Professor Harri Haapasalo Department of Industrial Engineering and Management HOW TO GET A PH.D.: METHODS AND PRACTICAL HINTS Research Approaches Outline of the lecture Research in DIEM Planning the research approach – research design Classification of Research Approaches Summary Research in DIEM (Jokinen) Research in DIEM (Jokinen) Industrial Engineering and Management combines research of natural science, economics and sociology c So Sc ien ce Environment Management Na tur al Engineering Mathematics Industrial Engineering IEM y og iol Organisations and Management Management of Technology Communication Strategic Management Operations Management Quality Management Supply Chain Management Human Resource Management Project Management Finanacing Accounting Marketing Economics Economics Entrepreneurship Europe Trondheim Zurich Twente Linköping Cambridge Usa Cornell MIT Northwestern Stanford Berkeley Australia Monash Asia Israel Mumbai Hong Kong Africa Pretoria IEM Body Of Knowledge Finland Espoo Tampere Lappeenranta Oulu Turku Vaasa DIEM BOK Quality Management Information and Knowledge Management Project Management Communication Environment Management Organizations and Management Industrial Engineering Supply Chain Management Strategic Management Human Resource Management Operations management Management of Technology/ R&D Management Economics Finance Marketing Entrepreneurship Accounting Law & Ethics Science Methodology Planning the research approach – research design Research approach how Main approach, new scientific knowledge is created in this study Scientific Knowledge (Classic definition): Argumented (Through published sources) True (Truth like) Belief (Believed by the researcher) Progressive (aligned with earlier research) Economical (ideal of generalization) Exposed to critics (public) Created trough scientific methods Strategic planning of research Philosophical background assumoptions : ontology, epistemology and human nature Metodology Epistemology Theoritical origns Phenomena Research approach Ontology Human nature R Method: material collection and analysis A R = Researcher A = Actor The hierarchy of subjectivists assumtions about the nature of social science. (Pihlanto P (1994) The action oriented approach and case stydy method in management studies. In Scandinavian jornal of management, Vol 10 No 4, 169-382.) Basic positioning in research The ontological foundation (=the essence of the research object) Philosophy Background of science The epistemological foundation of knowledge i.e. the science of knowledge (=which, from where, how the knowledge is acquired) Competence of subject/field (=understanding the substance and object of research) Paradigm Methodology (= the conception of a valid method) Theory and concepts RESEARCH Research approaches and choices Ontological foundation In philosophy, ontology -- of being part of is the study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general as well as the basic categories of being and their relations, Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. Some basic questions of Ontology The principal questions of ontology are "What can be said to exist?" and "Into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things?" Different philosophers have provided different answers to this question. One common approach is to divide the extant entities into groups called categories. However, such lists of categories also differ widely from one another, and it is through the co-ordination of different categorial schemes that ontology relates to such fields as theology, library science and artificial intelligence. Further examples of ontological questions include: { { { { { { { { { { What is existence? Is existence a property? Which entities are fundamental? How do the properties of an object relate to the object itself? What features are the essential, as opposed to merely accidental, attributes of a given object? What is a physical object? Can one give an account of what it means to say that a physical object exists? What constitutes the identity of an object? When does an object go out of existence, as opposed to merely changing? Why does anything exist rather than nothing? (This overlaps with questions in cosmology.) Ontological approaches Social scientists adopt one of four main ontological approaches: realism { empiricism { the idea that we can observe the world and evaluate those observations in relation to facts, positivism { the idea that facts are out there just waiting to be discovered, which focuses on the observations themselves, attentive more to claims about facts than to facts themselves, and post-modernism { which holds that facts are fluid and elusive, so we should focus only on our observational claims. Epistemological foundation theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims. In other words, epistemology primarily addresses the following questions: { { { { "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", "How do we know what we know?” A priori and a posteriori knowledge The nature of this distinction has been disputed by various philosophers; however, the terms may be roughly defined as follows: { { A priori knowledge is knowledge that is known independently of experience (that is, it is nonempirical). A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is known by experience (that is, it is empirical). Specific theories of knowledge acquisition Empiricism { { Rationalism { { { { In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the five senses. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical, while some regard disciplines such as mathematics and logic as exceptions. Rationalists believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is innate—for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition". The extent to which this innate human knowledge is emphasized over experience as a means to acquire knowledge varies from rationalist to rationalist. Some hold that knowledge of any kind can only be gained a priori, while others claim that some knowledge can also be gained a posteriori. Consequently, the borderline between rationalist epistemologies and others can be vague. Constructivism { { { Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all knowledge is "constructed" in as much as it is contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that forms a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity and viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity as constructs can be validated through experimentation. Classification of Research Approaches Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approach Conceptual Approach Nomothetical Approach Decision-oriented Approach Action-oriented Approach Constructive Approach Positivism vs. Hermeneutics TARGET POSITIVISM HERMENEUTICS Information Facts Contains meanings Information system Technical Organizational/ social Human Part of mechanism Free and able to think Technology Inevitable Human’s choice Society/ organization Structure, where human is only a part Interaction between humans CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH APPROACHES Finnish business economics classification (Neilimo & Näsi 1980) { International classification { { { conceptual, nomothetical, decision-oriented and action-oriented approaches qualitative vs. quantitative positivist vs. interpretive/critical research based on large vs. small empirical samples Classification by Arbnor & Bjerke { analytical approach, systems approach and actor approach RESEARCH APPROACHES: Qualitative Approach sometimes called ethnographic research involves the use of qualitative data usually answers the questions { { what the phenomenon is like what kind of qualities the phenomenon has can be positivist, interpretive or critical RESEARCH APPROACHES: Quantitative Approach is used when it is possible to specify variables which can be measured or tested as numbers usually answers the questions { { how to determine the factors that are measured what factors are the ones, which will help explain a phenomenon often associated with positivist basic view of research is analytic RESEARCH APPROACHES Theoretical Descriptive Normative Conceptual research approach Decision-oriented research approach Empirical Nomothetical research Action-oriented research approach Constructive research approach RESEARCH APPROACHES: Conceptual Approach uses the ”method of reasoning” aims to create theoretical concepts, concept entities and hypotheses the work is based on the already existing conceptual analysis RESEARCH APPROACHES: Nomothetical Approach sometimes called positivistic approach the most common approach field of economic research aim to show the causal interdependencies between different phenomena of the economic life deduction, hypothesis, models and empirical testing play a key role RESEARCH APPROACHES: Decision-oriented Approach normative by its nature aim is to develop problem-solving methods theoretical analysis and thinking are important the principles of logics and mathematics are often followed RESEARCH APPROACHES: Action-oriented Approach also known as subjectivistic research hermeneutic and understanding by its nature aim is to gain profound understanding and relevant descriptions of human phenomena in real-world settings brings the human being into the focus Action research 1 DIAGNOSING Identifying or defining a problem 2 ACTION PLANNING Considering alternative courses of action for solving a problem 3 ACTION TAKING Selecting a course of action 4 EVALUATING Studying consequences of an action 5 SPECIFYING LEARNING Identifying general findings Susman & Evered (1978) RESEARCH APPROACHES: Constructive Approach solving a problem through constructing a model, plan, organization, diagram, etc. normative by its nature, applies typically case method the problem and solution have to be tied with theoretical framework functionality of the solution in practice and solution’s novelty have to be demonstrated Constructive research approach Design Science The practical relevance of the problem Linkage to the theory Construct, the solution of the problem The practical functionality of the solution The scientific novelty value of the solution The elements of constructive research. (Kasanen et al. 1991) The stages ofconstructive research approach. (Kasanenet al. 1991) Phase 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description Searching of a relevant and interesting researchproblem Gaining preliminary understandingover the research area Innovation phase, constructing the solution model Testing solution– proving the correctness of the construction Showing the scientific contribution and theoretical connections Consideration of the solution generalisation RESEARCH APPROACHES: Constructive Approach solving a problem through constructing a model, plan, organization, diagram, etc. normative by its nature, applies typically case method the problem and solution have to be tied with theoretical framework functionality of the solution in practice and solution’s novelty have to be demonstrated Eisenhardt (1989) Building theories from case study research. Academy of management review, vol 14 (4), 532-550. Step Getting Activity started Defining Reason of research questions Neither theory nor hypotheses Selecting Crafting cases instruments and protocols Focuses Retains efforts theoretical flexibility Specified population Theoretical, not random, sampling Focuses Multiple Triangulation data collecting methods (qualitative and quantitative methods, multiple investigators) efforts on theoretically useful cases evidence Divergent perspectives of Step Activity Reason Entering Overlapping Speeds the field Analyzing data Shaping data collection and analysis Flexible and opportunistic data collection methods analysis and reveals helpful adjustments to data collection Allows to take advantage of emergent themes and unique case features Within-case analysis Gains familiarity with data and Cross-case pattern search preliminary theory generation using divergent techniques Forces to look beyond initial impressions and see evidence thru multiple lenses Search Sharpens hypotheses evidence for “why” behind relationships Enfolding Comparison Raises literature with conflicting literature Comparison with similar literature construct definition, validity and measurability Confirms, extends and sharpens theory theoretical level Sharpens generalizability The three methodological metaapproaches (Arbnor & Bjerke 1997) 1 Reality as concrete and comfortable to law from a structure independent of the observer 2 Reality as concrete determining process 3 4 5 Reality as mutually dependent fields of information Reality as a world of symbolic discourse Reality as a social construction 6 Reality as a manifestation of human intentionality The analytical approach The systems approach The actors approach Case study “quality assurance” Construct validity; establishing correct operational measures for the concepts being studied. { { { Internal validity; establishing a causal relationship whereby certain conditions are shown to lead to other conditions, as distinguished from a spurious relationship. { { { pattern matching explanation building Data analysis phase External validity; establishing the domain to which the finding can be generalized. { { multiple sources of evidence have key informants review of case study report Data collection and composition phase replication logic in multiple case studies Research design phase Reliability; demonstrating that the research operations, such as data collection, can be repeated with the same results. { { { follow case study protocol develop case study data base Data collection phase Summary Every research is unique ”project” Researcher has to be in top of the research Each research has to be defined on its own standings Literature Case study research { { { Constructive research { Eisenhardt K. (1989) Building Theories From Case Study Research. Academy of Management Review, 14 (4), 532-550. Robson, C. (1993) Designing case studies. In: C. Robinson: Real world research. A resource for social scientists and practitioners-researcher. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 146-166. Yin, R.K. (1994) Case study research. Designs and methods. Second edition. London: Sage Publications. Kasanen E., Lukka K. & Siitonen A. (1993) The Constructive Approach in Management Accounting research. Journal of Management Accounting Research, Fall, 243-264. Action Research { { Argyris, C. (1970) Intervention Theory and Method. A Behavioral Science View. Reading: Addison-Wesley. Argyris, C., Putnam, R. & Smith, D.M. (1985) Action science. San Fransisco/London: Jossey-Bass. Industrial Management Faculty of Technology Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Work Sciences Quality and Project Management MORE DIEM - Department of Industrial Engineering and Management - Industry is Our Laboratory Research areas and research groups In Industrial Management (1) Business and Strategic Management, (2) New Product Development and Innovation Management, (3) Operations Management, and (4) Supply Chain Management and Logistics. (1) Business and Strategic Management The research of this area is focusing on problems and development of small and medium sized companies, as well as organisations in the public sector. In the recent years extensive research work has been carried out in utilising the ICT in business processes along with research on Knowledge Management. Business management oriented research studies specific features in different fields of industry, ending on developing co-operation models and networking between organisations. (1) Business and Strategic Management - Dissertations Published: Yliherva, Jukka, 2004. Management model of an organisation's innovation capabilities – Development of innovation capabilities as part of the management system Torkko, Margit, 2005. Additional business lines in farms. A qualitative research on resources, development and advice needs Suikki, Raija, 2007. Changing business environment—effects of continuous innovations and disruptive technologies Pikka Vesa. 2007. A Business Enabling Network. A case study of a high-tech network; its concepts, elements and actors. Becoming: Teräs, Jukka. 2008. Technology cluster life cycle model comparative case study of three European technology clusters. Saari, Seppo. 2008. Knowledge transfer in innovation system Multiple case-study in technology parks in Northern Finland and Sweden (1) Business and Strategic Management - Publications Haapasalo, Harri & Hyvönen, J. Simulating business and operations management - a learning environment for the electronics industry. International Journal of Production Economics, 2001, number 73, pp. 261-272. Haapasalo, Harri; Pikka, Vesa & Kess, Pekka Competence requirements in managing project business. - Project Management Journal, 2002, vol. 8, number 1, pp. 48-55. Haapasalo, Harri & Ekholm, T. Profile of European incubators - a framework for commercialising innovations. - International Journal of Entrepreneurship an Innovation Management, 2004, vol. 4, number 2-3, pp. 248-270. Haapasalo, Harri; Ingalsuo, K. & Lenkkeri, T. Linking Strategy into Operational Management - A Survey of BSC Implementation in Finnish Energy Sector. Benchmarking: An International Journal. vol. 13, number 6. 2006. Suikki, R.; Goman, A. & Haapasalo, Harri Framework for creating business models - a challenge in convergence of high clockspeed industry. International Journal of Business Environment. vol. 1, number 2. 2006. Suikki, R.; Tromstedt, R. & Haapasalo, Harri Project management competence development framework in turbulent business environment.Technovation, 2006, vol. 26, pp. 732-738. (1) Business and Strategic Management - Recommended forums for researchers Journals: Industrial Management & Data Systems The Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory International Journal of Business Information Systems (IJBIS) International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development (IJMED) Benchmarking: An International Journal (BIJ) Conferences: ECSB { GBID { Nordic Conference on Small Business Research International Conference on Global Business Innovation and Development MIC { Management International Conference