
stood
with-
cement
with
tons.
information
the
complete understanding
the
making, that
the peculiarities of
with
several
built
and
CONCRETES.
AND
reliable
lime
gray-stone
that
the
on
2 feet 6 inches
Portland
AGGREGATES
AS
However
built
in
built
whilst
tons,
experimenting
with
joined
piece
of 100
pressure
only
when
in
brickwork
of
pieces
The
100-00
obtained
was
square
MATERIALS
the
2.
is
such
resources,
what
quality of
geology and
of
the
of aggregate
builder
; and
in
the
to those
MATEBIALS
have
who
FOB
MOBTABS
acquired such
of
description
The
the
AND
information
useful
suitable
various
43
CONCBETES.
no
particular
very
will
materials
be
sary.
neces-
of those
majority
engaged in building operations
in such
it is to be feared, notoriously deficient
ledge,
knowand
and for their guidance
information
the following
are,
observations
almost
there
the
qualitiesof
materials
suitable
for aggregates
offered.
are
In
the
on
every
deposits
are
of
purposes
variable
district
of
mortar
accomplishing
their
the
Scotland,
England,
sand
gravel and
and
Ireland
naturally prepared
but
making,
certain
degree of
concrete
or
characteristics
in
in
require
a
The
use.
formation
various
beds
of
natural
their
criminati
dis-
forces, in
gravel, have
of an
occasionally produced materials
injurious character,
loam
should
be
such
and
all
as
clay, which
rejected from
mixtures.
"When
mortar
concrete
sand
or
or
gravel is
the
obtained
from
beds of streams
rivers, the soluble clays
or
and
loams
are
generally washed
by the action of the
away
and
water
leaving them
injurious
(sand
gravel) free from
and
when
in that
condition
be used
admixture,
they may
the
with
the
rapid
velocity of the stream
safety. The
more
Thames
is
will
be
it
cleaner
the gravel or sand.
ballast, as
of the
best
known
generally called, makes
one
compound
aggregates
for concrete,
and
has
been
of sand
for
used
or
for such
for
purposes
also
lengthened period with
are
so
great success;
from
its
obtained
banks
able
suitgravels
pits or excavations
on
The
for all variety of building
extensive
alluvial
purposes.
its
in
deposits
valley are, generally speaking, well adapted
the
a
for
mortar
have
been
the
of
derived
river
is
from
favourable
source
from
which
on
tracing
easily understood
its rise
velocity is checked
such
The
concrete.
or
in
the
Oxfordshire
by tidal influence.
conditions
be
Flints
used
the
the
hills
when
flints
course
until
its
under
found
danger ; but
in which
the
when
from
chalk
freshly excavated
they are
embedded
suitable.
should
then
not
only be used
are
They
so
in combination
with
proportion of good sand,
a considerable
so
that
as
their
non-absorbent
possible.
attraction
for
the
forms
hard
adhesion
circumstances,
various
defects
Their
non-porosity renders
its
may
them
as
may
an
be
of
without
be
may
as
glassy surfaces
the
lime
or
much
ized
neutral-
offer
but
; and
cement
little
their
under
able
unavoidunsuitable, unless
Gravel, therefore, in
aggregate.
considered
as
the
most
suitable
44
MATERIALS
material
for
Bocks
for
absence
a
scarcity
preference should
and
deficient
and,
cement,
detect
to
the
of
able
suit-
a
the
aggregates
the
of
between
and
other
and
;
absorbent
properties.
with
use
them.
oolitic
it
in
the
is
perfect
from
also
are
the
able
valu-
Buckwell's
of
manufacture
difficult
so
Chippings
limestones,
ture,
tex-
Portland
materials,
two
texture
crystalline in
to
the
is
harder
carefully amalgamated,
junction
Anston,
of
and
aggregate
in
possible,
possessing an
rocks
those
over
used
choice
any
those
to
hard
although
when
cementation
Bath,
When
be
may
valuable
more
suitable
most
a
of
the
in
ragstone,
is
generally being
and
purposes,
gravel.
be given
of porosity
amount
Kentish
is
concrete
or
average
its
OOXGBETES.
requiring but little preparatory manipulation.
less
or
are
more
geological formation
every
of
adapted
AND
aggregate, from
an
size and
MOETABS
FOB
their
value
loped
stone
fully devegranitic breccia
was
under
made
so
was
intelligent supervision. Pavement
the
when
laid down
severest
manner
satisfactorilytested in
of
a
on
portion of the footway
King William-street, City,
of
it stood
the test
that
incessant
traffic during
where
London,
the
absence
of rocks of boulder
In
a period of fourteen
years.
other
in any
where
stones
or
clay abounds,
locality,and
patent
it will
be necessary
aggregate
to
by burning.
be a costly
convert
that
Where
fuel
and
into
material
is abundant
a
suitable
the
process
when
clays,
properly
is
cious
treated,
highly tenaclay
the expense
will be inexpensive, and
of conversion
if
even
the clay is sandy and
refractory the cost will be but trifling.
it is especially adapted for mixWhen
ture
clay is thus converted
with rich limes, to which
it imparts a considerable
degree
is
of
Table
ancient
the
Eoman
of setting energy,
shown
by
as
Chalk
be used in conjunction
and
65.
64
mortars, pages
may
first be deprived
with
but when
cement,
so
adapted it should
of its latent amount
of moisture, which
can
readilybe expelled
by submitting it to a temperature of 120 degrees. All chalks
of moisture, which
contain
twelve
they part with at
per cent,
that heat.
be used when
Beach
properly reduced
shingle can
if mixed
with a small
to the necessary
size, and even
portion
Broken
bricks
of shells it may
be used
with
advantage.
or
iron
well
and
scoriae
from
furnaces,
slag
brickyard refuse, as
as
will
not
make
is sometimes
with
rich
one,
excellent
mixed
limes
with
should
ballast.
cement
be
some
If
;
avoided.
the
but
the
use
Foundry
of the
latter
slag, finely
MATERIALS
ground, has
In
FOB
been
mixed
constructing
hydraulic lime
backing
and
MORTARS
the
were
-with
hydraulic
Docks
mixed
powdered
fillingof
the
1885
in
The
water
slag by itself.
was
kept from
and
it eventually attained
a
stony hardness.
There
are
valuable
many
which
if their
properties
made
chalk, and
and
tiles
moulded
burnt
are
in
in
in
cooled.
sufficiently
with
water,
fit for
they
are
and
in
building.
and
known
to
combination
of
usual
from
of
construction
They
the
to
way
which
hours
24
tender
instance
works
It contains
France.
the
furnaces,
until
be
regarded
present dis-
82
present used in the manufacture
The
following curious
process.
the
days,
at
per cent,
of bricks
is at
by
tiles when
it for two
ertion
accurately ascertained, or any exthe following sandy
them, such
as
were
Bivi"res
at
joined with
deposits
in
useful
prove
discover
to
clay found
of
would
mineral
of the
some
was
the
parts of
two
slag ;
work
rough ashlar
advantage.
with
limes
Sunderland
with
45
CONCRETES.
AND
they
and
required
form
drenched
become
afterwards
writer
materials
where
occurs
the
furnace
only
natural
well-balanced
their
and
a
to
as
It is the
beneficial
so
;
hard
so
being first taken from
require delicate handling.
soused
or
On
the
withdrawn
not
are
then
are
bricks
that
the process
they were
proportions indicates
by which
of water.
have
must
been effected by the agency
amalgamated
The
exist in a high state of comminution,
or
particles must
the
heat
flux
the
for the decarbonisation
necessary
alumina
and
sand.
It would
be
to
the
In
to
to
as
means
by
accurately combine
so
natural
the
of materials
their
power
guard against the
may
in character.
In
the
might be employed
its water
varied
powers
lias
of
one
square
treated, and
ficial
arti-
performed
satisfactorily
so
capillary attraction, so that you
too porous
danger of employing one
of such precautions a material
absence
as
spongy
of adhesion,
will
bricks
month
inch;
broke
aggregates it is necessary
of
hydration,and
mortar
Staffordshire
per
so
for
to rob
the
lime
Even
as
the
show.
at 86 lbs. per
of
obtaining
a
afford
following experiments with
Two
moderately-glazed blue
joined together, and
by a
wera.pulled asunder
hard
cement
bricks
different
were
two
or
its
thereby prevent
degree of induration.
proper
blue
of
by
materials
possible
im-
process.
selection
examine
would
difficult if not
similar
results
the
secure
chalk
of the
gray
square
stocks
inch
at
force
tion
expira-
of 40 lbs.
simUarly
soft place brick
were
;
the
46
MATERIALS
Tinder
inch
:
series
another
sectional
equal
roach
found
was
relative
the
Granite
11,
results
being
The
Portland
and
a
Portland
in
bricks.
scale,
Any
be
increased
the
from
of
and
nature
moulding
constructing
owing
with
its
to
The
object
cheap
makes
for which
districts
in
aggregates
may
the
consider
a
or
of
other
or
one
forms
this,
be
cost
considerable
the
also
any
of
to
other
In
of
exert
in
where
masonry
from
separated
fire-stone
it,
used
in
the
selection
material,
and
of
in
a
it may
be to obtain
consider
its value
for the
or
any
carriage, which
item
the
of
intended.
deposits
selected.
to
desirable
However
be
in
works
concrete
pulverized
suitability
it may
indeed
found
old
be
upon
applied
mortar.
guide builders
it is well
material,
not
and
strong
a
should
which
purpose
in
could
fectly
per-
together.
was
the
In
to
hydration.
force
it
in
Havre.
mortar
aggregates is first the
second
degree the cost.
a
of
adhesiveness;
limes
rich
the
used
been
with
harbour
the
lime
with
depend
ingredients
and
acquire
as
of
much
mechanical
aggregate,
combination
intimate
it had
good
a
will
which
connected
water
or
various
the
stock
in
regulated
so
action
the
of
extent
is
Fire-stone
an
beneficial
scending
de-
naturally
aggregates
as
moisture
in
soft
the
it may
climate
intimately
be
texture
differently influenced
and
used
stones.
safest
of
moisture
should
the
ramming
or
of
becoming
it
such
be
the
developed
case
temperature
size
the
is
the
course
materials
their
from
amount
the
the
density
absorb
The
with
The
and
of
amount
used.
matrix,
in
of
r
such
16;
stone
as
were
them
follows
as
was
of
land
Port-
stone,
porosity
adhesiveness
of
separating
Portland
the
In
blocks
pair
a
cating
indi-
cent.
stone
On
considered
will
the
proportion to
absorb
; varying
the
to
of
aggregate
in
it may
and
witnessed
as
of
lbs.
18
bricks
per
adhesion
of
of
Portland
cement.
be
value
50
pairs
ordinary
proportion
diminished
stock
of
pair of granite,
amount
may
strain
a
the
power
the
12,
stone
the
case
Portland
with
with
three
a
of
pair
CONCRETES.
of
adhesive
viz.,
a
severally joined
it
the
experiments
area,
and
in
in
of
AND
separated
thus
difference
a
MORTARS
conditions
similar
square
per
FOR
the
There
country,
are
few
utterly deficient
formations
from
case
it
in
nearly
expense.
very
is
which
necessary
all
to
buildings
47
AND
LIME
Various
which
theories
takes
mortars
much
been
have
offered
the
to
as
exact
process
in the
place
hardening of the different varieties of
and
concretes.
The
subject has at all times received
attention
from
the most
eminent
withstandin
investigators ; yet nottheir experiments and
in the attempt
researches
the
elucidate
to
SETTING.
CEMENT
still surrounds
in its
considerable
matter,
Indifference
it.
and
the
on
and
with
tical
pracin the
preparation
object of imparting
the
subject
uncertainty
knowledge
a
blunders
; and
mortars
information
reliable
acquire
to
led to many
character, has
of concretes
doubt
will
we
consider
the
advanced
in accounting
have
been
suggestions which
for the somewhat
mysterious natural
agencies which
produce
results
in the setting and
such wonderful
hardening of limes
various
and
cements.
To
in the use
of the terms
ting
setmisunderstanding
to define
these two
hardening, it will be necessary
The
first,or setting, is that which
imparts initial
prevent
and
processes.
to
energy
mixture
any
eliminate
eject or
hardening.
ultimate
cannot
used, and
or
even
years,
in
a
mortar
of
Hitherto
agent
the
gives
soon
instead
of
has
mass
in
fracture.
the
from
quality of lime
of
quarter
a
preparation
indications
carbonic
hardening
hydrate
lime
recarbonized
carbonate
of
lime.
of
of
of
concrete
improving,
it to
the
hour
an
dangerous
cement
six
been
days
duly
Otherwise
in
the
is the cess
prothousands
of
have
mortar.
decay,
of
or
to
for
and
plasticity
duration
induration
or
of
enables
lost its
The
Hardening or ultimate
which
follows the setting,and continues
conditions
provided the necessary
mass
become
the
longer.
observed
the
extend
may
until
entirely on
depends
process
and
concrete,
or
not
superfluous water
required for its
the
Setting, therefore, simply means
without
moved
be
of mortar
continues
operation which
and
the
such
cases
the
duces
pro-
quality, which
age,
deteriorates.
acid
has
lime
been
due
mortars,
for
that
and
so
The
looked
acid
resume
"
as
upon
to
the
enabling
its
unconditional
normal
the
prime
avidity of
lime
the
to
condition
adoption
of
this
from
the absence
of
embarrassment,
theory leads to some
satisfactory proof of the perfect recarbonating of any lime
48
AND
UME
The
mortar.
mortars
which
we
Phoenician,
analysis of
in pages
60 to 65 indicates
familiar
to the lime
are
especiallyin
The
SETTING.
CEMENT
limes
in the
the
case
Boman
Boman
approach with
its original condition,
from
Cyprus.
the nearest
resuming
the
of
and
Greek,
mortars
although 1700 years old,
have
not
their pristine condition
the
yet resumed
; although
it would
of recarbonating is still progressing, and
process
that
be unreasonable
not
to assume
it will eventually take
be considered
acid, if not the sole agent, may
place. Carbonic
in
the hardening of ordinary lime mortars.
an
important one
pendent
indeEminently hydraulic limes and cements
are, however,
of such
mum
being capable of attaining a maxiagency,
aid.
without
such
In
degree of induration
partial
opposition to the theory of recarbonating, there are eminent
who
authorities
attribute the hardening of mortar
to silicazaThe
action
denned
is due
to the lime
tion.
as
by them
the
and
of attacking sand
other
forms
of
having
power
silica by long contact
at a common
insoluble
temperature.
and
of
his
in
careful
minute
the Boman
Mr.
analyses
Spiller,
mortar
at Burgh
(see page 63), failed to obtain any proof of
such
in
action
and
may
neat
be
result
acid
Boman
in
cannot
the
from
or
their
bodies
are
that
ground
the
air.
Keene's
be
of
and
62
conclusions
when
cements
circumstances
due
which
will
set
to
they
and
it
used
which
or
higher are
perfect diffusion
or
and
clude
pre-
and
plaster of Paris, and
are
cements
made
are
iron
cating
obtained, indiatoms
increases
highest results
well
as
or
finely these
more
the
strength,
Parian
glass
on
of the
ance
assist-
or
in contact, for
results
obtains
tensile
be
may
The
the
acid
carbonic
harden
brick.
the
cements
of
under
case
stone
more
of the
energy
either
compression
the
the
these
of
Portland
and
with
cements
of these
any
almost
well as on
as
as
examination
(see pages
mortars
cent,
per
aid either
receiving adventitious
insoluble
silica. Again, plaster of Paris,
and
such
cement,
quickly harden;
a
Parian
and
cements
Boman
great hardness
carbonic
Keene's
in his
0*4
of their
possibility
the
from
only found
Wallace,
confirmation
In
stated that
attain
he
for
the
silica.
insoluble
on
:
him
by
hardening is due to the recarbonating
action of the lime
is but slightly assisted by any
that
63), concludes
process,
and
Greek,
Phoenician,
the
theory
William
Dr.
silica.
instituted
analysis
exhaustive
testing that
of
the purpose
of soluble
the
mortars,
in
merely
the
of
water
tions
prepara-
by incorporating with,
50
UME
remains
CEMENT
SETTING.
undisturbed, the natural
cohesive
unable
are
AND
their
to exert
beneficial
and
influence, and
is consequently impossible.
crystallization
weaker
fore, make
limes
hydraulic
in
water
as
rich
limes
the
some
inherent
is modified
the
diffusion
A
diffusion
when
faculty,and
between
into
mass
therein, to
the
limes,
so
kinds
two
the
or
poor
of
The
paste.
a
extent
some
of lime.
permit
to
as
in the
lime
limes, there*
of the
preparation of
is reduced
to
the
least, lies
at
difference
That
high degree of comminution
a
is shown
the
perfect
large a quantity
so
is
practised
of
greatest amount
particlesof lime throughout
example of the advantages obtained
good
the
than
the
of
forces
great affinityfor water, and do not possess,
of again rejecting it.
Hydraulic limes
a
when
rich
the
to convert
Eich
mortars
absorbing
former
cases
power
that
possess
the difference
with
; the
have
and
concretes
adhesive
the
aggregate.
by
extreme
batons
"
agglomeres,"
texture
by being
finest
after
sieve.
The
slakage, through a finely-perforated
Roman
intended
to overcome
practice of beating mortar
was
the
Smeaton.
Even
to
expand.
tendency of rich limes
resorted
for
to that practice in the preparation of his mortars
of
the Eddystone
The
lighthouse.
deadening the
process
passed,
lime
is
perfect
of the
attained
now
Any
means.
particlesof
of
amount
mode
less
much
by
expensive
accomplishesthe
which
is beneficial, and
lime
will
be
the
silicates
of
lime
dispersion
in
value
and
separation,
ratio
a
of
more
with
the
improvement
obtained.
In
the
cements
important part
in
in
Portland
the
of
case
addition
increased
of
the
initial
setting
soluble
is
value
of induration.
to
and
cement
silicate
strength
there
reason
the
to
suppose
and
alumina
been
potash or soda imparts
the powdered cement,
although
its
ultimate
without
improving
Portland
of
cement
may
and
hydraulic lime,
occupies
improved
the
best
between
position
hydraulic limes
natural
cements.
The
an.
; and
processes
that
found
an
hardening
it has
play
difference
between
be
considered
an
intermediate
an
and
the
the
rich
finest
and
is well
illustrated
the
during
hydraulic limes
process
violence
the
The
former
exhibit
of
on
slaking.
great
treated
latter
when
the
so
application of water
; but
of
have
such
no
liabilityto increase
tendency, and
any
action
is
difference
of
bulk
plained
exsoon
disappears. The
in
rich
limes
the
the
matter
absence
of
by
foreign
LIME
and
the
existence
materials
exerting
minimum
previous
sacrifice
a
the
of
other
doubtful
such
its ultimate
is
never
artificial
setting
experience
value
of
to the
Portland
hardness
of
Portland
cements
and
the
result
natural
process
hot
is obtained
setting and
of
case
natural
slow-
engineering
fact
especiallyincreases
the
other
or
of
unquestioned
now
cement
of its
The
;
the
slowness
a-
force
that
true
advantage
the
confirms
to
power
this
frequent attendant
in
cracking. This point receives further elucidation
of cements.
Fast
other
or
or
quick setting Koman
cements
the
strength of induration, besides
disadvantages of blowing and
too
attain
; these
keeping apart
It
mortar.
common
will set faster, but
mortar
at
using
to
in
agency
the
in
thereby reducing the expansive
the
necessity of extinguishing
hence
:
alumina
beneficial
a
51
SETTING.
CEMENT
silica and
of
of lime, and
atoms
AND
in
that
the
proportion
final induration.
incrusting
rocks
in
the
form
of
stalagmites and stalactites is due to the action of carbonate
of
lime
conveyed in minute
particles of solutipn by the
of water
in its percolation through limestone
rocksagency
The
acid dissolves
the calcareous
water
containing carbonic
of lime.
rock, and thus produces a solution of carbonate
soluble
silica.
Geizer
The
Many
springs also contain
rally
springs in Iceland
are
highly impregnated with that natuthe
abundant
and
almost
all
material; indeed
sea
rivers contain
variable
proportions of it in a state of solution.
.
The
and
deposited
by
in
action
is
atom
water
and
the
case
of
of
to
water
favourable
most
only one-sided
accurately imitating this
or
concretes,
In
observing the
be
welded
the
circumstances
in
; and
in
process
natural
attain
of
even
more
the
are,
we
atom
the
liquid
however,
protracted,
very
character
it
as
of
passage
operations
veyed
con-
part of it.
1
adhesive, and
movements
Such
thus
fineness,
dissolve
is
stalactites
largest deposits.
lime
of extreme
one
slowest
rock, the
at best
of mortars
cold
carbonate
gradually deposited during
the
over
effecting the
under
the
of
the
be
must
requires 10,000 parts
The
of
condition
should
the
when
preparation
results.
satisfactory
also
let us
consider
operations of nature
of
those
somewhat
Two
a
analogous artificial character.
be by themselves
cannot
gether
simply joined topieces of wood
introduce
their
surfaces, and
glue between
a
; but
metals
is
effected.
Again, some
junction
speedily
can
only
by
the
intervention
of
a
third.
So in
e
chemistry
2
52
LIME
dissimilar
AND
SETTING.
CEMENT
:
only
can
naturally antagonistic elements
be brought into
state of harmony
a
by the introduction
third possessing, probably, properties foreign to both.
two
these
In
and
it is
remarks
intended
a
possibilityof
the
show
to
of
mode
is
rational
a
accomplishing
satisfactory results when
of
about.
the natural
In
adopted to bring them
process
vegetable
or
forming the stalagmite, or petrifying the animal
is
reached, and if
substance, the utmost
point of diffusiveness
otherwise, the beautiful
unattained.
Could
within
concrete
results
place
we
influence
the
of
skeleton
a
of
would
stalactite-forming springs, nature
she
can
accomplish its concretion
perfection
mortar
any
show
us
of
however
mass,
any
evidence
Ample
natural
eccentric
exists
of
agglutination
or
in
processes
formation
the
consider
shall
we
conditions
under
solution, the
character,
to
always
of the
permit
"When
and
soluble
vehicle
means
energetically attacks
it
carefully
performed,
is
with
substance
of
case
is
which
generally of
a
it
of
carbonate
the
rocky
of texture
porosity
being successfullyperformed.
sufficient
possesses
action
occurs
of nature
of
of formation
adhesive
silica
if
other
and
process
but
we
which
forming stalactites the carbonate
by the primary chemical
experienced in perfecting the
of attaching it to the
suitable
be brought in contact.
In the
may
lime
The
such
by
imitating it. In
solved
is so perfectly disof lime
that
difficultyis
no
process
concluding mechanical
tion
opera-
the
readily acquire
material.
or
breccias
of
mineral
similarly cemented
products.
and
is, however,
easily understood,
the
form
perfection attained
the
or
what
with
'
its
or
petrifying
these
of
one
be
would
with
familiar
are
we
in
whatever
springs
or
flowing water,
it
substances
come
may
it
in
vegetable, animal, or mineral,
into
alike
converted
by its remarkable
they are
agency
forms
of petrifaction without
varied
materially disturbing
which
The
of outline
their original form
or
success
shape.
for us
these
to
natural
attends
course
a
agencies indicates
follow in the preparation of mortars
and concretes.
Primarily
the
endeavoured
absolute
have
show
to
necessity of
we
and
contact
with;
extreme
diffusion
largest
extent
within
the
whether
of
the
of surface
influence
of
of lime
atoms
may
their
be
impinged
adhesive
advantageous effect occasioned
aggregates (sand, gravel, "c), so
the
cement,
or
upon
action.
so
by
their
the
brought
and
Secondarily,
by the selection
that
that
of
proper
porosity and
LIME
AND
absorb
may
from
the
benefit
suitability of form
The
cement).
natural
Portland
solid.
of solution
As
have
we
it had
which
with
water
mode
safely the
and
in
cements
arises
time
rating
sepa-
eliminate
to
a
compact
heavy and
plastic.
refined a point as
we
might apply
so
by which
soluble
a
most
and
the
rendered
been
yet reached
not
the
become
long
a
in
slowest
are
the
it is
; but
slow
instance, when
for
cement,
unexceptional quality, takes
of
or
is indeed
process
those bodies
which
their waters
from
and
of
fact that
well-known
partake of
matrices
(lime
they
extent
maximum
53
SETTING.
CEMENT
condition,
will
we
stand
to underour
limes
consider
the
made
from
hardening of mortar
of lime, we
and
In the
lime
no^r prepared.
cement
as
case
into
the
caustic
convert
a
hydrate by the application of
it will eventually
natural
water, in the hope that from
causes
into
This
carbonate.
be reconverted
a
operation is usually
clumsily performed that the hydrate is over- watered, and
so
of hydrabecomes
a
tion,
paste incapable of eliminating its water
and
therefore, in that
insusceptible of being
case,
recarbonated.
While
endeavouring to avoid this danger, it
is necessary
to guard
against an
equally objectionable condition
of the
lime when
has
been
an
insufficiencyof water
A hydrate of lime
into a carused.
bonate
can
only be converted
of moisture;
but
when
of
an
excess
by the agency
which
action
water
in the
and
occurs,
beneficial
influence
contact.
If
hydrate
suitable
a
of
powdery
of old
as
when
aggregate to
is useless,
is
lime,
dangers
well
as
it
the
obvious
a
useless
new
being
necessity
if,
on
of
the
is formed
proper
be found
on
may
mortars.
Cements
a
accurate
an
one
;
portion
pro-
hand, you
and if,on
the
a
dangerous
illustrations
careful
are
imparts
strengthen.
to
quantity,
Instructive
converted
condition
introduced
paste
supply
produced.
of
in that
was
; for
the
is
mortar
retained
any
it may
be in
of moisture,
which
amount
necessary
which
mass
fail to
these
the
circumstances,
the
other, you
both
and
water
water
any
in
with
substance
pulverulent, incapable
becomes
to the
such
Under
to
deficient
carbonate,
a
weakness
over-
of
superfluous moisture, the pasty mass
energetic capacity, and incapable of imparting
without
into
absence
the
absorb
the
the
in
not
of
examination
liable to the
their
of
inherent
deteriorating influences,from
power
and their mixture
ejecting the water used in rendering them
has
been
determined
or
plastic,after the setting process
same
arrived
at.
54
LIME
explanation
above
The
of the
chemical
the
be
indirectly
or
"
a
and
fact that
when
contained,
is
in
of
so
only
directly
can
"
it may
imbibe
it necessary
renders
fected
per-
mechanical
a
of lime
contact
that
version
con-
be termed
only be
can
one
the
by
may
hydrate
put
atmosphere,
those
lime
the
with
the
therein
acid
carbonic
a
carbonate
division, which
carbonate
with
produced
processes,
established
into
converted
action
into
the
succeeding
The
character.
of
SETTING.
of the
of lime
hydrate
division
the
by
CEMENT
AND
to
the
ciate
asso-
the
possessing
required
the
of
aggregate
lary
capilporosity.
property
possess
absorb
the
moisture
to
the
from
superfluous
capacity
in
for
assist
the
carbonic
acid
and
its
lime,
conveying
required
The
of
acid
carbonic
induration.
is
penetrative power
aggregates
should
An
large
through
pass
pulling down
through
half
as
other
in
the
the
at
6 feet
of these
in
it has
brickwork.
It
London
during
the
docks
period of
a
wall
same
the
in
inch
an
month
a
bed
; with
was
80
was
trated
pene-
In the
years.
to be
seen
penetration
Anston
to
when
it had
brickwork
or
found
found
feet thick, and
11
action
face ; in that case
near
the joints of York
landing
been
that
a
in
docks
was
more
along
or
much
as
rather
stone
of
more
;
in
of
a
joint
Bramley-fall granite or
along
it
inch and
amounted
half
to an
coarse-grained stone,
a
of
smoothness
surface
time;
being shown
by
same
be
to
less
coarse-grained or rough
the
observation
the
observations
these
masses
of
the
while
of
construction,
recent
perfect
a
basin
Shadwell
careful
wall
distance
a
more
from
and
remarkable,
the
of pure
case
favourable
its progress
than
penetration is est
great-
to
The
stones.
in a
this power
diminishes
impurities in the lime ; so that an
limes, and
f
ratio
with
the
of
amount
eminently
hydraulic
than
made
lime
one
for
miners,
acid
when
who,
put layers
so
first
the
coal
a
bottom
risk
avidity of quick
the practice of
after
cages
understood.
show
and
the
cement
importance
if
above
of
remarks
extreme
satisfactoryresults
explosion,
they
entering the workings,
they run
by entering so
and
cement
setting is
subject of lime
is but
considering its importance
interest, and
the
an
in which
The
In
acid
in
mine
of the
air before
the
for carbonic
intense
illustrated
entering
of it in the
to
as
The
is well
purify
and thereby sensibly reduce
dangerous an atmosphere.
descend,
less attraction
chalk.
from
carbonic
has
lime
we
have
imperfectly
endeavoured
pulverization
are
of great
one
desired.
of
It
the
may
to
lime
be
shortly that
cement) and
said
and
altogether
LIME
AND
the
minute
their
surfaces
to
fineness
of the
division
extreme
55
SETTING.
CEMENT
imparts the
faculty of being applied
of the
aggregate (sand and
"
intimately to the surfaces
gravel), and of adhering thereto with a
of the contact.
closeness
to the nicety and
most
of
show
the
in
remarkable
a
beneficial
influence
with
There
the
aggregate,
so
eilicazation
application of
hut
we
its
probably
dissolve
natural
the
hut
be
from
any
Bich
the
process
low
the
in
When
of
to
of lime
carbonate
of
the
"liquor
or
that
limes,
the
by
indurating
lime
power
would
aggregate,
as
of stalactites,
would
elimination
the
crystal silicates ;
great value to the
state, the
mass
of the
probabilityto
fact
are
have
in
of
a
dry
carbonic
dition
con-
acid
aggregate.
in silica
deficient
addition
the
also
silicates
calcareous
any
of
composed.
are
to in the formation
referred
temperature
limes
a
which
benefited
extract
moist
portion of
unfavourable
of
attributingany
to
variable
might
undoubted
lime
the
languid limes
soluble
degree
in
conjunction
unburnt,
mixtures
more
and
without
them
mortars
character,
in
of the
a
and
terials.
ma-
time
of
in
of
of
sources,
lime
many
artificial soluble
guarded
aggregate.
the
otherwise
the
pure
of the
capacity
inherent
from
any
be
must
of
ancient
of
a
influence
alumina
to the
some
of
especially those
the
in
absorption of the
to give some
as
theory. It is an
the
reliable
clay, burnt
energy
of
combinations
from
or
doubtless
majority of these
condition
favoured
silica
pounded
artificial
imparted
The
of
was
of
proportions
degree
recarbonating
the
accomplishing
it.
and
prepared
are
the
to
conditions
Tables
The
exhibit
of
various
science,
following Tables
old. They
to nearly 4,000 years
is accomrecarbonating which
plished
120
amount
under
which
from
ranging
mortars
will
reference
simplifiedby
ivill be much
proportionate
force
of constructive
study of this important branch
The
them
reduces
which
"
(lime
matrices
be rendered
can
of flints"
"soluble
hydraulic by
quartz," "soluble
silicates in a finely-powdered state.
of these
glass," or any
The
such
tion
combinatakes place from
silicatingaction which
a
is better
when
in
powder.
is similar
burning
materials
of
are
the
when
The
to the
Portland
being
silicate
effect
process
cement,
reacted
is in
produced
or
action
when
upon.
a
soluble
by such
which
the
The
condition
than
tion
amalgama-
an
arises
during the
mechanically-mixed
lime
in
that
case
56
LIME
is
into
changed
AND
CEMENT
SETTING.
silicate of lime
a
by
the
of heat, and
action
clay unites with the lime.
Subsequent pulverizati
and
the
the
best
known
completes
produces
process,
lime
artificial
of
Portland
cement."
or
hydraulic
description
when
This
cement
setting in water is subjected to a peculiar
silica in
the
the
"
chemical
action
aluminate
of
twofold
a
character.
becomes
lime
combines
lime
hydrated
of
In
and
hydrated,
with
the
action
one
in
silicates.
the
The
the
other
aluminates
silicates
ting
play different parts in the sethydrated, the latter combines,
simply becomes
; the former
Portland
cement
with
developes its more
hydrate of lime.
it is placed in
valuable
properties in the highest degree when
in too
wet
situation, and when
dry an atmosphere great
a
is required to supply the
of water
for
amount
care
necessary
it will be liable to
its perfect crystallization. Otherwise
and become
degenerate into a powdery condition
quite useless,
if not
building stones are affected injuriMany
dangerous.
ously
when
placed in the interior of buildings,more
especially
Yorkshire
prematurely decays and in a comlanding, which
paratively
loses its compact laminated
mineral
short
time
racter.
chawell illustrated in the paving of the
Such
result was
a
old
India
House
in Leadenhall-street,.
halls and corridors of the
and
calcareous
the
London.
following analyses of ancient
The
from
various
of
the
vol.
Chemical
the
:
1 to
9
mortars
are
taken
from
are
(translatedby Captain Smith),
Cements
the
sources
Nos.
British
mortars
11, and
News,
Association, 1868.
were
exhibit
in
curious
fact, and
obtained
remarkable
No.
19
from
The
embrace
a
the
Nos.
10
the
obtained
Vicat
to
of
18
Transactions
localities from
variety
on
from,
which
climates
and
attention
paid by ancient
The
builders
to the quality of their mortars.
Egyptians are
in
of
Nile
the
used
have
the
mud
to
supposed
conjunction with
for the mortar
in building the Pyramid
of Cheops ;
gypsum
and
the Assyrians, according to Scriptural authority, used
for mortar.
bricks
It is a
burnt
and
asphalte or bitumen
a
one
degree
worthy
of
attention, that
the
Eoman
have
stand
been able to withengineering remains
of time and
climate
better than
the injurious influence
medisBval
the Norman
buildings. This is doubtless due to
or
in the joints of the
the superiority of ancient
mortar, which
face
an
even
buildings,by its superior tenacity, maintained
and
to the
the
walls
or
prevented the lodgment of water
architectural
and
injuriousinfluence
of its
dripping action.
58
UME
No.
has
17
volcanic
been
mud,
18, is of
No.
19,
floor
is
is of
baths
of the
of
reddish
a
cement
a
side
one
on
the
to
action
colour, hard
reddish-brown
pale
a
SETTING.
CEMENT
exposed
and
No.
AND
Caracalla, Borne,
hard
and
firm.
to 19
to
show
lime
the
course
"
"
in mortars
and
plastersbecomes
completely carbonated,
been
Ca
of
consisting
arrived
by
at
which
does
and
0, HO
Ca
+
in
0, C02,
inclusive, Dr.
a
that
combination
is curious
It
the
of time
conclusion
a
authorities.
some
form
not
the
forming
speaking of the samples from No. 10
^Wallace
These
analyses appear
says:
In
firm.
and
mosaic
a
of hot
firm.
colour, hard
from
mortar
and
that
has
that
the
is
ancient
probably the most
(the specimens
from
Phoenician
firmest ;
and
a
temple) is by far the hardest
in fact, like a piece of rock."
No.
Boman
in Engremains
20, the only specimen from
land
is from
of the
Burgh Castle, Suffolk (the Oarianonum
of
the comparatively
perfect character
Bomans), and from
the walls is worthy of a brief description.
mortar
It is
"
mural
a
of which
the
on
the
solid
the
The
angles and at
cylinders, of
certain
of
rest
feet
40
and
60
feet
only
in
the
is
be
650
in
away
850
in
case
places, but
;
the
of
the
two
the
their
are
faced
may
the
are
with
on
the
in the
south
and
length
of
wall
gate
a
north
towers
corner
of the
appearance
walls, which
feet in thickness,
from
be
whole
top,
being truly
eastern
centre,
walls
the
have
side,
I found
fallen
roughly stated at
is grand and
pio-
about
and
masonry,
flints and layers of red tiles
rubble
of
regularity, and the contrast
colour
is heightened by parts of the work
being overgrown
with
and ivy. The
flints are
moss
arranged in tiers of four,
and
and
red tiles invariably
the
occasionally five, courses,
in triple layers with
This
between.
of mortar
seams
occur
order
of construction
is repeated some
from
five or
six times
base to rampart, with a cap of flints at the top, and
the round
towers
abutments
construction
the rest
or
as
present the same
of the work.
The
walls vary in thickness, being, as already
set
at
intervals
parallelogram,
unprotected
15 feet, and
i.e.,about
measure
circumference, being larger at
The
feet, whilst
The
immense
an
wanting, being left
massive
walls
are
strengthened at
intermediate
positions by towers, or
in height with
uniform
which
are
length
perfect throughout with
feet.
turesque
6
masonry,
in form.
vrhich
of
form
work,
to
circular
to
the
the
side is
one
front.
river
in
erection
with
great
.
JlSTD
UME
CEMENT
stated, generally about 6 feet, and
are
of compact
rubble, the stones
being
presenting throughout
pounded brick, which
Eoman
reddish
the
burnt
tiles
constructed
due
be
to
of them
frost ; their dimensions
varies
thickness, which
mortar
of
of
characteristic
fine
been
tegrated
disin-
tolerablyuniform
are
a
well
texture,
to have
appear
by
the
to admixture
of very
are
internally
large, and
colour
is considered
The
red
origin.
and compact, for none
59
SETTING.
only
from
1 J inches
to 1" inches,
regards
and
distances
within
to various
the
face of the
they extend
wall, in some
places 12 inches only, and at other places nearly
that depth."
twice
Mr.
Spiller,in referring to the silicazation theory, says :
To
the lime
has
that
simply become
support my assertion
as
"
"
converted
for
into
caustic
its
carbonate, I may
lime
by the
whilst
presence,
precipitate of
nitrate
all
the
that
mention
test, failed to
of silver
show
mortars
recent
brownish-grey
specialsearch
a
oxide
indicate
abundant
an
of
silver; that the
triturated
with
alkaline
mortar
water
gives no
pure
reaction
with turmeric
the portion
paper
; and,, further, that
of carbonic
in the Burgh
acid found
the
samples is, within
limits
of experimental
which
is
exactly the amount
error,
combine
with
in
the
the
form
lime
order
to
required to
Soman
neutral
carbonate.
reliance
place
old
mortars
itself
free
Inference
in
that
the
from
be
only
of
a
having
acids
blue
lias
absence
The
and
above
ancient
mortar;
to result
of
always
remarks
lime
was
employment.
there
where
actually employed
so
varieties
many
of
gelatinising
simple burning
the
first moment
that
rocks,
of
of
the
preparation
'
assumed.'
and
the
properties and
from
the
at
of
that
argillaceous limestone
silica
to
silicazation
cases
been
for
inclined
are
the
time
from
having
hydraulic
other
be
not
the
the
at
deduced
fat lime
known
are
silica
safely
who
those
regarding
often wanting
is
proof
modified
of soluble
should
of
remind
statements
soluble
fabrication
with
of
the
evidence
the
lime
in
can
is clear
I would
results
the
of
the
several
analyses
hesitatingly
difficultyof accepting unthe
The
recarbonating
theory of silicasation.
of the lime
is in the
of time
course
as
proved by these
it is advisable
investigations to be all but certain; and
mortar
will
show
the
"
"
therefore
alkaline
or
to
abandon
action
of
the
the
the
lime
likelihood
belief
when
of the
of
in
mortar
assistance
contact
with
receiving
from
the
any
any
gates,
aggre-
benefit
60
LIME
from
that
merits
the
as
intelligent and
most
obtain
afford.
CEMENT
SETTING.
intrinsic
It is much
to the
safer to trust
agency.
the
matrices
(lime and cement) alone, 'and apply
of
to
AND
the
The
rational
maximum
in
mode
chemical
selection,
so*
advantages they may
cal
regarded as mechani-
be
should
their
only
their
to exert
agents
favourably assisting the matrices
highest value of chemical
efficiency.
These
chemical
constitution
the
indicate
of
exact
analyses
the
ancient
their
and
besides
mortars,
interesting from
are
The
antiquity and historical associations.
following Tables
from
the
of the
of Koman
mortars
physical characteristics
aggregates
in
south
of
their
mode
The
extracted
France,
Vicat's
from
work
Cements,
on
of resistance
to fracture.
power
of testing is one
seldom
adopted
hibits
ex-
this
in
country,
It
and
although commonly
Germany.
practised in America
consists
of subjecting the prisms
of mortar
to fracture
by a"
from
action
a
suspended
species of wrenching
imparted
of sand
running into
weight (gradually applied by a stream
the other
of the prism;
a
end
being
box), placed on one
fastened
and
down
kept in adjustment by two screws.
ANALYSED
Mortar
bourg
:
No.
1,
600
BY
M.
old,
years
BERLIN.
JOHN,
cathedral
the
from
"
of
Grains
Carbonic
acid.
Lime.
Soluble
silica.
with
5-00
Mortar
1-25
8-70
No.
600
2,
and
of
iron.
foundations
Berlin, damp
acid.
Lime.
Soluble
9-25
Mortar
No.
3, from
silica.
of
Roman
quartz
sand
with
Water.
and
of iron.
675
78-50
3-75
a
of St. Peter's,
:
oxide
1-75
1-30
the church
Grains
Carbonic
Water.
83-75
old, from
years
quartz
sand
oxide
at
of Brande-
wall
at
Cologne,
1800
years
old:
Grains
Carb.
acid.
Lime.
Sol.
silica.
Al."iron
dissolved,
i
900
15-16
0-27
2-75
with
oxide
of
quartz
sand
of
and
Water.
iron.
6800
4-00
LIME
Mortar
No.
AND
4, from
CEMENT
tower,
a
61
SETTING.
localityand
same
Grains
acrid.
Carb.
lime.
silica.
Sol.
A1.
ft iron
12-00
24-00
Mortar
No.
Carbonic
acid.
0-25
5, from
Eoman
a
Sol.
concrete,
silica.
6-90
Mortar
No.
6, from
BY
Eoman
a
Ehine
of quartz
and
sand
with
0-35
ANALYSED
Water.
6-00
the
on
oxide
2-25
and
iron.
of
6600
Grains
lime.
sand
oxide
2-76
:
of quartz
with
dissolved,
age
of
:
Water.
iron.
89-50
1-00
VICAT.
M.
tower
at
Bologna,
1800
years
old:
Silica.
No.
7, from
at
No.
8, from
add.
200
Water
at
old
:
loss.
"
275
tomb
loss.
years
lime.
Dutch
a
and
5-9
Hyderabad,
2000
60-00
old
Water
29-10
tomb
a
Carbonic
Silica.
Mortar
lime.
20-00
45-00
Mortar
acid.
Carbonic
1-9
Masulipatam,
120
years
:"
Carbonic
Silica.
ANALYSED
Mortar
old
No.
9, from
BT
the
Water
26-6
19-2
51-5
years
lime.
add.
DB.
8-6
MALCOLMSON.
Pyramid
of
Cheops,
8000
stances
Sulphate of
6-9
4000
sabsisting
con-
of
mina
add.
to
:
Insoluble
Carb.
ft loss.
lime.
10-7
Alumina.
0-8
lime.
15-8
Sulphate
soda.
8-2
of
crystals of
lenite.
547
alu-
and
Water
ft
carbonse-
ate
of
lime.
1016
62
LIME
AND
ANALYSED
Mortar
No.
Carbonate
Silicic acid.
6-80
Mortar
the
WILLIAM
WALLACE.
of
Pyramid
Oxide
of
lime.
Alumina.
iron.
9-47
2-41
0-25
No.
11, from
Carbonate
Silicic acid.
the
Oxide
8-00
of
Carbonate
Hydrated
sulphate of
of
lime.
magnesia.
81-50
059
:
Cheops (exterior)
Hydrated
sulphate of
of
Carbonate
of
iron.
magnesia.
0-21
0-79
Alumina.
9-80
:
(interior)
Cheops
of
Pyramid
of
lime.
4-80
DR.
BY
from
10
SETTING.
CEMENT
lime.
82-89
-
Mortar
No.
Larnaca
near
12, from
the
from
Cyprus,
ruins
of
a
temple
:
Sesqnioxideof
Time.
Magnesia.
26-40
add.
iron.
20-28
0-21
0-97
Alumina*
099
2-16
and
Silicic add
Coarse
fine sand.
16-20
Small
sand.
No.
depth
clay pipes
of
a
18,
10
Organic
stones.
white
a
found
cement
under
feet
in
the
surface, used
the
Water.
matter.
0-56
28-63
8-37
Mortar
at
Carbonic
add.
Sulphuric
0-54
locality
joining red
same
in
:
Silicic add
Sulphuric
Magnesia.
lime.
0-70
51-58
No.
Mortar
Pnyx
and
Carbonic
Alumina,
add.
add.
0-82
40-60
14, ancient
Organic
matter.
096
0-40
Greek
fine
sand.
0-24
from
mortars
part of the
a
Silicic
No.
Mortar
of
15,
from
iron.
Alumina.
2-64
0-92
87-00
1-00
45-70
and
Sesquioxide
add.
Magnesia.
lime.
temple
the
at
add
fine
sand.
Pentelicus,
0-86
near
add
Sflido
49-65
Water.
12-06
:
Sulphuric
Lime.
8-09
:
Carbonic
Athens
Water.
Magnesia.
1-09
Carbonic
add.
add.
1-04
88*33
Sesquioxide
of
iron.
0-82
and
fine
sand.
8-90
Water.
8*07
UME
No.
Mortar
AND
CEMENT
Silicic acid
Alumina.
and
fine sand.
14-70
Mortar
No.
Soda.
interior
17,
Peroxide
add.
of iron.
4-92
Organic
2-12
41-10
:
11-80
1-01
0-30
15-80
Carbonic
Potash.
Magnesia.
lime.
Villa, at Tivoli
Adrian's
16, from
63
SETTING.
"Water.
matter
.
2-28
of
surface
hall
a
6-20
Hercula-
at
neum:
Peroxide
Magnesia.
TJTTIft,,
0-25
29-88
83-36
2-86
No.
Mortar
Borne
the
18, from
Soda.
Matter.
Water.
8-49
1-50
1-00
roof
of
Latin
the
Peroxide
Carbonic
tombs,
0-71
of iron.
18-61
1-23
No.
Mortar
Baths
of
19, from
Caracalla, near
Borne
near
25-19
Silicic acid
No.
20, from
Yarmouth,
near
1500
Sulphate
red
walls, and
Silica.
brick
Alumina.
14-0
as
an
2-48
5-50
lime.
add.
14-5
11-25
of
sodium.
Water.
0-05
the
100
of iron.
0-92
above, and
aggregate
Peroxide
Burgh,
at
Carbonic
Chloride
of
brick, from
also
Water.
and
clay.
0-08
piece of
A
Organic
:
magnesia.
015
the
matter.
Garianonum
18-00
Carbonate
lime.
floor of
SPILLEB.
J.
unburnt
0-40
of
80-24
ancient
Bed
silica.
54-70
1064
old
years
Soluble
Sand.
fine sand.
BY
the
and
Alumina.
8-67
ANALYSED
Mortar
the
8-20
:
of iron.
17-97
0-90
Water.
86-26
in
mortar
and
fine sand.
16-39
Peroxide
add.
Magnesia.
Alumina.
mosaic
a
Carbonic
lime.
Silicic acid
add.
Magnesia.
19-71
727
2-82
:
Lime.
the
of
iron.
Organic
and
sand.
fine
add.
23-80
8-40
Silicic acid
^linnwmi
Carbonic
Potash.
in the
lime.
2-1
used
mortar
in
building
:
Alkalies
and
1-2
loss.
64
Composition,
Characters,
Taken
from
the
Amphitheatre
the
drains
Matrix
...
...
""
FBOM
1.
(at Cap Doiiac
uiellodunum
Taken
from
thick
Lot).
the
on
dirty white
only.
The
masonry
FROM
tolerably homogeneous,
of
colour, composed
matrix
lime
of
a
lime
from
a
only..
AQUEDUCTS,
ANCIENT
REVETMENTS,
formed
gray,
...
gray
MORTAR8
Besistance
VIBNNE.
FBOM
1.
Absolute
and
OR
FLOORS,
PAVEMENTS.
FBOM
1.
from
Taken
VESUNA.
ANCIENT
THE
the
Aqueduct
of
Matrix
baths
the
lime
FBOM
Taken
1
from
the
"
"
a
2.
from
Taken
the
FBOM
Taken
j"m
from
white
THE
...
...
AQUEDUCT
Taken
2.
from
an
ancient
"
"
"
"
FBOM
Taken
from
a
white
reddish,
lime
and
red
of
composed
a
brick in pable
impal-
powder.
...
Matrix
and
gray,
charcoal
composed
powder.
of
a
white
Aqueduct
...
Matrix
...
...
whitish, composed
of
lime
only.
VIENNE.
Mansion
revetment
pavement
Matrix
and
red
...
of lime
reddish, composed
brick in impalpable powder.
plastering
8.
1.
a
impalpable
OABD.
the
...
FBOM
1.
OF
of
revetment
same
,,
of
in
NI8MB8.
galleries of the Amphitheatre...
the
brick-dust
...
lime
1.
reddish, formed
red
Matrix
gate
basin
FBOM
1.
and
powder.
of the baths
Aqueduct
plastering of an ancient
.
8.
CAHOBS.
Roman
8ABLAT.
Aqueduct
Matrix
...
and
red
reddish, composed
brick in impalpable
of
lime
powder.
66
OP
PREPARATION
The
cubes
size of the
measured
inches
18
remarkable
been
operated
by
when
results
CONCRETE.
in the
on
above
experiments
inches
by 3" inches, and
the difficulty
consider
which
2
we
exhibit
must
in
obtaining pieces of the necessary
another
dimensions.
It affords, however,
proof of the careful
the
builders
attention
to
paid by Roman
quality of their
and
caution
the
in
extreme
displayed by them
mortars,
of the
of a soft or
None
loamy character.
rejecting sand
and
the matrix
is incorporated
fine sand,
where
samples contain
of
it
is
kind having
the
with
a
only
a
powder,
perty
proto
it.
of imparting
brickPuzzolana,
setting energy
aids
to the
dust, and
as
charcoal-powder
severally appear
their
remarkable
and
the
for
lime,
aggregates are only
ness
coarseand
irregularity.
Cements
placed in sealed glass tubes and favourably placed
without
for crystallization,
of
being influenced
by the action
acid
of the atmosphere,
carbonic
only produced crystals of
a
hydrate of lime;
crystallized silicate of lime was
never
have
experienced
produced.
OF
preceding chapters
cements
(natural and
the
the
In
and
limes
and
and
of mortar
purposes
their setting, and the
is introduced
physical
they
which
are
be
and
realised
a
that
to
indifference
such
simple
and
meanest
labourer
can
the
a
labourer,
mortar
up
and
knowledge
perform
the
and
mere
It
most
that
therefore
may
of
concrete
carelessness,
and
unimportant,
intelligence. It
successful
concrete,
the
be
manual
true
of the
materials
it
with
results
only
subject,
is commonly
ignorant, is
can
the
implying, by
"
the
process
within
the
that
any
part
on
process,
is something
knowledge
If
the
chapter
there
practice.
even
for
use
that
the
of
described,
The
mere
of
rational
their
that
and
use
rule-of-thumb
any
mix
a
cements
been
attend
showing
incorporated.
in
through
from
not
supposed
qualified
the
are
the
be
to
expected
be
to
of
of
character
guide
making.
peculiaritieswhich
purpose
than
understand
to
more
characteristics
have
artificial)
concrete
the
for
various
should
which
conditions
the
CONCEETE.
PEEPAEATION
of
the
grasp
is
of
common
process,
PREPARATION
"but it is necessary
that
he
be
should
controlled
and
governed
scientific
of the
technical
or
required
of
the
knowledge.
glass,
operation of
and
materials
into
guiding their conversion
mixing the raw
the
article
is necessarily entrusted
marketable
men
to the workof the ingredients are
controlled
by
; but the proportions
the
the higher and trained
of
chemist.
knowledge
Again, in
iron making, all the laborious
departments of the process are
of intelligence; yet the desired
performed by a low standard
by
possessed
67
CONCRETE.
OF
agency
an
result
rules
dicta
the
judgment
of
the
analyst
workman
mere
the
an
by
acceptance
their
the
of
his
labour
would
of
the
ensure
absence
without
"
glass and iron, the
intelligentsupervision of the
manufacture
for
in
be unattainable
would
and
manufacture
the
In
scientific
the
experience and
in vain.
mercantile
In
the
necessity exists
various
to
as
so
processes
of the
products ; for
be
which
it would
consumer
loss
a
rejection
to risk.
In the preparation of
impolitic in the manufacturer
for house
concrete
building, the necessity is equally imperative
the guidance of established
for conducting the operation under
manual
scientific principles,leaving the mere
department to
vances
contrithe
of labour.
mechanical
Improved
cheaper kind
obviate the necessity of mixing the materials
by hand
unless
the
work
where
to be
in
performed is so limited
would
involve
"
extent
to leave
as
simply
limited
and
confined
into
alternative
no
the
and
machine
and
"
to
transfer
mere
from
labour
manual
it to the
is
of the
work.
now
dients
ingre-
Hitherto
regarded as the branch
more
the
section
to
engineering
or
department
especiallybelonging
and
used
constructive
of the
profession,
only
by architects
when
than
more
ordinary stabilitywas
sought for in the
is
foundations
of important buildings. Increasing attention
of dwelling and
however, directed to the construction
now,
in
works
other
houses
with
been
have
concrete
this
material, from
a
belief in its
suitability
better
appreciation of its qualities
purposes
the fact of concrete
has arisen from
exceeding in constructive
value
In
the best known
stone.
descriptions of brick and
Portland
of the
concrete
mixtures,
prepared with
some
cement, it will be seen,
by reference to the experiments at
in tensile and
compressive strength
39, that they exceed
page
celebrated
most
building materials.
our
in engiand
used
concrete
While
only for foundations
neering
was
for
; and
such
works
of
a
a
massive
character, there
not
was
f
2
much
68
PREPARATION
careful
necessity
for
situations
in which
defects
of
and
mixing
considered
and
attention
it
old
cements,
as
well
as
favourable
were
to
as
the
disguise its
formula, therefore, and
the
mode
be
proportions, may
now
of limes
the improved
knowledge
the machines
applied for mixture.
materials, and
obsolete, from
preparation,
its
to
used
was
failings. The
the
CONCRETE.
OF
their
ter,
less massive
in characof construction
adoption
minute
the
above
necessity of a more
ground, involves
to the qualities of the
attention
ingredients of cementation,
well as the means
by which
they are incorporated.
as
of houses
is no novelty ; the
The
with concrete
construction
mode
of
ancient
the
considered
most
be
as
practice may
building, and has been revived from time to time through all
built
In
this country Mr. Eanger, some
ago,
years
ages.
with
his patent lime
concrete
structures
blocks; two
many
houses
the north
side of Pall Mall, the College of Surgeons,
on
Lincoln's
Inn-fields, the porticoes of Wellington Barracks,
in the Birdcage-walk, St. James's-park;
the
and
guardhouse
Its
for
besides
other
works
structures,
such
as
river and
wharf
walls.
These
the
be called
under
constructed
what
buildings were
may
to
the monolithic
block
tinuous
conor
system, in contradistinction
So
building in frames or specially-adapted machines.
long ago as the year 1830 that principlehad been successfully
built for
M. Lebrun
the architect
applied in France, where
himself
dwelling-house on his estate at Alby (Department
a
of six rooms
three
It consisted
du
Tarn) entirely of beton.
and
cellars
besides
three
above
the
ground-floor and
on
all the floors and
domestic
other
ceilings
accommodation;
of
detail
beton.
arched
and
of
made
Every
entirely
were
"
"
construction
and
stairs, as
The
beton
of beton
made
was
well
as
all internal
composed
was
of
one
arcades, cornices,
the
even
"
details
of
ornamentation.
part of hydraulic lime, from
part of clean sand and two
Alby, slaked by immersion
; one
mortar
The
of
was
shingle, averaging one inch in size.
parts
frame
and
then
or
pressed into the case
thoroughly mixed
;
in
foot
about
the
this
height
one
building
means
rose
by
per
cornices
the
and
erected
centres
arches
The
were
day.
upon
formed
with
from
models.
sifted sand
and
The
mortar,
faces
of the
leaving
a
walls
smooth
were
face
plastered
and sharp
less
cost
most
successful, and
building was
island
of
the
On
one-half
the
than
price of brickwork.
has been used for cisterns, terraces, vaults,
Santorin
biton
arrisses.
The
PREPARATION
which
"
time
immemorial.
in that
country
from
"c,
OF
the
roofs
Six parts of Santorin
Two
and
simple
parts of lime
laths
arches
manner
:
boards,
or
levelled
and
A
rough
are
structed
con-
of stones,
following composition
:
this is
Upon
covered
and
small
or
following
the
in
erected
is
earth
trowel.
a
constructed
frame
which
upon
with
houses"
mortar,
there
are
"
of the
earth,
Eight parts fragments
One
part of sand.
Vaults
the terraces
of which
of
composed
is
beton
The
are
69
CONCRETE.
stones
with
placed
are
of the
spread beton
"
earth,
parts Santorin
One
lime
mortar,
part
Eight parts fragments of stones.
Four
twelve
In
the
days
systems have
Both
other
or
one
be
may
the
is determined
of
economy
employing
arises
this
advantages
building of small
the
as
; and
several
from
there
on,
frames
the
or
for ordinary
cottages with
monolithic
inexpensive concrete, the former
or
considered
the cheapest ; but when
concrete
cement
is removed.
their
such
purposes,
lime
framework
is much
the
doubt
An
machines.
of
use
as
to
objection
of
difficulty
ensuring strength
system
the
of
work
from
struction,
connecessity of hurried
quality
is
of
which
there
safe
no
means
testing
during
There
is also the danger of
of the concrete.
the character
the
materials
to the
diverting attention from
machinery of
construction, by which
they are put together in the building.
in reality no
the quality of
machines
have
influence
Such
on
similar relationship to the building,
the concrete, and bear
a
to
and
in the
when
hands
handled
of the
builder,
by the shoemaker
quality of
material.
The
is not
recommendation
it is
the
accomplished
condition
whatever,
the
without
of
the
that
"
last
neither
speed which
should
any
sacrifice
first consideration
In
can
of
be
the
possibly
shoe
ensure
recognised, unless
be
the
usual
for any
excellence.
concrete,
should
to
maWpronnBe
these
which
quality.
does
pensable
indispurpose
VO
PBEPABATION
the
In
which
old books
information
that
of
the
of
CONCRETE.
OF
guide
change of
and
in
us
can
there
of concretes
treat
quence
practice, in consecaused
covery
by the dis-
modern
circumstances
their
properties.
kinds
the
to
according
locality in which
executed
were
employed, according to the
used
shell
locality in which
they were
cements
much
is not
Limes
various
of
works
the
were
"
"
in
immersion
water
or
exposure
occasionally
in combination
of
character.
The
consequence
of
a
kindred
lime, but
during
in
slaking process,
volcanic
various
products,
effects
likely to arise from
dangers attending the use
appreciated by the Eomans,
years.
of
lime
it
slaked
lime
to
as
so
to
the
neutralise
with
injurious
of
The
disturbing influence.
lime
fresh
were
thoroughly
for
Plinius
such
until
of
parts
and
works,
three
fossitia)for hydraulic
(by
unslaked,
mixed
afterwards
was
specificationfor
Vitruvius's
and
puzzolanas and substances
Eomans
generally used the pure
disturbance
its liabilityto violent
interdicted
was
slaked
lime
air)
each
with
the
of slaked
the
to
of
practice
"
tells
it had
volcanic
one
part
the
kept
been
cement
"
that
us
"
one
was
sand
of
lime
use
three
part
{arena
with
Even
at that
puzzolana, for ordinary mortar.
and
well understood,
time the danger of using rich limes
was
intended
the remedies
of keeping it or beating the mortar
were
diffusion
to effect the object now
accomplished by the extreme
sciences
of
The
of the
through mechanical
mass
agency.
the necessity
had not then indicated
chemistry and mechanics
of keeping the atoms
of lime
reduction,
apart by mechanical
suitable
of
nor
pointed out the advantage of the introduction
ence
A referthe tendency to expansion.
to check
foreign materials
tics
to the Table
(pages 64 and 65) of the physical characteristwo
parts
of
of old
Eoman
mortars
will prove,
however,
that
even
in the
attained.
knowledge satisfactory results were
ledge,
scientific knowNotwithstanding the advantages of increased
tion
we
notoriously neglect the careful study and consideraof that very
expansive action in all limes,
dangerous
The
setting theories offered
especially the rich ones.
more
at page
47, will, it is hoped, simplify the subject, and assist
which
in estabhshing a more
of the causes
reliable knowledge
of improperly
lead to serious consequences
attending the use
lime, for
prepared matrices
(limes and cements). Suitable
concrete
or
instance, can
only be prejudicial in any mortar
when
when
mixed
in an
unfit state ; for the atoms,
kept sufabsence
of such
LIME
ficiently apart,
render
them
Soman
cements
harmless
are
a
"
is, however,
so
71
CONCRETES.
degree
of
impalpability
Puzzolanas
necessary.
to
and
necessarily dangerous when
coarsely
in
that
condition
used
ground, although
they are
wastefully.
Portland
artificial
cement
is
being an
subject to
compound,
certain
of
fluctuations
incidental
to
its
details
of
quality
its
manufacture
but
most
even
objectionable qualities
;
receive
mitigation on
being subjected to a high degree of
this important detail
Attention
to
of manupulverization.
facture
does
the
it demands,
attention
not receive
partly in
of
consequence
are
not
the
indifference
frequently from
more
the
LIME
Lime
all
and
of
a
concrete.
favourite
Its
which
it is
but
manufacturer,
consumer.
CONCRETES.
material
use
of the
ignorance
being the cheapest matrix
and
simplicity of chemical
times
the
under
for
"
from
its
constitution
the
reasonable
dance
abun-
natural
has
"
preparation
of
conditions,
been
at
mortars
and
for
with
generally attended
satisfaction
owing to its inferiority in cementatious
; but,
and
it should
value
artificial cements,
to the natural
only be
of secondary importance.
employed for works
The
lime
is mixed
with
proportions in which
gravel" and
of preits quality and
mode
other
depends on
aggregates
liminary
safe proportions
accurate
preparation ; but no
or
of a true
be determined
in the absence
can
on
knowledge of
of the several
value
the chemical
ingredients. Eich limes are
weak
in cohesive
and
adhesive
capacity, and unless reduced
much
will not exert
beneficial
influence
to the finest powder
of concrete.
With
such limes, therefore,
in binding the mass
it is not
than
three
advisable
four
to incorporate more
or
There
the
several methods
by which
are
parts of aggregates.
is effected"
and maboth
chine.
mixing of the materials
by hand
the kilns and
lime is usually obtained
The
fresh from
slaked
with water, or at once
mixed
with the aggregate, when
and
both
wetted
turned
are
together, the whole operation
over
purposes
to
adapted,
is
"
in such
cases
being performed by
manual
labour.
Such
a
treat-
72
UHE
CONCRETES.
is, however, inadvisable, and
merit
should
be resorted
never
to
It is
impossible to so thoroughly
effect the reduction
of the lime
to
by this slovenly process
as
of large pieces of it in an unslaked
dition,
conprevent the presence
which
will eventually prove
highly prejudicial to the
tinder
circumstances.
any
of concrete.
mass
The
of
use
shell
lime, therefore, is to be
be classed among
the various
dangerous, and may
abandoned
because
obsolete practices
of their unsuitanow
the
best
value from
extract
utmost
lime
plan to
bility. The
it
the
is
either
reduce
finest
matrix
to
to
powder
as
a
by
When
and
sifted
slaking or grinding.
prepared,
so
evenly
be
it
with
the
fine
tageous
advanmost
sieve,
applied
can
through a
considered
and
results.
be
The
carefullyapplied
water
in
for the
necessary
the
form
of
a
spray
mixture
either
should,
through
a
wash
equally good distributor, as no
or
best means
should
be permitted.
The
of
superfluity of water
reducing lime to the finest powder is by machinery ; but as.
its aid cannot
be forthcoming, the slaking proin all cases
cess
or
rose
other
some
must
be resorted
When
to.
well
slaked, and
afterwards
be obtained, although at a.
carefully sifted, good results can
than
if the
would
been
that which
have
incurred
cost higher
lime
As
different
had
been
ground.
qualities of lime
of water
to effect their incorporation,
require variable amounts
be given so as to avoid the
with the aggregate, attention
must
lime
thus
dangerous practice of over-wetting. When
fully
carefavourable
of
is
mixed
with
a
prepared
quality
aggregate,
If the
be
results
and
depended
satisfactory
on.
good
may
will take place in the
operator is satisfied that no disturbance
unslaked
from
to a
lime, he may
subject the concrete
mass
when
slight degree of pressure
putting it into the moulds
or
frames.
As rich limes require more
than the poor ones,
water
it is necessary
to
observe
that
there
should
be
sufficient
for
their
into a hydrate, for, in the absence
of
complete conversion
the necessary
will have
quantity of moisture, the mass
"
These
observations
rich
limes
on
tendency to disintegrate.
for
for concrete
offered
the
of
those
who
making are
guidance
for such
be obliged to use
circumstances
them
from
"
may
the
to
but,
owing
disadvantages attending
purpose;
many
be neglected if any other
their use, they should
at all times
better
with
as
is obtainable
matrix
is shown
other
by
at
a
reasonable
they become
Mortars, where
substances, however,
the Table
of Ancient
cost.
In
nation
combi-
valuable,
it appears
#
?4
LIME
engineering
double
is
operation
followed
such
the
concrete
gravel,
and
Its
in
use
the
this
of
the
all
aggregate
an
found
that
in
cubic
feet
fine)
should
be
amount
size
will
will
less
A
gravity.
lbs.
162"
of
this
cubic
a
"
kind
of
foot
of
measure
their
of
for
concrete;
foot
of
the
will
indicate
of
amount
possible,
of
the
as
serve
may
amount
The
difference
the
aggregate,
the
void
difference
although
necessary
good
a
that
mortar
when
space
should
it
only
of
is
safer
cementing
guide
have
material.
Sand
into
filled
however,
the
the
with
weight
to
be
accurately
an
excess
and
filled
;
equal
estimating
gravel
of
a
162"
up.
ascertained
than
lbs.
specific
above
in
together,
75
nearly
was
of
mixed
remaining
to
weigh
ounces.
standard
or
be
as
specific
its
when
grains
between
be
it
state
"
sand
pressed
dry
specific gravity
1000
weighs,
should
the
age
shrink-
therefore,
dried
the
weight
a.
to
a
would,
weighing
between
space
it
specially
foot
cubic
bulk.
own
gravity
the
the
that
showing
to
a
of
water
being
without
"
a
foot
cubic
in
has
sand
space.
of
amount
proportion
quartzose
or
solid
a
the
or
with
vary
When
in
wet
equal
intersticial
course,
and
accordingly.
when
than
of
will,
aggregate,
silicious
and
2-6,
the
a
be
(coarse
mortar
that
to
point.
will
it
vacuities
be
will
more
this
to
inches
2
necessary
space
fluctuate
also
shrink
of
of
is
quantity
vacant
particles
or
it
paid
of
occur
the
aggregate
be
there
tions
propor-
will
vacuities
the
size
the
adjust
no
of
should
yard
in
equal
of
size
average
that
so
;
an
cubic
every
11
Such
larger
of
so
the
attain
to
intersticial
of
to
that
effect.
as
so
minimum
a
necessary
attention
that
it
is
gravel,
and
The
mixture.
With
it
quantity
correct
the
with
beneficial
with
having
mass
sand,
is
the
secures
the
moulding
simultaneously
used
circumstances
concretes
lime,
necessary
to
such
solid
a
be
can
way
of
In
space.
mortar
ingredients,
"When
stone.
a
which
mortar,
larger
the
with
or
the
of
preparation
bricks,
it involves
trenches,
in
masses
incorporation
broken
under
object
in
its
by
large
first, the
;
gravel,
as
in
works,
CONCBETES.
too
for
cubic
lbs.
The
as
little
75
MATRICES
COMPOUND
been
in
used
FOR
CONCRETES.
conjunction with
puzzolanas, trass,
and
for
for a long
bricks
mortars
concretes
and
pounded
of a subaqueous
racter.
chaespecially in works
period of time, more
also
been
Artificial
puzzolanas have
adapted in
Lime
has
various
ways
in
from
works,
sea
in
when
for the
reasonable
for house
the
poor
works
and
trass
and
from
been
have
where
is
it
employed,
success
which
failures
arises
of
French
deleterious
agency.
with
successfully used
be obtained
at a
they can
in the preparation of concretes
are
improved by it than
more
in
For
unnecessary.
is much
trass
doubtful
action
this
be used
price may
building. Rich limes
hydraulic ones
or
; indeed,
limes,
poor
arisen
lime,
of
with
Several
water.
sea
have
engineering works
Italian
puzzolanas
but
purpose,
prejudicial chemical
a
with
contact
all varieties
same
and
the
case
German
of
the
best
engineering
especially on
the
Ehine,
moderate
at
General
cost.
a
easily obtained
in
it extensively in France
used
Treussart
conjunction with
works
found
the best
energetic hydraulic limes, and for water
results
to be obtained
by the following mixtures
or
tions
proporit
where
:
is
"
parts of hydraulic,
80
energetic, measured
in bulk, and
before being slaked,
from
of trass
Andernach,
80
,,
80
of
sand,
of
gravel,
very
,,
20
"
of broken
40
stone
"
The
proportions
above
manipulation
added
of
were
afterwards.
trass
for
altered
the
as
88
one-fifth
limestone).
in volume
after
first
prepared and the stones
When
Italian puzzolana was
used instead
description of work, the proportions
same
the
;
diminished
(a hard
mortar
under
was
:
parts of
45
,,
22
,,
energetic hydraulic lim9,
before being slaked,
of puzzolana,
of sand,
of broken
60
,,
stones
and
gravel.
measured
76
MATBICES
COMPOUND
The
two
different
compositions
the
used, and
once
before
being
requires
other
successfullyin
German
extensive
STRONG
2
for
exposure
works
be
at
hours
twelve
mortars
concrete
require
first should
The
used.
being put in place.
following preparatory
The
proportions, and
in their
vary
before
treatment
OONGBETES.
FOB
used
were
:"
MOBTAB.
parts
of
lime,
of trass.
2
"
Or
5
"
parts
8
of
muschelchalk,
of
trass.
,,
BASTARD
MOBTAB.
parts of lime,
2
of trass,
1
"
of
1
sand.
"
Or
parts of muschelchalk,
4
"
of trass,
2
"
of
1
sand.
"
MOBTAB.
BASTARD
WEAK
parts of lime,
8
of trass,
1
"
of
2
sand.
"
Or
parts of muschelchalk,
6
"
of trass,
2
"
of
8"
To
or
these
bricks
according
situation
These
works
of
the
several
in
which
mortars
mortars
to
the
added
were
the
quality
concrete
used
were
sand.
"
in
works.
Diep for concrete
Homberg-Buhroster-Bhein-traject
and
mortar
to.be
construction
at Nieuwe
of
the
intended
was
the
of
of stones
fragments
The
Anstait
of
was
parts of stiff lime,
of ground trass,
6J
8
"
of
.
"
broken
stones
placed.
harbour
foundations
"
12
the
(sandstones).
posed
com-
COMPOUND
this
In
as
the
MATRICES
there
concrete
used
lime
large preponderance
per cent, of clay, and
was
contained
a
16
A
slightlyhydraulic, setting slowly.
at Berlin
used
4
of
composed
was
Brohl
good
of trass,
only
was
mixture
concrete
"
parts Budersdorf
8
77
CONCRETES.
FOB
lime,
trass,
"
angular river sand,
gravel,
fragments of stones,
8
2
4
of bricks.
6
"
A
very
good
2
concrete
produced by mixing together
"
parts freshly-burntunslaked
8
fragments
of silicious
2
coarsely-ground
1
sand,
1
gravel.
another
2
lime.
trass,
"
2
And
was
used
iron
stones,
slag,
building the harbour
in
of
Cologne
"
parts lime;
2
"
trass,
broken
2
flints
) not
quartz
)
"
2
"
"
bigger than
a
goose's
egg.
sand.
1
,,
Another
consisted
useful
of
mixture
concrete
used
with
much
"
5
parts lime,
14
"
8
"
puzzolana,
gravel,
broken
8
stones.
"
Or"
9
parts slightlyhydraulic lime
12
"
puzzolana,
clean
6
"
16
"
sand,
fragments of
stones.
(dry),
success
78
MATBICES
COMPOUND
earth
Santorin
of the
7
of
CONCRETES.
used
concrete
mortar
consisted
quay,
FOB
at Trieste
for the
walla
:
Santorin
measures
earth,
well-slaked
2
lime,
"
broken
7
stones.
,,
Or"
Santorin
14
earth,
"
lime,
5
"
broken
12
stones.
"
Or"
Santorin
12
earth,
"
lime.
5
"
broken
12
stones,
"
sand
2
or
"
proportions
These
also used
were
at
gravel.
and
Venice,
made
good
walls.
concrete
combinations
These
not
are
much
practical value
the volcanic
products,
of
in this
but will
scarcity of
it may
be intended
their
to use
as
a
guide where
merely serve
such
artificial equivalents in the shape of burnt
clay, or some
from
Bomian
substance.
its plencement,
analagous mineral
and
timlness
with some
rich limes be used
in
cheapness, may
from
country,
this
the
the
country ; and
lime, and then
time
some
before
and
to
avoid
that
only
be
used.
In
or
used
so
it should
slightly wetted
with
being mixed
is necessary
however,
natural
when
to
prevent
danger
any
artificial
case
a
the
small
of such
puzzolanas,
allowed
and
the
first mixed
be
to remain
aggregate.
lime
and
quantity
of
be
for
Great
care,
setting,
cement
water
combinations,
it should
with
should
whether
remembered
of
that
with
weak
energetic puzzolanas should be mixed
or
mild puzzolanas
with hydraulic limes.
rich limes
; and
in
all
other
In these as well
it
as
preparations of concrete
that
all
to observe
is necessary
not belonging
foreign matters
should
be carefully separated ;
to the matrices
or
aggregates
of
the
for
will
clay or any loamy earthy matter
interposition
the
value
of
the
mixture.
and
Such
weaken
damage
tionable
objecwhile
the
their
less
valueweakening
mass
ingredients
by
intervene
the
likewise
between
character,
particles of lime
and
to the aggregate.
cement, preventing their adhesion
strong
or
EOMAN
While
of
out
place
relates
to
the
on
of
house
quote
a
curious
evidence
and
passage
in
that
be
not
Diodorus, who
proof of the
he
Sicily),there
the
same
that
; and
hogsheads
from
Polyclitus
of
it may
Concretes,
the following :
describes
In
Agrigentines,
Gellias, at Agrigentum
(near the site of the modern
Girgenti in
one
Puzzolana
subject of
of the
wealth
the
the
on
79
CONCRETES.
CEMENT
"
"
a
rock, each
of
close
vessels
hundred
were
containing
them
to them
cut
was
certain
a
a
vat
of
out
hundred
made
of
hogsheads, out of
capable of holding a thousand
the vessels."
The
the
into
white
which
cement
liquor ran
referred
thus
to was
probably the white
puzzolana obtained
from
Pausillip in the Island of Vivara.
in trenches, and
is to be used
"When
concrete
not formed
it
be
should
from
in moulds
never
frames,
or
a
tipped
height,
levelled.
but placed gently in position and
The
old
carefully
from
of
concrete
attended
with
a
height was
practice
throwing
from
the
the
mixture
to
tendency of the larger pieces
injury
the
themselves
from
of gravel to detach
while
mass
being
white
cement
tipped.
CEMENT
EOMAN
CONCRETES.
which
Eoman
cement
rapidity with
sets, it is
in the
where
preparation of concrete
frequently employed
in foundations
much
running water
prevents lime or Portland
from
concrete
cement
setting quickly enough for such works.
with
be used
It cannot
a
large proportion of aggregates, and
is therefore
under
such circumstances
seldom
used
for general
house
In
with
it never
concrete
concrete
building
purposes.
for this
valuable
a
can
position ; its quickreason,
occupy,
in avoiding the danger
setting properties requiring great care
after
the initial set has
of disturbing its induration
been
the
From
accomplished.
When
it is advisable
of
by
any
aggregate
a
spray
account
disturb
the
in
a
to
use
necessary
it with
to mix
not
dry state, and
of water.
be rammed,
indurating
Eoman
as
action
then
concrete
action
which
of
the
for
four
than
more
carefullywet
cement
the
this cement
the
should
rammer
speedily sets
in.
crete,
con-
parts
mixture
not
on
would
80
BOMAK
The
American
CEMENT
engineers
sometimes
and
use
CONCRETES.
the
natural
for
cements
crete,
con-
their experience of such
lime, and
is most
combination
treatise on
a
satisfactory. In Gillmore's
and cements
the following mode
limes
of preparation and nse
is recommended:
"Natural
to
which,
hydraulic cement,
under
circumstances
degree of
requiring only a moderate
and
strength, paste of fat (rich) limes is sometimes
energy
added, in quantities seldom
greatly exceeding that of the
is almost
cement,
invariably used as the basis of the concrete
and
is at once
the
when
made
concrete
deposited
mortar;
in its allotted place, and
well rammed
in horizontal
layers of
six inches
about
in thickness, until all the coarser
fragments
should
driven
below
The
the general surface.
ramming
are
should
be
take place before the cement
begins to set, and care
in the manipulataken
much
the
of too
to avoid
water
use
tion.
The
should
when
ready for use,
quite
mass,
appear
in
such
however,
incoherent, containing water,
quantities
and
will produce a thin film
that a thorough
hard
ramming
with
"
of free water
the
upon
surface, under
the
without
rammer,
gelatinous or quicksand motion.'1
It will be found
in practice that cements
siderably
convery
vary
in their
capacity for water, and that fresh-ground
than
become
stale. An
those that have
cements
require more
than
of water
better
is, however,
excess
deficiency,particularly
a
the
is
when
used, as
capacity
energetic cement
a very
is
A
for
of this substance
too rapid
solidifying water
great.
cohesive
loss
of
dessication
of the concrete
a
might involve
adhesive
and
strength if insufficient water be used."
used
at Fort
The
mortar
composition of the compound
in
causing
the
a
mass
"
Warren
was
825
lbs.
stiff
paste
stiff paste
feet
well
made
as
; 120
;
cubic
compacted.
mortar
feet of
Each
producing
batch
8*75
8*85
to
cubic
feet
of
lime, producing 4 cubic; feet of
feet of loose
sand, equal to 14" cubic
These
well mixed,
ingredients, when
good
used
in
New
York
required for stone
hydraulic cement
"
"
lbs. Eockland
19"
Tompkins,
and
:
dry cement,
18" cubic
The
follows
the
masonry
and
sand
of
mortar
mortar.
of
construction
harbour,
or
it
Bichmond
by hand
made
concrete,
without
or
was
Forts
was
; when
composed
of
lime.
concrete
corresponded
to
one
82
EOKAN
The
"
time
less than
consumed
making
the
is
mortar
required
deterioration, instead
of the
manipulation,
and
the
of
to
of cement
and
fourth
is
sand
the
step
heaped
in such
hoe
feet
mortar
8081bs.
was
feet
cubic
3*75
of cement
stiff paste,
of
(equal to 9*75 compacted or
ingredients being incorporated produced
feet of loose
These
cubic
sand
rather
of
thin
mortar.
above
cates
indiof hand-mixing
accurately described method
the necessity of a careful
cement
handling of natural
ligent
and intelIt is only by such
concrete.
or
a reasonable
that
be expected.
admixture
any satisfactory results can
The
mortar
The
stones*
are
cubic
pressed).
11-75
little
a
quantities,to
the
with
paste formed
required."
The
composition of the above
powder, which
produced 3-70 to
12
small
in very
proceeding
the mixture
added, and
water
quantities as
and
is
incorporating the broken
; in
avoid
up
of mortar
batch
a
more.
Where
"
in
twenty minutes
minutes
ten
CONCRETES.
CEMENT
Eosendale
used
cement
these
for
mortars
the
gave
following analysis :
"
insoluble
Silica,clay, and
Peroxide
Alumina.
silicates.
19-80
of
Chloride
Carbonate
of
magnesia.
Sulphuric
add.
and
American
These
of
potash
Water
subjected
are
and
lossw
1.66
4-78
cements
lime,
88-90
sodium.
0-82
84.06
of
Carbonate
.iron.
0-76
4-40
to
high degree of
a
strict surveillance, to pass
pulverization, being required,under
sieve (6400 meshes
to the square
through a No. 80 gauge
inch),
and
not
cubic
leave
yard of
barrels
of
burnt
differs
and
in
no
case
is, therefore,
treatment
of
of residuum.
cent,
yields on
exclusive
27001bs.,
average
an
of those
One
solid
or
portions
rejected in
cement,
so
nine
sorting
as-
stone.
observed
It will be
8 per
stone
raw
cement,
the
America,
than
more
that
from
do
our
the
natural
Eoman
they approach
necessary
it for
to
mortar
understand
or
in their
cements
them
abundant
in
in
analyses
setting energy.
an
exactly similar
would
probably be
those obtained
by the
that
concrete
satisfactoryresults than
be better, therefore, to mix
the
American
practice. It would
the
first before
Eoman
and sand
cement
water, which
adding
attended
must
be
with
less
distributed
equally through the
mass
;
It
until it
assumes
PORTLAND
incoherency
when
;
it may
it will be
The
fact of
CEMENT
then
be mixed
necessary
with
gravel or stones,
quantity of water.
the
another
add
to
83
CONCRETE.
ness
being heedless as to the fineof the cement
puts engineers and builders at considerable
we
disadvantage. Such
coarsely ground cement
are
as
plied
supwith in England
not only fails to accomplish the desired
its inability to distribute
itself in sufficiently
effect, from
minute
but it also involves
a
particles throughout the mass,
loss in the coarser
particles only performing the part of an
our
in the
aggregate
makers
cement
mixture
of mortar
; for there
concrete
or
is
action, either chemical
secondary process
or
or mechanical,
into a condition
minute
be transformed
by which
they can
that in
So
cement.
a
enough for any beneficial exertion
as
all cements,
is being estimated, the
ness
finewhen
their value
of powder
of the principal
should
be considered
as
one
elements
to be regarded in arriving at their relative costs.
no
POKTLAND
"Whatever
CONCRETE.
CEMENT
advantages
may
derived
be
the
from
practice of
with
natural
limes, puzzolanas and
preparing concretes
ments
ceabundance
their
to
or
cheapness
according
they
that
made
in
from
land
Portwill bear
to
no
comparison
quality
"
"
its excessive
of
the
other
pointed
should
be
Portland
cement
it
can
be
is however
it should
may
all
in
to
has
of
for
be
cases
Portland
cement
can
minutes
that
given
and
cost,
mixtures
out
absence
the
In
cement.
cement,
unimportant
used;
where
cement
an
this
but
by
or
works,
it is here
practicable
reason
any
of
distinctly
preference
a
concrete.
advantage
to
which
no
other
of the facility
with which
lay claim, by reason
from
of any
made
10
degree of setting energy
An
active capacity of quick setting
2 or 8 days.
obtained
at a sacrifice of indurating strength ; and
"
to
therefore
be
at
all
times
remembered
that
it is not
Portland
practice of making
of
cement
nearly abandoned,
light specific gravity is now
and an
weight of 110 lbs. the imperial bushel maybe
average
advantageous
a
lighter
regarded as the most
quality. Even
otherwise
attainable.
The
g
2
$4
CEMENT
PORTLAND
that
than
weight
would
all
suffice, for
if the
making,
concrete
CONCRETE.
cement
ordinary
half
ground
was
of
purposes
fine
as
as
in the case
of the natural
engineers insist upon
used
When
manufacturers
will proby them.
our
duce
powder equal to the test of passing through a No. 40
sieve, much
more
satisfactory results will be obtained
American
the
cements
a
gauge
than
those
For
of
with
of
sea-forts
:
we
are
familiar.
now
in
engineering works
have
with
concrete
aggregates
used
which
been
mixed
following
the
Copenhagen
large proportions
very
this
In
cement.
proportions
the
were
"
part Portland
1
cement.
sand.
4
,,
16
And
a
1
of
cement
of
1
of the
For
cement.
little
over
it
was
a
which
; and
Thames
embankment
highest
value
method
concrete
from
water
shortcomings
hardness.
was
It
in
the
a
the
wet,
were
in
was
of
cost,
used
with
and
the
at,
only
backing of wharf
to from
1 of sand
6 to
the
with
its
the
being
cement;
by hand
the
of
8
or
clean
the
and
to
extract
old
and
then
cement
and
tipping the
mass
the
massiveness
concrete
of
the
attained
walls
in
careful
such
character,
great
and
the
which
it
desirable
and
indeed
engineering supervision practised
it was
works
the
these
other, and
impossible to use
on
any
in its proportions of sand
tended
ballast
being well balanced
under
also
to the
extremely
now
prepared to receive it.
generally speaking an excess
notwithstanding these
; but
first-class in
was
the
trench
preparation
is true
calculated
not
was
circumstances
ordinarily favourable
of
placed assisted in the accomplishment
The
works,
aimed
was
than
results.
was
Main-drainage
of
cement
Parliament
those
mixing
height into
used
was
1 of
of
foundations
more
On
quality
works
from
obsolete
The
Houses
proportions the concrete
only
one-third
of the price of the best brickwork,
in some
substituted.
portions of the work
of
the
preparation adopted in the case
of
mode
The
of
the
foundations
walls
ballast
Thames
for
sand.
finest
embankment
jiver
cost
with
of
4
to
cement
to
is one
proportion for foundations
part of
in
or
gravel. The
proportions used
special excellence, regardless
where
the
stones.
sand
connection
in
works
the
of
10
to
cement
usual
very
of
fragments
"
good
results
achieved.
CEMENT
PORTLAND
the
In
absence
85
CONCRETE.
of machines
for
mixing
the
materials
the
spread the stones or gravel upon
a
these is spread a layer of the previously
hard
surface, and upon
in the
agreed proportions ; the necessary
prepared mortar
is added, and
the whole
then carefully
of water
amount
mass
usual
is
plan adopted
mixed
rakes
with
turned
and
to
danger attending the
thoroughly saturate
supply
hoes.
and
of
and
water,
is
There
it is
some
advisable
to
putting the mortar
it must
it.
of concrete
be
In all cases
mortar
on
or
making
that
smallest
the
remembered
possible quantity of water
should
be used.
When
slow-setting Portland
a
heavy and
it
is
be commanded
cement
safest, as the danger of overcan
manufacture
of
minimum.
The
to
a
wetting is reduced
favourable
stone
a
granite breccia
(before referred to) was
conducted
the
most
making
on
example of careful concrete
A
selected
scientific principles.
of a weight up
cement
was
to
140
was
the
lbs. per bushel
when
mixed
chippings of
(obtained
from
the
be
it could
Bath,
of
refuse
obtained, and
Portland
yards)
masons'
added
broken
seldom
the
of cement
purpose
with
watered
varying
for which
it
stone
to
form
uni-
a
these
being
the
inter-
of about
half a cubic
up in batches
first mixed
together in a dry state,
made
sticial space.
It was
yard, and all the materials
proportions
with
Anston
or
in size, to
exceeding 1" inch
sufficient small
or
sandy portions to fill up
size
and
before
aggregate
the
with
stone
the
quality
is destined.
fine
of the
thus
cement
slightly
applying the
It
was
having a
rose,
fineness.
At
this stage of the
state
water
a
dewy
the
showed
and
but
mass
was
quite incoherent,
process
of any
tion.
slight indications
capacity of setting, let alone induraThe
then
mixture
was
gradually and
carefully put
into the iron moulds, in thin layers, and rammed
incessantly
with
iron
The
heavy
rammers.
percussion applied effected a
of the mass
with so small
thorough amalgamation
a
quantity
of water
belief
in
the
of
lead
to
minds
the
to a
as
ignorant
a
can
in
that
the
of
concrete
worthless.
The
when
liberated
result, however,
from
was
the
on
moulds
the
be
would
contrary
most
satisfactory,and
large quantities of this stone (forit is well
its
entitled
in London
to that
used
and
designation) were
for paving.
suburbs
In
addition
to the
portion in King
considerable
laid
surface was
William-street, City, London,
a
on
the
for
nearly fourteen
Terrace, at Lewisham
years,
in
Kent, where
it has
been
giving great satisfaction in its
down
wear.
86
POBTLAND
Other
and
beside paying
forms
columns
the
days,
the
moulds
for this kind
used
highly finished, and strong enough to resist
caused
of the rammers
by the incessant
impingement
The
yielding body of materials.
ramming
was
until
and
size. The
drain-pipes
; even
were
pressure
the
on
continued
made
flags were
of considerable
of manufacture
CONCRETE.
CEMENT
the
mass
sometimes
absolutely solid.
was
moulds
less, the
After
fourteen
and
unscrewed,
were
the stones
means
carefully lifted by mechanical
made
sometimes
than
When
weighing half a ton.
more
ordinary strength was
required, a small portion of the soluble
silica of soda or potash was
added
quite exceptional,
; but this was
it was
if any
and
doubtful
increased
strength was
stone
"
obtained,
at all events
not
large works it is
of mixing by machine,
In
been
devised
for
machine
customary to perform the operation
and
complicated apparatus have
many
pensive
inexA
simple and
purpose.
very
that
been
has
following character
:
It consists essentially of
feet in diameter, placed
used
with
made
feet
cylinder 12
a
at
angle of
an
lined
of wood
6
sheet
with
the
outside
round
applied by a
the
necessity of a driving wheel
obviating
from
80
of this simple machine
By means
of concrete
be mixed
could
called
in
ten
of
use
the
on
moulded
expensive;
regard has
is
cement
slaked
finely-sifted
is
obtained.
follows
Stone
a
machine
to
may
the
mill
mortar
requires
concrete
is
be
to
and
of
case
in the
combination
Coignet's
manufacture
with
"
batons
of
that
satisfactory results are
the
at
performed in London,
and
works
some
the
adopted
mode
embankment
:
in
as
highly rational,
In
in
occasionally used
lime,
The
agglomeres."
Thames
cylinder,
or
strap pulley.
cubic yards
100
describe.
Portland
substance
Where
the
where
and
power
blocks, the cost of their preparation will not be
due
when
and
be
obtained
good results
may
voured
endeabeen
which
have
we
paid to the conditions
in
to
works,
to
3 to
The
the
contradistinction
in
a
The
iron.
This
hours.
concrete-mixing one,
mills
pug-mills.
ordinary mortar
or
was
of
Germany
long and from
8 degrees.
or
belt
was
as
in
success
"
cylinder was
in
additional
now
the
be
the
incurred.
cost
4
with
commensurate
for
very
sewers,
the
mode
pursued
was
"
lime
was
used, and
passed through
an
after
being slaked
with
water,
exceedingly fine sieve; the necessary
it
PORTLAND
of Portland
quantity
the
to
CEMENT
river
speciallyconstructed
at
was
Tvork,
and
there
unfavourable
placed
was
damage
and
it
but
costly it might
have
been
of
The
impossible
was
miles
in less than
to
compete
in
certain
be
constructed
have
sewers
built
been
have
span
It is mentioned
here
built,
any
considerable,
was
Portland
cement
districts where
under
as
that
; arches
Paris
well
houses
as
of the
instance
an
as
it
crete
con-
cement
with
"
been
which
upon
Large works
advantage.
batons
agglomeres," and many
used
with
with
in
although under
days without
of labour
cost
it
deep,
works
The
centres
fourteen
a
of
part of the
six inches
slightly rammed.
during the winter, and
arches.
in London,
about
and
struck
quantity
pug-mill
the
destined
the
the
put into
smallest
From
of
layers
then
was
the
to
circumstances,
were
to the
was
in
spread
executed
were
barrows
in
fceing carefully raked
such
whole
with
pug-mill,
wheeled
once
question
The
sand.
thoroughly amalgamated.
and
water,
ing
(a fluctuating quantity, accordits cost) was
and
added, with a
cement
quality of work
fine, sharp, clean
87
CONCRETE.
and
of
siderable
con-
churches.
advantage
of well-
directed
manipulation effecting successful results from
paratively
comThere
materials.
used,
was
inexpensive
gravel
no
and
the largest piece of sand
The
not bigger than
a
was
pea.
of the work
pleasing, and closelyresembled
was
appearance
varieties of Bath
in texture.
tion
stone
some
By such a combinaand, indeed, in
"
Portland
cement
cement
subsequent
levelling and
doubtful
where
seen
making
can
of the
be
only
notwithstanding
can
equally
or
so
any
imperfectly manufactured
of
cost
sifting and
the
together with
much
cost
at
a
to make
as
in
advantage
be obtained
any
a
reasonable
it
locality
cost.
well-adapted
application of
of granitic breccia
stone, it
especially in the case
that much
satisfactory results in concrete
more
be accomplished than
is commonly
supposed. In
instances
manufacture
machine
with
can
an
the
without
work
the
pug-mill,
into
runs
using
; but
the
be used
cement
these
be
the
can
avoided
by
ramming,
Portland
materials,
will
may
of
danger
be
mixture
if it
From
the
"
qualitiesof
some
frame
sound
of
stone
it is apparent
applied through
certain
mode
fancied
the
agency
advantages
that
that
moulds
of
ple
princi; and
by the
questionableif
realized
of structure, it is very
construction
be secured.
One
can
very
strong
argument in favour of block making is the advantage of ascertaming the qoality of the concrete Wore it is placed in pari-
88
HAGHINEBY
MIXING.
FOB
advantage not secured
building, which
by frame
the uninterrupted continuance
of the work, which,
necessitates
bad quality of cement,
with
would
if executed
entail heavy
a
The
loss.
required for blocks is less than
quantity of cement
tion,
an
that which
be
must
used
in
the
monolithic
Another
mass.
great evil likely to arise in the adoption of machine-raised
cement,
buildings is the use of light or quick-setting Portland
it would
be imposfor with a good heavy slow-setting cement
sible
to
the
secure
with
of the
progress
expectation that
the
structure
at
a
rate
surate
commen-
system raises in the minds
of
inexperienced.
the
MACHINERY
FOR
MIXING
MORTARS
AND
CONCRETES.
the various
in the
making
preparations described
the
of
will much
degree
success
chapters
depend on
In
of
of admixture
accuracy
is
various
materials.
this
the
due
Unless
important
good
the
for
best
nor
produced,
materials,
can
will
be
Until
worthless.
mixed,
comparatively
improperly
and concrete
recently the operation of mortar
mixing has been,
the
labour
increasing magnitude
performed by manual
; but
has
and
the
of architectural
necessitated
engineering works
with great advantage, not only
means
adoption of mechanical
in the
considerable
improvement
regards cost, but with
as
materials.
Not
only in this country, but
quality of the mixed
Continent
of Europe
and
in the
the
of
United
States
on
been
for
have
devised
America,
ingenious machines
many
and
mortar
and
concrete"
mixing
pug-mills, horizontal
attention
vertical
At
to
stones,
the
construction
other
kindred
obtained
has
revolving
in
with
varying success.
Liverpool docks, where
with
rotate
condition, neither
be
concrete
mortar
used
given
the
ceding
pre-
pans
a
are
contrary
used,
direction
the
mortar
used
been
in
their
justly-deserved reputation,
rollers
heavy cast-iron
a
in
have
contrivances,
which
to
that
of
the
pans.
At
the
,
London
diameter
Docks
were
Extension
used, in which
(1856-57)
revolved
pans
two
feet
seven
stones
four
in
feet in,
30
MACHINEBY
they would
set before
preparation
mortar
was
duce
thick
a
A
For
the
steam
mixture
the
desired.
in
MIXIKQ.
ordinary
pulp.
mill
mortar
Taylor, Key West,
in
used
U.S.
Florida,
class
mortars
the
enough
and
was
high
a
common
way,
The
perfected.
was
only adopted where
was
slaked
FOB
It
quality of
lime
added
water
the
driven
wag
to
pro*
of Fort
construction
was
above
by
steam
a
with the driving shaft on
which
engine directly connected
was
fixed the heavy
wheel
a disadvantageous
fly
arrangement,
;
for
the
the
other pur?
of
steam
precluding
application
power
the mortar
when
mill was
not required. This
mill, with
poses
of from
applied power
an
much
sixteen
to
horses, could
twenty
the
In
tons.
we
may
80
to
that
tons
which
The
conical
wheels
of
lime
bed
by
in
wheels, for the
the
Other
mixing.
faces
the
horizontal
and
mill
The
shaft
pan
the
to the
furrowing
Another
clear.
inner
materials
towards
the
follows
:
the
where
this
the mixture
grind
Such
a
mill
as
mill
from
above
was
7 to
example
:
"
15
keep
to
as
so
when
is attached
of the
to
clean,
pan
On
sured
mea-
are
was
of
account
prepared on
only necessary
mortar
it
cement
the
to
minutes.
described
grinding and mixing
the incorporating or mixing
an
used,
of
paste is first put in
lime
the
capacity.
centre.
is
of
parting
im-
pan,
materials
scraper
side
The
"
the
driving shafts
placed
are
cast-iron
double
or
up
supported
pan
to
vertical
keep the
as
a
hollow
two
compound
scrapers
quick-setting character
works
is
placed
to
is used
of
ground while the sand and
out, mixed
together, and then added.
the
and
consists
is
a
of
purpose
wheels
the
throw
was
opposite direction
an
necessary
of the
the
prepared was from
the proportion of sand
incorporated.
to
Y.
Plate
rollers, in which
revolve
details,
to
as
of mortar
cement
by this arrangement
fixed
are
spiralscrapers
Two
information
accurate
amount
and
shown
as
which
the
7
day, according
per
the
mill
as
absence
assume
100
with
by
as
fifty casks
pare
pre-
tons) of cement
(about
It would
mill of this description
be unwise
mortar.
to use
a
and capacity where
only one half the above quantity of mortar
As
American
was
required.
engineers usually mix
equal
in making
their mortar,
the
quantities of lime and cement
actual
be reckoned
at 14
daily performance of the mill may
daily
be
may
considered
mill, and
differs
machine,
of
a
pound
com-
essentially from
which
the
following
MACHUTEBY
represented in
It is
Paris.
consists
It
HE., and
of
bottom
by a disc B, surmounted
imparted a quick rotary motion
a
by
the
cog-wheel
which
F.
revolves
intervals.
the
through
aid
of
the
including
the
Water
is
funnel
J.
L.
hours
of the
screw
where
the
works
is
wide, the height
in
Paris
a
88
pulley 0, and in
cubic yards of mortar,
francs,
carries
or
the
about
9d.
it is
into
buckets
of the crank
half-horse
a
working
at
a
yard.
per
while
mortar
discharged
revolving platform M.
By means
under
the
opening in the
pass
outlet
There
cog-wheel D.
belt to the
a
it mixed
fuel, of 88
is
which
diminished
or
On
applied by
of ten
motion
screw
a
crank
was
power
day
Below
the
at
by the ratchet and
the hopper is a cylindrical spout G, in
at regular
having iron points attached
of the stopcock K,
supplied by means
work
this machine
Two
men
can
by
be increased
can
in
Sebastopol,
C, to
cone
8 inches
rectangular opening in the hopper
of which
a
de
works
A, closed
hopper
with
the
on
Boulevard
sheet-iron
a
used
was
the drainage of the
with
connection
Plate
91
mXDSQ.
FOB
cost,
The
to
being mixed
the
placed on
N, the buckets
The
spouts in succession.
materials
in a dry state
on
an
adjacent
are
previously mixed
thrown
before
the
The
into
hopper.
being
platform
clayused
cutter
M.
in
the
preparation of
Coignet
or
pug-mill,
by
"batons
of the common
agglomeres," is a slight modification
pug-mill used in brick-making, and performs successfully the
admixture
lent
of cement,
sand
lime, and
required for that excelthe materials
material.
As with the previous machine,
of mixture
first mixed
are
by hand in the required proportions
in this case
before being put into the mill, and
a minimum
batons
The
of
high character
quantity of water is used.
is due as much
to the
agglomeres
intelligent manipulation
of
which
it undergoes
the
to
quality of the materials
as
which
it is composed.
The
same
proportions and kinds of
cement,
lime, and sand carelesslyprepared would
produce a
mixture
which
and
from
of a most
character,
unsatisfactory
"
"
no
such
of
"
The
results
betons
could
be obtained
agglomeres."
important object
as
that
produced
case
using any of
this class
of machines
is that
of thoroughly amalgamating
the materials.
The
at least, does
necessity, in ordinary cases
arise for grinding or pulverising them, and not only may
not
that
action
be considered
cases
superfluous, but in some
positivelydangerous. The
sliding action of the metal surmost
to
be
attained
in
in the
92
"
induces
faces
MACHINERY
FOB
MIXING.
has
heat, which
a
tendency to
of mixture,
water
the
evaporate
resulting in the imperfections
due to over-grinding.
It is well
the use
of such
machines
to avoid
as
impart
this
of sufficient
works
peculiar sliding action unless
on
their careful and intelligentsupervision.
magnitude to ensure
The
will be found
useful
in ordinary
simple hand machines
and
cases,
a
frictional
great
small
comparatively
of mortars
mischief
The
the
to thus
most
to
instance
desirable
may
be
of
realised
and
Portland
consequence.
at
ration
tritu-
excessive
danger
sufficientlyconsidered,
much,
cement
grinding action of the mortar
in quality, and
after repeated experiments,
of an
ignorant engineer, several
it
prepare
admixture
The
in
impaired
at
attempts
caused
submitted
much
was
cost.
is not
been
when
mortar
mill
has
of
accuracy
the
abandoned.
were
method
of
mortar
preparation
should
thorough dusting of
and
the aggregates with the matrix
; and, secondly, a careful
by the spray or dusting of the
perfect moistening of the mass
of
smallest
water.
possible quantity
By the first process
particles of lime and sand in accurate
place the various
you
mechanical
juxtaposition ; and by the second is imparted the
of moisture
the perfection of
to guarantee
amount
necessary
of agglutination, as more
the* chemical
follydescribed
process
and
lime
article on
cement
in the
setting. Such a careful
be more
not
manipulation would
expensive than the system
if it were,
of mortar
now
prevails ; but even
making which
would
would
be obtained
the improved
more
quality which
consist
than
operations. Firstly,
of two
for
compensate
any
increase
a
of cost.
the
Prussia, where
Bridge, West
building the Dirschau
be made
could
cement
contiguous to the works, the following
cement
grinding with the
used, combining
was
machinery
of
The
grinding machinery consisted
mixing of the mortar.
revolved
vertical
of which
mills, the pans
or
eight mortar
The
minute.
revolutions
with
velocity of twenty-two
a
per
to each
were
provided with an adjusting arrangerunners
ment,
pan
lowered
be
at
the
raised
could
stones
or
whereby
who
first put
mill was
attended
by one
pleasure. Each
man,
it was
and when
in the burnt
ground fine enough the
cement,
In
water,
and
then
When
the
cement
is withdrawn
the sand,
by
and
means
added
was
sand
is
of
.
a
in the proper
thoroughly mixed,
shovel
"
which
proportions.
the
is held
in
mortar
a
con-
MACHINERY
93
MIXING.
FOB
and
of the pans
to the rotation
placed in a
trary direction
it is wheeled
to the required points of
hand-barrow, in which
such
the
for use.
Under
works
an
ordinary circumstances,
in
all
is not
desirable; but
probability the
arrangement
had
of
the
works
for such
special reasons
engineer in charge
and
mortar-mixing
adaptation of the cement-grinding
an
used was
quick-setting in character,
machinery. If the cement
incurred
much, danger was
by using it so freshlyground ; and
if of a slow-setting, hard-burnt
nature, the machinery
applied
its
value.
An
application
inadequate to extract
greatest
was
where
the
of such
principle is only possible
a
necessary
is
attainable
reasonable
at a
scientific control
and experience
"
cost.
be used for
Any of the above mortar-mixing machines
may
the practice is adopted
of mixing the
concrete-making where
in the
with a previously prepared mortar,
as
case
aggregates
of
beton, and
material
and
which
forms
the
distinction
between
the
French
English concrete.
used
concrete-mixing there have been several machines
in
the
works
in this country, more
Main-drainage
particularly
in
and
the
works
connected
with
the improvement
of London,
These
machines
of the River
however, of an
Tyne.
were,
expensive and complicated character, and their use could only
nary
ordiFor
he possible on
of considerable
works
magnitude.
our
For
purposes,
much
the
used
in
and
less
complicated
simplest of which
in
the
construction
Theiss, Hungary.
and
thrown
In
with
connection
and
is
one
cheaper
with
machines
tions,
operaare
quired,
re-
of the
of the
this machine
building
house
following description,
the
River
bridge over
the mortar
the
was
previously
stones, or aggregates,
together
prepared
into
with
ends.
at both
connected
hopper
cylinder open
a
a
The
18 feet long and
4 feet in diameter, inclined
cylinder was
The
at an
cylinder was
angle of from six to eight degrees.
of
revolutions
revolve
to the
made
to
at a
speed
twenty
this being applied by a
to
minute, the power
accomplish
of the cylinder,
the exterior surface
driving-belt placed round
of the cylinwhich
acted as a driving pulley, the inner surface
der
this
sheet-iron.
machine
lined
with
smooth
and
By
being
120
of
cubic
the
yards of concrete
thorough incorporation
In conjunction
was
accomplished during a working day of ten hours.
mill
with such
machine
a
a mortar-mixing
might be
judiciously combined.
94
BUILDING
Another
Plate
IV.
be
can
which
another, thereby avoiding
when
mixed.
gravel
Fig. 1
The
the
of
and
is
sented
repre-
this machine
used
is its
by hand,
of
point
one
cost
proportionate
carefully measured
are
in
it to be
from
b"ton
making
feature
enables
transferred
readily
for
valuable
A
portable character,
FBAMES.
used
machine
mixing
in
BY
the
the
moving
and
works
to
concrete
quantities of mortar
put into the machine
and
at.
A,
materials
then
moved
and
the
levers, b, b, Fig. 2, are
in descending through
several
the
fall,and
partments
comin which
condition
thoroughly mixed,
are
they
reach
bottom
is
the
;
the
moved
of the
another
to
machine.
spot, when
operation repeated
same
REMARKS
strength
borne
do
be
should
strength.
Natural
values
attain
not
their
and
made
for
artificial
or
operations before
instituting any
agencies
stone
of
are
usually perfected
adapted for
during the course
application of heat.
ages,
the application of the
best practical and
of building stones, we
knowledge to the selection
and
to
from
obtain
for
this
there
Artificial
our
smoky
high-class
state of things, owing
atmosphere.
beauty
of
which
stone
So
seems
to
much
but
the
has
decoration
tends
evil
hope
the
through
cements,
the
compounds
the
most
introduced,
offer
and
under
action
increased
of
outline
of
many
standing
Notwithscientific
unable
are
the
judicial
pre-
increasing
to
vate
aggra-
of
greater susceptibility
degrading
little
of
resist
atmospheres.
to the
this
will
An
architectural
highly-wrought
that
those
source
any
influences
desire
ultimate
the former
purposes;
the
latter by the
building
parison
com-
bricks, due
or
have
bricks
or
perly
pro-
maximum
or
increase
an
when
concretes,
stones
stances,
sub-
building
extreme
when
masses
FRAMES.
of various
that
that
so
artificial
allowance
BY
in mind
years,
many
between
their
relative
be
prepared,
for
BUILDING
the
it should
before.
as
ON
considering
In
If necessary
the machine
it is again charged and the
agency
of
a
vitiated
of late
years,
obtaining permanent
of
natural
into which
favourable
stones.
they
conditions
are
the
BUILDING
required material,
of hardness
securing
of
accuracy
attaining
does
a
form,
degree
enable
not
us.
define.
to
all those
object, therefore, of impressing upon
the great import*
in building substantial
structures
necessity of an
intelligent knowledge of cements*
It is with
interested
ance
and
and
their
relative
him
induces
who
those
values
that
to offer reliable
intend
novel,
which,
the
practical experience
author's
not
while
which,
Oo"
FRAMES.
injurious climatal action, besides
which
our
present knowledge
all
resist
BY
when
and
book
is written.
knowledge
information
building in
nevertheless
this
for
The
concrete.
ignorantly undertaken,
may
the
subject
the guidance
of
subject, although
amount
an
possesses
of
The
lead
of fascination
to
much
loss.
the
tendency has arisen to accept unquestioned
which
various
concrete-forming machines
promise the erection
in such
marvellous
is
with
of houses
rapidity. It
a direction,
be
is
to
too eager
apprehended from
therefore, that danger
a
constructed
for
desire
house, regardless of the more
a speedily
the
of
of the materials
quality and character
important question
it is put together.
These
with which
remarks
not
are
of questioning the merits
with the view
of the several
made
building machines, or the credit due to their inventors, but
of claiming for the materials
that
for the purpose
tion
consideratheir
demands.
which
However
primary importance
is it cannot
in the smallest
excellent
the machine
secure
degree
the quality of the concrete, which, again, is dependent on the
Already
a
Therefore,
cement.
machine,
quality of cement,
the
as
in
addition
to
selectingthe
intending builder
well
as
the
most
should
torious
meri-
most
the
secure
judiciously
best
combined
of his building.
The cement
neighbourhood
manufacturer
who
be procured from
will guarantee
should
a
its quality,and take the risk of losses which
might arise from
if of imperfect quality.
its use
The
recent
of concrete
is.
impetus given to building houses
in some
the
tages
advandegree due to the facilities offered, and
secured, by the various
concrete-forming machines,
calculated
which
to lessen the cost of construction
are
by the
of ordinary for skilled labour.
This is the direcsubstitution
tion
much
in which
good will be effected, by enabling the class
likelyto be most benefited by improved dwellings to aid in the
for themselves
work
of constructing better homes
and families.
aggregates
A
twofold
in the
advantage
of this kind
is well
calculated
to
improve
96
BUILDING
and
character
the
BT
condition
FRAMES.
of
the
agriculturallabourer
especially. The ingenious and labour-savingmachine
have
unable
been
the
of
amply
of itself to increase
Portland
in concrete.
cement,
building
modern
covery,
dis-
has, by its great merits, accelerated the acceptance
Its advantages have
constructive
been
apparatus.
tested in engineering waterworks, where
monolithal
blocks.
of
-weighing upwards
built up by its agency.
800
Such
realised,however, without
been
not
the desire for
comparatively
a
would
tons
have
been
fully
success-
results
satisfactory
the
have
exercise of considerable
disguised that Portland
cement,
when
carelesslymade or injudiciouslyused, is dangerous for
constructive
other works
for which
it is applicable.
or
any
Against such dangers,therefore,the author considers it necessary
for concrete purposes,
to caution those using this cement
when
as
carelesslytreated disastrous results are
likelyto
In
the
machine
time
sufficient
ensue.
erectingbuildingsby
cannot
and
elapse between the preparation of the concrete
in
is
it
afforded
of
position; therefore,no opportunity
placing
ascertainingif the concrete is perfectin character and safe to
care
; for it must
build
with.
house
is
risk in
The
built,
not
and
be
consequence
arises that
when
the
after its
long
completion, faulty
might endanger the structure
of remedy.
The true antidote for such
without the possibility
a
casualtyis only to be found in a stringenttest of the cement
of the testingbefore being used, either through the agency
described in the chapter on Portmachine
land
or
by the method
developments
may
cement, page
On
well-conducted
blocks
even
arise which
40.
where largemonolithal
operations,
engineering
prepared,not only is the cement scrupulously
tested, but a subsequent opportunityis afforded of proving
the qualityof the blocks before being permanently placed in
their destined site.
for
They are usually allowed to remain
three or four months
cases
exposed to the air,and in some
such
before
in
Under
favourable
used.
water
submerged
being
circumstances
it would
almost
be
impossible to sustain
works
from
Portland
of
the
cement
so
fully
careuse
on
damage
would, even
supervised; for improper or faultycement
when
undetected
by the test, prove incapable of resistingthe
air or
water
during the interval that would arise
exposure
the
between
fabrication of the block and its final deposition
in the building. If such
safeguards could be commanded
are
98
GENERAL
In
OBSERVATIONS.
such
localities,during periods of idleness, the unemployed
which
might be advantageously engaged in moulding blocks
would
for house
building and other
readily find a market
poses.
purNo imperfect block could be, by this arrangement,
used,
employed, for sufficient time
qualityof cement
detect
the
permitted to
shortcomings of the one
or
bad
a
be
would
and
the
other.
GENEKAL
OBSERVATIONS.
The
suitabilityof Portland
house-building purposes, is
for
that
it is almost
advantages
to be
bricks
over
derived
now
so
for
stones
its
use
:
especially
concrete,
generally acknowledged
describe
to
its many
It
erections.
enumerate
or
ordinary
fullythe leading
explain more
to
from
Increased
Second.
fits
bene-
"
strength.
Beduced
Third.
and
desirable
is, however,
First.
superfluous
cement
cost.
Additional
facilities
for the
flue, and
heating
or
ventilating arrangements.
Fourth.
atmospheric influences, and from its
the capacity of resisting damp
non-absorbence,
Resistance
_
comparative
whether
internal
Fifth.
in
Sixth.
and
external.
or
Reduced
to
in
cost
details
of
and
construction,
joinery.
more
cially
espe-
plastering, carpentery
Durability from its ultimatelybecoming crystallized,
instead
of
deteriorating with
age
becomes
harder
and
stronger.
Seventh.
Flat
owing
Eighth.
roofs
to the
with
inexpensive covering
increased
Fire-proof
when
strength
the
of the
timber
may
be
structed
con-
in
struction
con-
walls.
necessary
is
judiciouslyarranged.
Impermeability to sound.
in the
labour
Tenth.
Possibility of adopting non-skilled
and placing it in the walls.
preparation of the concrete
Eleventh.
of
Capacity
resistingattacks of vermin.
Twelfth.
High and equable internal temperature secured by
Ninth.
reason
of
the
Thirteenth.
non-absorbent
Purity
of the walls
ammalised
gases.
nature
of the
atmosphere in
being able to resist
of
materials.
the
the
rooms
in
sequence
con-
absorption of the
GENERAL
99
OBSERVATIONS.
Fourteenth.
of the walls to obtain
Advantageous condition
the most
economical
application of heat for warming, as no
waste
of fuel is incurred
in first evaporating the moisture"
in ordinary brick structures.
of expense
a common
source
Fifteenth.
Expedition in construction, as a house built of
Portland
concrete
cement
No
completed.
are
concrete
mixture
so
soon
Sixteenth.
is
of
property
when
drying,
exuding
the
the
as
the
walls
cement
of
water
it sets.
Avoidance
This
mortar.
built
the
as
arise in
delay need
possesses
inhabited
be
may
from
the
disintegration of
in all brickof annoyance
innumerable
of bad
joints made
fertile
a
houses, with
dust
of
their
source
lime-mortar.
Seventeenth.
of
Facilities
for
warming
or
ventilating floors
concrete.
Eighteenth. Cheap
Nineteenth.
form
General
of concrete.
be made
of roof may
most
the
facilities for
improved
advanced
sanitary appliances for comfort and health.
The
to conabove list of advantages has special reference
struction
of dwellings ; but there are
other and many
varied
be applied, such
Portland
to which
cement
concrete
uses
may
ments
Paveas
improved walls for gardens and other inclosures.
and
be made
with
roadways of all descriptions may
cement
concrete.
For such, or, indeed, for any
good Portland
such
is applicable, it is
where
material
a
purpose
necessary
that
the cement
should be of first-rate quality, and its mixture
with the gravel, shingleor other aggregate,
or combination
should
be carefullyperformed.
In Scotland
trials of pavement
have been
several successful
been
where
it has
mitted
submade, and in the city of Edinburgh,
of two years' test with much
to upwards
faction,
public satisthe
the Edinburgh Daily
from
following extract
as
Review
of 4th
"We
had
June, 1869,
occasion
to the
describe
to
George-the-IV. Bridge
afterwards
large
will show
when
"
the
laid
concrete
pavement
which
success
on
referred
(1866), and
down
of
measure
:
attended
has
Mr.
experiment.
Mitchell, the eminent
engineer who
contrived
obtained
the conthis description of roadway, has
currence
the
of
under
pavement
the-IV.
is
more
the
Bridge
Road
new
has
economical
Trustees
conditions.
been
sufficient
than
either
for
The
a
trial
experiment
to show
the
of the
old
that
the
concrete
on
road
new
pavements
h2
Georgeor
the
100
GENERAL
macadamised
road, in consequence
needed.
It
is
carriages, and
of
when
it
also
dust
and
and
mud.
and
be seen
as
difficulty,
may
George-the-IV. Bridge, is to
about
placed
with
thin
when
the
an
slabs
Portland
hard
inch
of
sence
ab-
breaking it up
water
contrivance
for
the
bedded
pipes imovercoming
the
which
along
pavement
concrete
broad.
inches
6
and
concrete,
in
and
prepare
apart
the
present by passengers
at
feet
2
and
These
easily be
can
are
closely filled
interstices
picked out
large blocks of concrete
require to be raised."
only objection,therefore, after some
years' experience
The
a
long
and
cattle
disadvantage;
one
expended
Mitchell's
this
4 feet
had
get at the gas
to
necessary
in the soil. Mr.
for
easier
it
be
to
repairs being seldom
pedestrians, from
for
But
had
cost
was
in blocks
of
smoother
comfortable
more
labour
greater
OBSERVATIONS.
to be
cement
concrete
destroyedto gain
pavement
access
from
was
and
to gas
of
its
being too
pipes. This
sanitary progress
water
when
disadvantage will eventually be overcome
has sufficiently
advanced
the construction
to insist upon
of subways for the reception of the necessary
pipes which may
be
health
of our
comfort
and
town
required for the domestic
The
ever,
howpopulations.
requisite imperial legislation must,
of such
keep in advance
improvements, to prevent a
repetition of such destructive
performed on
operations as were
the Southwark
Street constructed
by the Metropolitan Board
of Works.
In that case,
elaborate
and
after a most
perfect
system of subways to receive pipes had been constructed,
and above
them
excellent
granite roadway laid on a bed
an
first-class
of
Portland
broke
companies
misunderstanding
Board
the
and
the
latter's
incurred
by
Although
up
the
had
gas
water
contribution
the
to
we
of
us
this
country
been
in
kinds
the
except
"
pipes.
Metropolitan
the
to
gas
Some
the
of
amount
interest
thereon
last
for
of Portland
materials
carried
and
for
extensive
out
in
which
with
and
foundations
and
cement,
acknowledge
to
of concrete
Germany
are
greater facilities than
commands
Denmark
even
practical use
and
various
have
France
in the
between
or
former.
concrete
America,
water
down
companies as
the
outlay or
other
for the manufacture
any
in unlimited
abundance
suitable
it, yet
lay
to
street
occurred
and
the
concrete,
cement
Sweden
"
has
to make
the
tages
advan-
sea
works.
are
before
tions,
buildings of all descripbuilding operations of
Portland
cement
concrete.
It is difficult to account
possessing so
material
and
tried
value.
indifference
for such
the
they
made
are
of
use
a
stock
of
use
the
to
properties of undoubted
inherent
many
Probably
which
facilitywith
101
OBSERVATIONS.
GENERAL
bricks, from the
the ground
where
on
much
had
this
to do with
to be erected, has
buildings are
Portland
cement
concrete
has,
non-appreciation of concrete.
all the
however,
advantages possessed by the brick, besides
other
useful
qualities peculiar to itself; for no
locality is
deficient
in
beyond
the
There
is
the
influence
of
perhaps
no
supply.
important
advantage
more
advanced
favour
in
than
concrete
cement
certainly
none
cement
a
be
may
and
aggregate,
necessary
which
many
Portland
the
that
in
secured
among
the
of
of
use
connection
if
Even
it was
costly
sanitary improvement.
more
and
ultimate
structural
than
brickwork,
possessed less
pacity,
cait
suffices to claim
for
its hygienic value
a
high
material
for house
building purposition as a constructive
poses.
A
non-absorbent
and
washable
wall
has
long been
considered
and the most
desideratum,
a
enlightened sanitary
have
reformers
always regarded a house
imperfect wherein
such
When
views
first prothat quality is wanting.
were
pounded
and
the
their accuracy
conclusions
questioned,
was
their
advocates
arrived
received
with
at by
scepticism.
were
settled
Eecent
that
experience has now, however, conclusively
with
plaster
their
with
walls,
Prisonous
paper,
is
accumulation
accompanying
highly
detrinUaTtohealth;
of
and
in
science
medical
control
recognises and
can
such
dangerous walls are
arrangements,
tion
condiSecond
only to the internal
scrupulously eschewed.
of
their
of the walls is the question
external
perfection.
hospitals,where
their
structural
all
If you
secure
non-absorbency inside you
the absorption externally, for under
the
these
must
necessarily co-exist.
least
in
the
Let
us
hope
most
that
check
favourable
indispensable securities
two
fail to
cannot
cumstance
cir-
against disease
if not
in this, at
and
generation, plastering, limewashing
painting of walls will be regarded as dangerous, and that the
that
impetus now
given to concrete
buildings will hasten
next
much-to-be-desired
hygienists fully recognise
French
damp
de
walls, and
Famille"
receives
consummation.
the
following
(page 401),
that attention
extract
shows
which
its
that
the
evils
consequent on
Devey,
Hygiene
from
in
"
France
importance
the
demands
subject
:
"
102
GENERAL
""
And
fresh
a
with
which
to
especially
more
those of
OBSERVATIONS.
porous
the
renew
there
nature;
humidity
the
air
of
they
are
wall,particularly
condensed
transpiration. The
almost
are
of the
the stones
ventilators
effect with
without
when
regard
to the
mephitism of the walls. Disinfectingvapours cleanse
the atmosphere of the impurities with which
it is impregnated;
but in general the infection of the walls escapes
their
action.
However
these explanationsmay be, it is certain
applicable
that there exists,according to the energeticand picturesque
"
expression of Moses, 'lepra doTnonum,' a leper of houses,
a
leperof walls,which, although it does not injure them, is
for sanitaryreasons.
less to be dreaded
The mephitism
no
of the walls results from
the walls of the miasmas
the accumulation
and
of the surface
in the
infiltration in
the
stones, the mortar, the plaster,"c. "c.
formed, so to speak,nests of miasma, which are
interstices of
There
are
hotbeds
of
When
infection,acting as a poison upon the blood.
they
have once
taken possessionof a house their persistenceand
will cite some
We
obstinacyis really fabulous.
examples
to support this view.
the ministry of Lamoignon
Under
de
Malsherbes
ceased to be the State
the dungeon of Vincennes
former
prison. Many years after their liberation some
prisonersreturned to visit the place of their captivity; they
odour which prevailed
struck by observingexactlythe same
were
A doctor, Sainte-Marie,
there during their incarceration.
f
rom
attended a person suffering
to which
affection,
gangrenous
she fella victim.
the place
Two years afterwards,on revisiting
to
attend
invalid, he found
another
smell, the
smell
the
same
Some
mi
gangrenous
at Lyons,
ago
generis.
years
public charities,an epidemic of puerperal fever
broke out.
Fifteen or eighteen women
recently delivered
in a few days ; the placewas
succumbed
men
emptied, and workbegan to clean it. As the plasterof the walls and ceiling
in
of the
one
detached
was
exhaled.
have
fetid odour was
We
of hospitals,
administrator
Dr. Polini"re,
say that the
heard
smell
or
was
room.
of the
what
destroy the
walls
plastershould
and
of
dissectingtheatre
the epidemic
said the reasoning is easy : in
which cause
the mephitism
to remind
him
place
thus
as
the
After
to
most
strong
When
ceased.
order
so
a
we
have
miasmas
was
a
cleaned
the old
ceilingsof hospitals,
be removed
at times
and
-^
mortar
and
stones
disintegrated
"
^
GENERAL
replaced," according
10$
OBSERVATIONS.
to
the
are
of
recommendation
of
Legislator
Lebrun.
"
These
measures
phthisis,dysentery, cancer,
Buffering from
infectious
great importance where
has
maladies
lived
for
especiallyin old quarters,
one."
be recognized by any
and
may
some
the
other
or
gangrene,
time.
one
any
large towns,
In
is endemic
mephitism
and
Chadwick,
English hygienist, Edwin
C.B., in
the concluding paragraph of his able report on
Dwellings and
their arrangement
Paris
at the
Exhibition, 1867 (page 817),
eminent
The
says
"
:
"
the
On
and
viewing collectivelythe various
appliances presented for examination
models
whole,
collateral
in
the
in it the means
of
present Exhibition, there will be found
in the improvement
of the dwellings
important advances
very
of the people, in the
of the great mass
of relieving
means
the
them
from
drain
cesspool smell or the bad
or
sewer
and
emanations
wall
a
heat,
good
water
and
it is
l)e made
too, not
Teduction
when
the
stagnant
and
proved
in
cooler
only
much
losses
from
excessive
smoke
their
and
with
the
nuisance,
the
loss
of
deterioration
of
from
sunlight ;
dwellings may
that,
very
material
of direct expense,
because
a
sickness, premature
taken
from
in winter, and
warmer
increase, but
expense.
the
air, from
I say
and
smell
of fuel
appliances
and
any
wall
of the exclusion
new
summer
without
of direct
by
waste
vitiated
supplies, from
that
foul
wall, from
of the
great proportion
from
the
damp
the
from
vermin,
from
smell, from
into account,
disability,
a greatportion
premature mortality are
the
of
classes, though they may
dwellings
common
wage
be cheap to construct, are
indirectlyand eventually dear to
the rates
By dwellings with the improvements
specified,
use.
of insurance
against sickness, disabilityand mortality would
With
be reduced
clean, light,bright, warm,
nearly one half.
and
healthful
comfortable
dwellings ; with the habits of personal
such
tions
condicleanliness, sobriety and frugality to which
and
would
conduce, new
improved populations would
accustomed
in the
To
arise.
to inspect town-schools
one
lower
districts,the comparative condition, external as well as
to a considerable
internal, of the dwellings may,
extent, be
condition
of the
inferred
by the comparative aspect and
children.
Already, in neighbourhoods where partial sanitary
for afewyears, schoolteachers
have
been made
improvements
and
of the
104
OBSERVATIONS.
GENERAL
mark
improvement in the condition
an
children received from
and less vicious,and
them, who
and
less
are
qualityof
squalid,less
apt for instruction.
more
It is
generallyadmitted by all who have attended to the
that moral and social advancement
is dependenton
the
ugly
now
subject,
physical
improvement, and that on the sanitaryimprovements of
dwellings."
of cottage-building,
On the subject
the same
authorityin
another part of his report (page261) observes that :
dwellings of the
towns, even
our
they are unoccupied, are
wage
that the walls have a peculiar depressingmusty or
aware
foetid smell.
On visits after severe
epidemic attacks,in some
of these dwellingsa peculiarly
offensive smell has been perceived
that could be from, the answer
; and on inquirywhat
"
Those
who
visit the
crowded
common
class in
when
has been that it was
the ' dead man's
smell.' The dead body
had been too long kept near
the wall in a state of decomposition
before it could be removed
for interment, and the foetor
inhered to the wall.
In the course
of the service under the
Public Health Act, when the occupierswere
nearlyall struck
with fever,we have
and the walls and
in
some
cases
ordered
all to be
removed
But
it has-
ceilingsto be limewashed.
that the performance of this service has
occurred
obstructed or neglectedwith respect to particularhouses
in those
been
; and
alone, and with fresh occupants, the fever has broken
again,thus demonstrating the condition of the leprous
of the work of purification."Walls
house,' and the efficiency
for such tenements.
lathed, plasteredand papered are even worse
The laths rot, the size of the paper decomposes, and
out
the
'
paper
houses
itself harbours
of this construction
vermin.
The
is horrible.
condition
To
admit
of
some
of the
cleansing of the walls by limewashing, in Miss Burdett
the
Coutts's,in Mr. Peabody's,and in other model dwellings,
walls have not been plastered
instances
or papered. In some
the sanitary orders are that the walls shall be limewashed
twice, and in other instances as often as four washings a year
The occupiersgreatlydislike these
deemed
are
necessary.
bare brick walls.
In new
hospitalsthe evil is in a great
measure
preventedby facingthe interior wall with some hard
and
of the best non-absorbent
smooth
surface,generally
washable
all interior cottagewalls
As a principle
cement.
and
should
be made
washable.
Besides
the evil
mtmt
arisingfrom
106
6SNESAL
fuel
OBSERVATIONS.
is necessary
greater with
; the evil is the
often obliged to leave their rooms
without
are
the poor,
the
who
fires which
to have
wealthy are enabled
kept up.
In
its particularlydry subsoil
Paris, notwithstanding
its drier climate, the sanitary or insanitary evils of the
the
more
architect's
in
London.
constructions
I
assured
was
it
experience that
in
Paris
there
were
their
lives"
going
in
and
would
the
showed
them
affection, and
illness
was
that
and
be
that
dry
in
"
In
occupants.
Emperor
the
for
we
walls, though they
The
concierge who
grievous rheumatic
a
the
having
from
house
new
any
never
of the
some
upon
informed
them
amongst
always
dwellings
nearly
years.
suffering from
was
I
of considerable
would
two
us
builder
afflict their
damp
to
greater than
its construction,
which
mon
com-
even
occupy
model
erected
been
to
after
year
Paris
new
of
marks
Parisian
a
unsafe
was
a
houses
over
observed
had
less than
in
by
be
to
appear
and
had
occupants
much
occupied the houses
too
"
soon."
These
non-absorbent
well
materials
The
tenancy.
and
hands,
Much
former
with
parts
of
then
has
more
adduced
built
of
as
been
support
and
walls
given of late
for
of the
of
purposes
the
and
other
accuracy
vicissitudes
when
the
The
at
necessary
influences
inconsistent
made
our
in articles
climate
density
is
it is obtained
with
true
of
question
construction
agent, and the
substantial
more
in
least, satisfactory
of form
of
advance
our
necessity
to the
years
decorative
wall
at
is incontrovertible.
a
to
and
eminent
attention
particularlyas
to the
climatal
deserves
in
earthenware
England
of outline
The
house
a
such
from
authority
construction.
and
Beauty
severe
of
pecuniary saving
great
extracts
houses
reference
in
not,
but
facts
and
cotta
latter
is
the
attention
terra
the
above
non-absorbent
dry and
"
advantage
effects
hygienic
trustworthy
of
the
of health
to their
securing the best conditions
pants.
occubuilt
of
Portland
When
cement
concrete,
good
no
need elapse after the building of the house
and
of time
as
interval
its
that
show
extracts
this
direction
encouraging.
requiring exposure
be readily secured
;
or
not
can
produced
at
a
to
withstand
sacrifice
architectural
of regularity
excellence.
producing terra cotta renders its applicationprohibitory
in pretentious buildings of importance, and
unless
ments.
only as veneering aids to external or internal embellishIt never
take an
can
important position for general
cost
of
GENERAL
-which
manufactured.
it is
breakage, with
adoption
the
that
reliable
so
a
which
cannot
in
its
Portland
of
is
There
attainable
now
by
trustworthily be
more
either
cement
manufacture
its pure
state
has
tion
descrip-
or
of terra
means
cotta
Portland
by
reached
combinations
in its various
or
general
cement
kind
no
by
waste
objections,will prevent
character.
ornamentation
of
carriage and
of
in
neighbourhood
immediate
Cost
minor
other
now
attained
in the
unless
lrailding purposes
107
OBSERVATIONS.
security of outline is
and
satisfactory manner,
unquestionably attained in the most
the
desired
the
even
requirement of colouring is within
Another
important advantage we
possibility of attainment.
is the facility of
Portland
decoration
claim
for
cement
may
a
testing its value previous to any expensive outlay. Such
in
of
terra
the
is
not
cotta,
case
ordinarily possible
safeguard
its
of
decorative
in
recent
where
applications
already
some
the stone
Even
of disintegration are
developed.
symptoms
and
of mortar
decorations
in
this
of
tendency of
stones
influence
;
for,
there
conveyed
are
which
country
to much
liable
are
injurious atmospheric
of
consequence
and
Accuracy
concrete.
to absorb
moisture
in
the
water
of
process
damaging
such
absorbed,
so
chemical
particles various
minute
accelerate
the
natural
The
action.
increases
with
combination
in
deterioration
purities
im-
disintegration and
decay.
contended
It is not
free
of
in
purest
its
various
mineral
no
dition
con-
stance
sub-
possessing such perfection as the power
completely resisting prejudicialatmospheric
be safely advanced,
however, that a good
found
effectuallyand
influence.
in its
cement,
nor
perfectly non-absorbent,
from
such objections. Indeed,
be
can
Portland
is
even,
mixtures
that
It may
Portland
quality of ultimately hardened
will
concrete
cement
fluctuating necessarily with
of the
the nature
aggregate as well as the quality of the
with which
it maybe
cement
incorporated. By experiments with
with which
100
cement,
parts
sample of first-class Portland
a
it
mixed
with
of cement
85 parts of water,
was
powder was
absorb
found
a
minimum
that
11"
with
of
per
the
moisture,
of
cent,
cement
crystallization; proving
it
to
that
during the setting process
was
in rendering the cement-powder
small
amount
of latent
moisture
retained
was
complete
the
chemical
final
the
amount
about
in
of
two-thirds
is
retained
of
process
rejected
water
that
of
plastic; shewing
bination
com-
that
in the
used
a
very
hardened
108
GENERAL
the
and
mass,
absorbing
of
extent
OBSERVATIONS.
quantity which
will
depend
which
will
on
indicate
aggregate
porous
being
mixed
nates
will, when
liable
to
with
absorb
Portland
in
a
afterwards
it may
the porosity of the
moisture.
the
concrete,
capillary capacity. An
be beneficially influenced
will
as
the
silicates
state, fill its poreB,
At
this
point of
of
capable
its
cement,
fluid
be
and
usually
un-
by
alumi-
rendering it less
argument
our
we
the relative merits
of the monolithic
and
fairly consider
block-making systems of concrete
building.
it is
By the present imperfect system of mortar-making,
mix
usual
to
about
and
of cement
equal volumes
water, and
the water
find
one-third
of
as
by experience that, only
we
remains
fixed in the
hardened
cement
or
crete,
conpermanently
may
it
follows
that
two-thirds
of
the
water
has
been
Thus
evaporated, leaving its previously occupied space void.
smaller
the
would
a
quantity of water
proportionably reduce
and
vacant
the porosity of the
consequently lessen
space,
This
character.
thereby improving its non-absorbent
mass,
of'
result is consequent on
the fact
Portland
cement
possessing
the
standing
shape, notwithproperty of retaining its normal
the
of plasticity ; different
ejection of the water
of
Portland
cement
qualities
requiring varying quantities of
The
than
the
take
water.
water
light cements
more
heavy
when
and
of
dried
display greater
course
thoroughly
ones,
is
of
that
mum
miniit
texture
a
advantage when
an
porosity
; so
In monobe used with
concrete.
can
lithic
quantity of water
is not attainable, as the frames
building this desideratum
are
valuable
unable
to
resist
the
which
pressure
would
be
required
to
Block
however,
lightly-watered mass.
making,
valuable
developes to the utmost
degree all the most
ties
properof the cement,
which
secured
amount
by a minimum
are
stand
of moisture, as
is able
the strength of the
moulds
to withthe utmost
from
the
of pressure
amount
impingement
of the rammers
the
The
concrete
granita breccia
on
mass.
previously referred to at page 44 is a good example
pavement
One
other
the use
of iron moulds.
of perfect blocks from
tant
imporin
able to
is
secured
the
moulds
of
being
by
advantage
use
of gravel or other
use
a larger amount
aggregate, as there is
the blocks for some
days after they are
necessity to remove
no
solidify a
iC
moulded.
THE
END.
"
TESTING
-|x
BRICK
IJgjB^^^2ttilM^tttB
I
/
\"
xrf
Catatoptf
RELATING
TO
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