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2. business operations
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how to write job descriptions
How to Write
Job Descriptions
Chapter 1:
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Chapter 7:
Chapter 8:
What Is a Job Description?
The Job Description in the Organization
Basic Elements and Format
Gathering Information: Job Analysis, Job Specifications
Job Descriptions and the Americans with Disabilities Act
Organizing the Information
Position Descriptions: An Alternative for Managerial Personnel
Communications, Access, and Maintenance
Chapter 1: What Is a Job Description?
A job description is a written statement that describes the main objective of a job, its essential and
nonessential functions, job qualifications, and other information on the job.
A job description may describe duties, skills, effort, responsibilities of the job, environmental and
working conditions specific to the job, as well as the education and experience required to perform the
job. It also may include information on tools and equipment used and relationships with other jobs.
Thirty people may hold the same job and, therefore, use the same job description. It is important to
remember that a job description describes the job, not the person, or persons, who hold that job.
There are two basic types of job descriptions: “specific” or individual and “generic” or general. In
addition, position descriptions often are written for individual, high-level managerial employees.
Specific or Generic?
The specific job description, which is discussed in more detail, provides information on all the essential duties and responsibilities assigned to one or more individuals performing the job. It is usually
quite detailed and comprehensive and provides a sound basis for job evaluation, training, orientation,
and human resources organizational planning. This type of description demands a thorough job analysis, considerable care and expertise in preparation, and an active effort to keep it useful and up-to-date.
It is the soundest type of job description to use, and usually the most expensive to prepare. There is
also a tendency to exclude incidental responsibilities and duties, and disagreements can arise between
supervisors and employees when relatively minor job duties change.
Generic job descriptions, on the other hand, are written in broadly stated general terms without
identifying specific functions, tasks, and responsibilities. A generic description is applicable to a group
of similar or near-similar jobs, and therefore the per-job cost of preparation is lower. However, because
of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), use of the generic job description is not recommended.
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While the ADA doesn’t require job descriptions, it does require that applicants and employees are able
to perform the “essential functions” of the job, with or without reasonable accommodation. The Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has said that one of the things the agency will look at
when determining essential functions are job descriptions written before an employer advertises to fill
an opening. Therefore, most companies—whether they are rewriting old descriptions or developing
them for the first time—want them to reflect essential functions, and a generic description is not the
best way to do that. In addition to this legal consideration, managers have found problems with generic job descriptions when they are not properly written or if the supervisor chooses to ignore the limitations built into the description.
No job description should be viewed as a perfect reflection of the job. The object of a good job
description is to differentiate the job (or group of jobs) from other jobs and to set its outer limits.
The information for much of the job description often is obtained through what is called a job
analysis. Its purpose is to identify the job, define it within established parameters, and describe its
scope and content. The job analysis should be accurate, concise, and complete.
Why Are Job Descriptions Important?
Accurate job descriptions provide a basis for job evaluation, wage and salary surveys, and an equitable wage and salary structure. In particular:
• Job descriptions clarify who is responsible for what within the company. They also help define
relationships between individuals, between departments, etc. When used to advantage, they
can settle grievances, minimize conflicts, and improve communications.
• Job descriptions help the jobholder understand the responsibilities of the position. This not only
enables the employee to assess the relative importance of everything he or she is accountable for,
but also provides a sense of where the job fits into the company as a whole.
• Job descriptions are helpful to job applicants, employees, supervisors, and human resources (HR)
professionals at every stage in the employment relationship, from recruitment to retirement. They
provide information about the knowledge, training, education, and skills needed for each job. They
prevent unnecessary misunderstandings by telling employees what they need to know about their
jobs. Best of all, they provide this information in a completely objective and impersonal way.
• Job descriptions help management analyze and improve the company’s structure. They reveal
whether all company responsibilities are adequately covered and where these responsibilities
should be reallocated to achieve a better balance.
Finally, they provide a basis from which to determine whether a disabled applicant is otherwise
qualified for the job and, if so, to assist in determining what accommodation would be required for the
applicant to be able to perform the essential functions of the position.
So Many Jobs, So Little Time: The Bane
Despite these and other benefits, job descriptions traditionally have suffered a poor reputation
among managers and HR staffers. In fact, job descriptions often end up being ignored. “Job descriptions? Sure, we have them. They’re in the bottom drawer of that file cabinet with the big stack of
books in front of it.”
Why? It takes commitment to maintain a job description program. It means that someone must be
vested with the responsibility of the program—i.e., it’s got to be part of someone’s job description. In
addition, supervisors and managers must take time to participate in maintaining job descriptions.
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how to write job descriptions
More important, however, people forget just how important job descriptions are as “preventive medicine.” People forget to floss their teeth until they begin to have gum problems. In just the same way,
people forget to maintain job descriptions until six months after an incumbent has left the job and the
new person isn’t doing what the boss wants. Then it becomes a crisis and it takes a lot more effort to
figure out whether the problem is a job performance problem, a personality clash between supervisor
and subordinate, or simply that the new person in the job never was told clearly what the job entailed.
Doing It Right the First Time
However, one of the most common reasons a job description isn’t used is because it isn’t useful. In
other words, it lacks validity, and therefore it fails to achieve its potential.
A job description is valid to the extent that it accurately reflects job content. An out-of-date job
description is obviously not going to be valid. But even descriptions written yesterday can suffer from a
lack of validity. A carefully conducted job analysis will go a long way toward heading off validity problems, but in the end the responsibility rests with the individual who actually writes the finished product.
If the final written job description fails to accurately reflect the job, consider some of the possible
consequences: Candidates without the proper qualifications may be referred to department heads for
hiring or promotion; jobs may be ranked improperly with others in terms of their worth to the organization; and employees may end up struggling to achieve unrealistic standards of performance. And this
is only the tip of the iceberg!
It is unfortunate that the typical job description is often deficient in at least one of the following ways:
1. The description exaggerates or downplays the importance of the job.
2. It fails to pinpoint the critical elements that differentiate between successful and unsuccessful
job performance.
3. It ignores the decision-making aspects of the job.
4. It either fails to focus on the job incumbent’s actual behavior or it defines required behavior
in ambiguous terms.
5. It describes worker requirements or characteristics that are not really needed to succeed in
the job.
Above all, many job descriptions (an example of which follows) fail to answer some of the most basic
questions that someone coming into the job might have. Suppose that you are a newly hired administrative assistant for the position described. Would you have enough information about the job to feel
confident about what was expected of you and about your ability to meet the job’s performance standards? Read on to see what we mean.
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Typical (But Not Terrific) Job Description
Job Title: Administrative Assistant
Responsibilities: Works under the direction of the supervisor, Customer Service Department
Duties
—Creates and compiles reports
—Maintains inventory of supplies
—Arranges meetings and conferences
—Handles routine correspondence
—Answers phone and takes messages
—Other duties as assigned
Qualifications:
—High school diploma or equivalent
—Two years’ experience in a administrative assistant position, or equivalent education
What’s wrong with this job description? It lists the general duties performed by many administrative assistants. Because this company is probably using the same job description for a wide range of
administrative assistant positions, it does not specify the nature of the reports, meetings, and correspondence involved. The employee could be working in an insurance office or a textile factory. The last
item—“Other duties as assigned”—leaves the job description open to any additional duties the supervisor may want to include. An approach like this obviously simplifies the process of preparing job
descriptions, but it isn’t very useful. A more specific description would answer these questions:
• What are the essential functions of the job? Am I able to perform them, with or without reasonable accommodation?
• What are the standards for acceptable job performance? How often must I “compile reports”
(for example), and how much time will I be given to do so? How promptly must I answer the
phone? How often will it ring? How many errors (if any) are allowed in typing correspondence?
• What are the conditions under which this job is to be performed? What kind of computer or
typewriter is available? How large is the filing system? Is it up-to-date? How much correspondence is there to answer? What working conditions might make certain tasks easier or
harder to accomplish? Do certain duties require more work at certain times of the day, month,
or year?
• What “other duties” might be assigned fairly regularly?
• Why is two years’ experience necessary? What skills, knowledge, or abilities is this experience
supposed to represent?
As you can see, specific job descriptions, regularly updated, are very helpful to today’s HR practitioner. However, as you’ll see in the next chapter, organizations may have legal liability if job descriptions are not used correctly.
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Chapter 2: The Job Description in the Organization
How Are Job Descriptions Used?
Many organizations with job descriptions don’t value them enough because they aren’t aware of the
many uses to which they can be put. Some employers think of job descriptions only in terms of wage
and salary administration, or as a necessary evil when it comes to complying with certain employment
laws. But these are only two of the many practical uses for job descriptions, most of which can be
grouped under one of the following four headings:
1. Wage and Salary Administration
Any compensation system requires that jobs be classified and evaluated in terms that make comparisons possible. Job descriptions are especially valuable in the following compensation-related activities:
• Job evaluation. The job description makes it possible to evaluate one job in relation to others. Determining a job’s worth to the organization is not only important in developing an
equitable wage and salary structure, but also in determining employee benefits and bonuses
that relate employee performance to the performance of the company. Job evaluation will be
covered in detail in Section III.
• Job classification. Job descriptions make it possible to identify common job elements and
requirements, which in turn make it possible to group jobs into families, grades, or classes for
wage and salary purposes.
• Wage and salary surveys. Wage and salary surveys enable companies within a certain area or
industry to compare pay levels for the jobs they have in common. Job descriptions provide the
basis for such comparisons.
• Pay structure. An equitable pay structure means that jobs are rewarded according to their
contributions toward the achievement of organizational goals. Before each job’s contribution
can be evaluated, however, its content must be accurately described.
• Performance appraisal. While performance appraisal enables managers and supervisors to
make decisions in many areas other than compensation, the link between describing the job
and developing appropriate performance standards cannot be overlooked. These performance
standards, in turn, are critical factors when it comes to evaluating an employee’s readiness for
raises, promotions, etc.
2. Legal Compliance
Changes in employment legislation are certain and new issues are always being tested in the courts.
In addition to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), these laws also affect employers:
• Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). This law is familiar territory for most employers. Recent
cases have forced employers to take a second look at its impact. For example, recent court
cases involving Wal-Mart, Starbucks, and many other large companies have concerned misclassification of who is “exempt” and who is “nonexempt.” Job descriptions are often used as
supporting documents when it comes to establishing a job’s exempt status.
• Equal Pay Act. The job description should clearly identify the level of skill, effort, and
responsibility required by the job as well as the conditions under which it is performed. This
can be a vital piece of evidence when a company is accused of paying an employee of one sex
less than an employee of the opposite sex, for work requiring equal skill, effort, and responsibility, performed under similar conditions.
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Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This Act makes it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against any individual with respect to hiring, compensation, or other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It
does not prohibit an employer from hiring or promoting on the basis of qualifications and
merit. The job description defines the requirements of the job and sets the standards for job
performance, both of which are crucial considerations in such cases. The job description is also
important as far as testing regulations are concerned. Any employment or preemployment
tests that are administered must be strictly in line with job requirements, which in turn are
spelled out in the job description.
• Occupational Safety and Health Act. Many job descriptions have a section that discusses
working conditions, especially when these conditions are considered uncomfortable or dangerous. It is important that any unusual or adverse job condition be specified within the job
description so that an employee coming into the job knows what to expect. Job descriptions
can also serve as a useful starting point for an examination of existing safety practices and
working conditions.
• Age Discrimination in Employment Act. The job specifications section of the job description, which states what the job requires of the jobholder in terms of education or work experience, skills, physical characteristics, personal characteristics, etc., should not discriminate on
the basis of age unless there is a valid reason for doing so.
3. Collective Bargaining
The issue of varying pay rates for similar work has often been raised by unions, who may point to
job descriptions as a basis for standardizing these pay rates. Job descriptions have also been used by
employers to defend themselves against what they feel are unjustified union demands for uniform rates.
Good job descriptions can clarify which jobs are truly similar and which jobs warrant different pay levels because they require different levels of skill, knowledge, or responsibility, or because they contribute
to company goals in different ways.
4. Human Resources/Personnel Administration
There is probably no better tool when it comes to human resources planning than a well-written set
of job descriptions. Consider:
• Staff planning. Job descriptions help in pinpointing staffing requirement gaps as well as in
identifying overstaffing or superfluous positions. They also are valuable when decisions
regarding centralization or decentralization must be made.
• Employment. Accurate job descriptions are an invaluable source of information during the
entire employment process, from job posting, to recruiting and screening, to hiring and
placement. They can provide the foundation for job posting programs because almost all the
information required for a job posting can be garnered from the job description. They make
recruiting and screening more efficient, and they are vital in spelling out the job requirements to achieve a good match between the candidate’s qualifications and the job’s demands.
• Orientation. The importance of orientation and adjustment to a new job can’t be overstated.
A newly hired worker with an accurate, well-written job description to review and analyze
has received a good introduction to the job and is therefore able to understand more fully
what the company and the supervisor expect. All new employees should be instructed to
regard the job description as a framework or starting point, not as an upper limit to their own
abilities and interests.
•
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Training and development. Well-written job descriptions identify the education, experience,
and skills required for the position. They can therefore help employees pinpoint their own
weaknesses and help their supervisors tailor a training program accordingly. As the job and
the job description change, training and development must keep pace. In addition, the job
description provides a basis for teaching each employee as much as possible about his or her
job and its relationship to other jobs as well as to the company as a whole.
• Career planning. Accurate job descriptions are essential in developing upward mobility and
career development programs. A study of job descriptions can reveal the relationships among
certain jobs and the education, experience, or skills needed to advance from one job to another.
•
Other Uses of Job Descriptions
While most practical uses for job descriptions are included in the preceding four categories, a few
others deserve mention.
Organizational development and strategic planning. The process of preparing job descriptions
serves a useful purpose in itself, particularly if it starts at the upper levels of the organizational hierarchy. The preliminary drafts of managerial and executive descriptions can be used as a basis for productive group discussion, where managers and executives get together to talk about each other’s responsibilities. Such discussions often reveal areas where overlapping responsibilities or confusion about the
limits of responsibility are a problem, or where the organizational structure is faulty. When these problems have been solved, each manager can then repeat the process with his or her own subordinates in
reviewing and discussing their job descriptions. A side benefit of this approach is that managers and
supervisors are more likely to feel committed to supporting a system that they have helped to create.
They are also more likely to use job descriptions for some of the purposes outlined here, rather than
letting them collect dust in a drawer.
Grievance procedures. Good job descriptions can settle many grievances before they develop into
real problems.
Work flow analysis. Job descriptions that focus on the “who-what-when-where-and-why” aspect of
jobs provide an ideal basis for analyzing work flow.
Organizational studies. Studies on almost any aspect of organizational life—affirmative action, hiring policies and practices, promotion patterns, etc.—must begin with a close look at the appropriate
job descriptions.
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The Chicken or the Egg
There is a cyclical relationship between the content (or focus) of job descriptions and the
purpose for which they are used. In fact, where job descriptions have been in use for a
number of years it may be difficult to say which came first. For example, the firm that uses
its job descriptions primarily as a basis for wage and salary administration will naturally emphasize the nature of the work performed—relative levels of skills, experience, training, and responsibility. It may not be possible to determine whether job descriptions were
developed originally to serve wage and salary purposes or whether the way they were
written made them a natural resource for wage and salary decisions. The point is that the
style and content of a company’s job descriptions say a great deal about the company
itself—its management philosophy, its attitude toward change and growth, and its priority areas for personnel development.
Another factor that reflects the uses of job descriptions is the level of the jobs described.
Higher-level position descriptions usually focus on overall responsibilities, interrelationships, and lines of authority and are used primarily for organizational planning and
management development programs. Lower-level descriptions, on the other hand, usually cover day-to-day activities, making them more useful for orientation, training, and
wage and salary administration purposes. Here again, “the chicken or the egg” argument makes it difficult to say whether use follows content or vice versa.
It should be obvious that job descriptions with the broadest possible scope and content
will lend themselves to the widest possible range of uses. The aim of any new or revised
job description program should be to develop descriptions that lend themselves to a number of different uses rather than to design the descriptions specifically to meet one or two
pressing needs.
Your Job Description Program—Setting Goals
The first task in establishing your new, or revised, job description program is to set goals for the
program.
Note that there is a tendency among many employers to adopt job description programs without
determining ahead of time the purposes for which they will be written. The previous pages in this
chapter should help provide some insight into this area. In addition, you may want to ask:
1. Why do we need new job descriptions? What are the shortcomings of our existing job
descriptions? What events or conditions indicate that this is the time to get involved in a job
description program?
2. To what specific uses will job descriptions be put?
3. What are the projected costs of the program? Has a budget been drawn up and submitted to
top management for approval?
4. Who will be involved in the preparation of new job descriptions? Are these individuals willing
and able to put the required time into the project? Is top management committed to the idea?
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Managing the Process
The next step would be to determine who will manage and who will conduct the process. Generally,
the manager charged with overall responsibility for the program would be the person responsible for
the compensation department or division. In a large company, a task force might be set up, comprised
of the compensation director, job analysts, and middle-level to high-level representatives from the line
department. In a medium-sized company, the compensation manager might be charged with management responsibilities, with the frontline work completed by a job analyst. In a small company, the
entire job, from conceptualization through execution, might rest with the HR manager.
Or, at any of these companies, an outside consultant or firm might be contracted to set up or to
revise the job description program. How you handle the job depends on such factors as internal expertise, goals of the program, economics, etc.
Who Should Prepare Job Descriptions?
The next decision to make is who will actually prepare the job descriptions. Who will conduct the job
analyses and determine the job specifications? While it is the personnel department in most medium-sized
and larger firms that performs the job analysis function and coordinates the writing of job descriptions, the
entire process usually requires some input from other levels of the company hierarchy. Depending on the
size of the company, its organizational philosophy, and the level of the jobs to be described, the actual writing of the job description may be done by any one (or a combination) of the following:
Top management. This is most likely true in a small company, but it usually proves to be a timeconsuming and expensive approach. Job descriptions written by high-level company managers have a
tendency to be cloaked in secrecy and often are regarded with some suspicion by employees.
Job analyst or wage and salary analyst. The job analyst is generally the most likely choice. If the
resulting job descriptions are to be used for wage and salary administration purposes, a wage and salary
analyst might also be involved in the project. The big advantage here is consistency; the job analyst or
wage and salary analyst usually has some experience in this area and can produce descriptions in a uniform and objective manner. The disadvantage is that they seldom possess the intimate day-to-day
knowledge of the jobs involved, and this is information needed to describe them accurately.
Supervisor. The supervisor usually has intimate knowledge of the job, but may lack the requisite
objectivity. Lack of objectivity sometimes results in a tendency to inflate jobs for personal or political
reasons. This is a major drawback to supervisory involvement, although it would probably be a mistake
to leave supervisors completely out of the program. In addition, supervisors may lack appropriate skills,
such as the ability to write, that are required for the job.
Outside consultant. Some employers hire consultants who specialize in the writing of job descriptions. Objectivity and experience are the advantages here; the big drawback is cost. And there is always
the possibility that employees and supervisors alike will resent the intrusion of an outsider.
Employee. It should be recognized that the job incumbent is always in the best position to know his
or her job. There are, of course, problems with the incumbent’s participation in the job description program. Again, lack of objectivity and inflated outlook, as well as lack of writing and organizational skills
for the job, are issues. Some employers have tried to increase employee involvement while controlling it
as much as possible, by asking workers to fill out detailed questionnaires designed to elicit the information needed for the job description. Other firms have supervisors or personnel staffers interview the
employee before writing the final job description. This input can then be weighed against other sources
and the results used accordingly. The job analysis interview usually serves this purpose well.
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Collaboration and Compromise
Although the employee and the supervisor may help in providing information and in editing a job
description, neither of them alone (or even both working together) can be expected to prepare a
description properly. This is why most companies depend on a specialist—either a consultant or a
member of the personnel department to do the actual writing. This person also would develop the job
questionnaire for response by the incumbents (if such a survey is used), as well as a list of questions for
supervisory and incumbent interviews.
Whoever you decide to use, the person should be unbiased and “nonpolitical,” have the ability to
grasp quickly and describe clearly job requirements in a variety of work situations, be able to synthesize and generalize information, and have excellent writing, analytical, and organizational skills.
The Approval Process
No matter who does the actual writing of job descriptions, someone is going to have to be responsible
for approving the finished product. Approval procedures vary according to the amount of responsibility
given to supervisors and job analysts, the extent to which the company favors administrative controls,
the purposes for which the job descriptions will be used, and the terms of any relevant union contracts.
A basic approval process would be:
1. The job’s supervisor agrees that the job description is a complete, accurate, and clear representation of the job. (At professional, supervisory, and managerial levels, this approval level often
would rest first with the job incumbents.)
2. The upper-level manager agrees that functional relationships and responsibility delegations
have been represented correctly.
3. The wage administrator (or, in some cases, the job description or compensation committee)
approves of the format and content.
4. An HR professional with knowledge of the legal factors, or an employment law attorney, provides agreement that there are no legal “red flags” in the descriptions that would, even without intimate knowledge of the job, be a legal problem.
Depending on the ultimate use of the job description, the union also may be asked to participate in
the review and approval process.
The advantages of this type of approval process are obvious: Each individual reviews the completed
job description from his or her own unique perspective, evaluating it on the basis of what he or she
knows and understands best about the job in question. This is an excellent means of obtaining broadbased participation in the program while at the same time encouraging each group to stay within the
limits of its own expertise.
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Chapter 3: Basic Elements and Format
Basic Elements of a Good Job Description
Most job descriptions contain: (1) job identification, (2) job summary or purpose, (3) essential functions and additional responsibilities, (4) accountabilities, and (5) job specifications. This framework
may vary from employer to employer and from job to job. The basic elements will be discussed and the
overall format of the job description will be discussed further in this chapter.
One important thing to remember is that all job descriptions within an organization should follow
the same format. Those individuals responsible for writing them should receive similar instructions
and follow the same guidelines so that valid comparisons can be made among jobs.
Job Identification
This is the part that almost everyone takes for granted. It usually looks something like this:
_______________________
Job Title
_______________________
Job Code
_______________________
FLSA Status
_______________________
Plant/Division
_______________________
Immediate Supervisor (Title)
_______________________
Department
_______________________
Written by
_______________________
Date
_______________________
Approved by
_______________________
Date
This information may be arranged in a number of ways. For example, a smaller company may simply ask for the job title, department, supervisor’s title, and the date. One thing to remember in designing the job identification section is that you want to include only items of information that are relatively permanent. For example, if you include the name of the incumbent’s supervisor and a month
later the supervisor is promoted or leaves the company, all the descriptions with that name will have to
be pulled from the files and revised.
What’s in a Title?
The most important element in this section is the job title. A job title that identifies the job accurately and precisely is valuable: (1) to the jobholder, or to someone new coming into the job; (2) for
purposes of establishing the relationships among jobs; and (3) for purposes of comparing the job with
others in the organization. A good job title:
• Describes the job in a word or two.
• Indicates the job’s specific field of activity, its relationship to that field, and its professional
standing.
• Provides some form of prestige to the jobholder.
• Accurately reflects the job’s content, purpose, and scope of responsibility. (For example, if you
have about 20 employees in your organization and one person is responsible for office and
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clerical support functions, it’s more appropriate to title that job “Office Manager” than it is to
term it “Operations Director.”
• Should be as brief as possible, and if it consists of more than one word it should be in natural
order (for example, “Computer Operator,” not “Operator, Computer”) so that it will be easy to
use in written or spoken form.
• Should indicate skill level or supervisory level, where valid distinctions exist.
• Should be similar or identical to one of the titles the job has had in the past, so employees
and supervisors won’t have to learn a completely new vocabulary every time job descriptions
are written or revised.
In the intermediate stages of preparing job descriptions, “working titles” may be used to identify
jobs. You may in fact have several titles for some job descriptions. Choosing a final title is important
because it is the fast step in defining the job and establishing a rank order with other jobs. It will be
used for department, division, or functional groups, as a guide for promotions and transfers, and as an
indicator of training and development requirements. Job titles are especially important when it comes to
comparing the job with similar jobs in other organizations. Such comparisons are critical when developing a wage and salary structure, conducting wage and salary surveys, and recruiting new employees.
Job titles should set each job apart from the other jobs. For example, the title “machine operator”
indicates in a general way what the job is. Differences in degrees of skill required should be clarified by
adding prefixes indicating the purpose for which the machine is used or the kind of machine operation:
for example, “pneumatic drilling machine operator.” Another point to remember is that job titles
should be consistent within the company. If “junior,” “intermediate,” and “senior” designations are
made in one department, they should be used to make similar distinctions in other departments.
Job Code
Another major item in the job identification section is the job code. This refers to the employer’s
unique combination of numbers or letters that the company has assigned to the job. Many firms have
either used or adapted the six-digit numerical code used by the Department of Labor in its Dictionary
of Occupational Titles (DOT), now known as the Occupational Information Network (O*NET). (See
discussion of the DOT and O*NET following). Other companies set up their own set of numbers
and letters to denote various categories for internal HR use. For example, the first letter of the code
might be 1 for exempt or 2 for nonexempt; the second might be 3 or 4 for supervisory or nonsupervisory; the third 1 through 9 for job categories under the Equal Employment Opportunity Commision
(used in form EEO-1); the fourth might denote which, if any, bonus compensation program the job is
part of, etc.
Other Identification
The next item, FLSA status, simply refers to the exempt or nonexempt status of the job under the Fair
Labor Standards Act. The other two items are for the names and signatures of the author of the job
description and the final approval of the job description. (Approvals are discussed in more detail elsewhere
in this book; for working purposes, an approval sheet should be attached to each job description draft.)
Using the O*NET
The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) database takes the place of the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT) as a primary source of occupational information. The O*NET database is a
comprehensive resource for obtaining job descriptions for thousands of jobs. The database was devel-
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oped to help employers properly categorize positions within their organization. The O*NET project is
administered and sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training
Administration (ETA). Access O*NET through the Internet at http://online.onetcenter.org/.
O*NET Online is an application that was created to provide broad access to the O*NET database of
occupational information. The O*NET database includes information on skills, abilities, knowledge,
work activities, and interests associated with occupations. This information can be used to facilitate
building position descriptions and aligning training with current workplace needs. Information in
O*NET is available for over 950 occupations. Each occupational title and code is based on the most
current version of the Standard Occupational Classification system.
The online O*NET service helps employers browse job descriptions by key word, skills sets or by
other classification systems (e.g., old DOT Code, Standard Occupational Classifications (SOC) and
Registered Apprenticeship Information System (RAIS)).
The O*NET system is organized into six major domains, listed below. The structure enables the
user to focus on areas of information that specify the key attributes and characteristics of workers and
occupations. For more information, go to http://online.onetcenter.org/help/content_model/.
Briefly, the six major domains in O*NET are:
Worker Characteristics—Defined as enduring qualities of individuals that may influence how they
approach tasks and how they acquire work-relevant knowledge and skills.
Worker Requirements—Commonly known as skills. Skills may be further divided into basic skills
(skills, such as reading, that facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge) and cross-functional skills
(skills, such as problem solving, that extend across several domains of activities).
Experience Requirements—Requirements related to experiential backgrounds of workers in an
occupation or group of occupations. Includes certification, licensure, and training data.
Occupational Characteristics—Variables that define and describe the general characteristics of
occupations that may influence occupational requirements.
Occupational Requirements—Defined as a comprehensive set of variables or detailed elements that
describe what various occupations require. Includes generalized work activities (GWAs) or dimensions
that summarize the kinds of tasks that may be performed within multiple occupations.
Occupation-Specific Information—Comprehensive set of elements that apply to a single occupation or a narrowly defined job family. This domain parallels other domains in that it includes requirements such as knowledge, skills, tasks, and machines, tools, and equipment. Similarly, labor market
information defined by industry or occupation is also provided here.
O*NET Reports. When using the O*NET service, employers can generate three different types of
reports: Summary, Details, and Custom.
• The Summary Report provides an overview or snapshot of the selected occupation, focusing
on the most important descriptors.
• The Details Report displays all descriptors for the selected occupation, and, where available,
a rating of how important each descriptor is to the occupation.
• The Custom Report allows the employer to select from 12 different factors to generate
tailored reports about occupations. In the case of selected O*NET descriptors (e.g., Skills,
Work Values, etc.), the user can further control the report contents by selecting the scale to
display and minimum cutoff scores.
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It is suggested that you use the O*NET primarily as a reference source: to aid you in assigning
specific, accurate job titles; to help you set up a useful job code system; and to provide you with a
precise, practical vocabulary for describing the jobs in your firm.
The only time when the use of “canned” job descriptions like those in the O*NET might be justified is when a new company is created and a workforce must be recruited to begin production as soon
as possible. Under these circumstances, there is obviously no opportunity to perform job analysis and
develop job descriptions. The best approach here would be to use the job descriptions from the
O*NET that most nearly describe the jobs to be performed. Recruitment can then proceed and the
jobs can be ranked for wage and salary purposes. After the “shakedown period” is completed, a formal
job analysis and job description program can be implemented.
Job Summary
The second section of a good job description format is known as the “job summary.” It is a brief narrative picture of the job that highlights its general characteristics. In some ways, the job summary may
be compared to the lead statement in a O*NET job description. It is especially valuable to the reader
who wants to obtain a quick overview of the job.
The job summary should provide enough information to differentiate the major functions and activities of the job from those of other jobs. Since brevity, accuracy, and objectivity are primary goals in
writing the job summary, it is wise to follow these three basic rules:
1. Start the job summary with an action word (verb).
2. Explain the job’s requirements; in other words, tell what is done.
3. If necessary, explain the why or how of the job—its purpose. If it is necessary or helpful to do
so, use an example.
The choice of words is a crucial factor here. Although the same rules apply here as elsewhere in the
job description, a few of them are worth repeating. The meanings you establish for certain words here in
the job summary should be applied consistently throughout all your job descriptions. You should also
try to avoid ambiguous words, or those that leave themselves open to a number of possible interpretations. And, finally, stick to simple terms and phrases with which everyone in the company is familiar.
It is often in the job summary section that the phrase “Performs other assignments (or duties) as
required” is included. We’ve already discussed the fact that a job description should not limit or
restrict the worker, and that it is not meant to be an all-inclusive document. But it is difficult for
some employees to understand why this phrase is so important. They may regard it as a convenient
excuse for the supervisor who wants them to take on additional duties. One way of overcoming such
objections is to ask the employee, “If you saw a fire starting in the supply cabinet, would you try to
put it out?” This conveys the message that certain things that must be done are not always included
in the job description.
Essential Functions
This section is important. Essential functions are common to all job description formats and represent a summary of those functions associated with the job. The essential functions should represent
those duties that must be performed in the job. Often the essential duties section will be followed by a
section on “Additional Responsibilities,” which are nonessential or marginal job functions.
When trying to identify the essential job duties and responsibilities, it is vital to focus on the function of the job, rather than the means used to achieve that function. If you can leave the process of
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achieving the end result open, you will be better prepared to meet the requirement to provide reasonable accommodation to otherwise qualified job applicants and employees.
For example, it might be an essential function for a loading dock job to load four tractor trailers in
two-and-a-half hours. This doesn’t necessarily mean that the load must be manually accomplished. Use
of hand trucks and forklift trucks might be appropriate, allowing persons who cannot lift heavy loads
for long periods of time to be able to do the job.
Here are some of the items that might be included in this section:
• Regular day-to-day functions.
• Duties that occur at irregular intervals but that are of a recurring and essential nature.
• Quantity and quality of supervision received.
• Quantity and quality of supervision exercised.
• Amount of human interaction required (in teaching, counseling, coaching, training, etc.);
extent of contacts made both inside and outside company.
• Responsibility for maintaining records.
• Requirements for following instructions or orders.
• Responsibility for company funds.
• Degree of accountability for human and material resources.
• Office machines or equipment that must be operated.
• Physical demands.
• Emotional demands.
• Other unusual demands.
It is this section of the job description that most nearly corresponds to the standardized descriptions
of the O*NET. You may want to refer to it as an example of the types of duties and responsibilities
that should be included here. Of course you will want to include many more of the details that characterize this particular job in your particular type of company.
In developing this section, don’t fall into the trap of trying to do a task analysis or breakdown. This
section should focus on the required outcome, the requisite product, etc., of the job tasks, rather than
on the tasks themselves. Don’t attempt to set down every little detail of the job, unless it is an essential
function of the position.
You need only whatever information is necessary to define the level of skill, responsibility, and
knowledge required by the job. While writing style will be covered in detail later, here are a few
important points to remember when preparing the job duties section:
• Use brief, to-the-point sentences or phrases.
• Begin each sentence or phrase with an action verb.
• Use the present tense.
• Avoid verbs that do not specifically indicate the action involved. For example, “handles mail”
might be better expressed as “sorts mail” or “distributes mail.”
Because of legal considerations, you may want to enlist additional resources to help you define essential job functions to make sure that you are in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act.
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These resources include rehabilitation engineers, occupational health nurses, safety managers, job analysts, employment law attorneys, government agencies, and other consultants.
The 80/20 Rule
Probably the most difficult aspect of preparing job descriptions is deciding what functions, duties,
and responsibilities to include. It may be hard for someone not intimately familiar with the job to
determine which job activities are truly “essential” and which are marginal or incidental.
One rule some employers have followed states that 80 percent of what comes out of a job is the
result of 20 percent of what goes into it. In other words, only about 20 percent of what the employee
actually does is responsible for achieving 80 percent of the job’s results or objectives. The significant
point to remember here is that it is this 20 percent of the job’s content that you are trying to capture
in the essential functions of the job description.
There is no substitute for experience when it comes to writing job descriptions. All the advice, rules,
guidelines, and suggested formats presented thus far will be meaningless until they are applied. And
because jobs themselves vary so widely, it is impossible to provide a step-by-step guide to writing the
“ideal” job description. The best approach is to reread and assimilate what has been said up to this
point and then tackle the first job, preferably a low-level one that is limited in scope and that lends
itself to fairly concrete description.
Accountabilities
Once job objectives have been made clear and responsibilities and duties have been defined, the
incumbent is accountable to his or her superior for success or failure in accomplishing these objectives.
The section on “accountabilities” not only describes the end results achieved when job duties are performed satisfactorily, but also mentions specific standards for measuring performance. It is therefore
particularly useful when preparing for performance appraisal.
The concept of accountability is easily misunderstood. It is important for the manager or supervisor
to realize that when authority is delegated, the person to whom it has been delegated is held accountable. The subordinate must consciously accept the authority and exercise it in making decisions and
seeing that they are carried out. In lower-level jobs, this section states to whom the incumbent is
accountable in carrying out the duties and responsibilities that have already been outlined.
In a sense, job descriptions form the basis for the company’s disciplinary system. When an employee
fails to fulfill the responsibilities or to meet the standards specified in the “accountabilities” section of the
job description, he or she can be disciplined in a number of ways, including termination of employment.
Job Specifications
Job specifications describe the specific job requirements in terms of “compensable factors.” This factor-by-factor breakdown of the job also gives enough supporting data to select a particular level or
degree for each factor. During job evaluation, a point score is assigned and a wage rate or salary level is
set accordingly.
Because the job specification is used chiefly as the basis for rating jobs in the job evaluation process, the
factors selected depend upon what the company has designated as “compensable factors” for all the jobs in
the organization. Most fall under the four broad headings of skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions. Skill, for example, might be broken down into the education, experience, initiative, and ingenuity required for the job. Effort might be subdivided into the physical and mental effort required.
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But what has happened in many firms is that job specifications have become confused with “person
(or employee) specifications”—that is, the minimum qualifications that an employee must possess to
be considered for hire. The distinction between job specifications, which are used for wage and salary
purposes, and person specifications, which are used for employment purposes, is an important one. The
sample job and person specifications should help clear up any confusion.
Factor
Job Specification
Person Specification
Education
Requires high school
or equivalent
Must be a high school
graduate
Physical Demands*
Requires frequent lifting
of weights 100 Ib or more
Must be strong and
weigh at least 150 lb.
Mental Demands*
Requires keen vision
Requires mental alertness
Must have 20/20 vision
Must have quick reflexes
Working Conditions
Exposed to all kinds of
weather
Must be in good physical
condition
Some job descriptions also include a section dealing specifically with “relationships.” This describes
the major relationships between this job and other jobs or positions either within or outside the company. It includes subordinate positions directly supervised by the job being described, as well as contacts with outside vendors, government agencies, etc.
It should be remembered that the basic format outlined in the preceding pages is by no means the
best or the most widely used. It is, however, a comprehensive approach that will ensure widespread
application. You may wish to incorporate some of these six basic elements in your own job description format while omitting others. Just make sure that you aren’t leaving out a section that might
serve a vital purpose.
Job Description Format
Job description formats vary widely, and there is no single “right” format to follow. Length can
range from a half page to two or three full pages, depending on the nature of the job and the company’s
program goals. Whatever the length, the finished job description should be detailed enough to give a
clear picture of the job to someone not familiar with it. The written information should make it possible for the reader to compare the demands and contributions of this job with those of other jobs in the
company. It must tell why and how job duties are performed, and it must indicate the job’s scope,
complexity, authority, and accountability.
It is just as important to understand what doesn’t belong in a job description as it is to know what
information does belong there. Above all, the job description should state the functions as they’re
observed and the situation as it exists (assuming the incumbent is performing the job satisfactorily),
not the way the job might or should be done theoretically. In other words, opinions or recommendations concerning work methods or procedures have no place in the job description, even though they
may be valuable for improving efficiency and productivity.
*Note: Factors such as physical and mental demands must, for purposes of the Americans With Disabilities
Act (ADA), be carefully crafted to address only the essential functions of the job. See Chapter 10 for details.
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Another important point to remember is that the job description shouldn’t restrict the right of
supervisors to assign additional duties not specified in the job description. However, it is important to
realize that because of legal considerations, these extra duties and responsibilities should not be considered “essential functions” of the job. To avoid any possible misunderstandings in the future, many companies have a statement similar to the following at the bottom of their job description forms:
“This job description in no way states or implies that these are the only duties to be performed by
this employee. He or she will be required to follow any other instructions and to perform any other
duties requested by his or her supervisor.”
The following do not belong in a job description:
• Negative statements, such as “does not answer phone while supervisor is out of the office.”
• Abbreviations, even if their meanings are well known to the jobholder and the supervisor.
Such words should be spelled out, so that anyone who might refer to the job description in
the future will know what it is saying.
• Duties that are to be performed in the future, except in the case of a new job that is just
being established. The general rule is that a function must have been performed for a period
of three months before being included in a job description, in order for the worker to be
familiar enough with it to provide the job analyst with the necessary information.
• Occasional or temporary duties. If it is necessary for some reason to do so, there should be a
notation in the margin opposite these duties stating that they are temporary or occasional. It
should be clear whether these are essential and fundamental to the job, or whether they are
considered marginal functions.
• Generalized statements. When such statements are unavoidable, they should be followed by
an example to clarify them. It is usually best to use an example given by the jobholder.
Length of Job Descriptions
While no set rule governs the length of job descriptions, brevity and conciseness should be your goal
at all times. Most companies try to keep their job descriptions to one page or less. If a job specification
section is included, it is usually put on a separate sheet.
Beginning each sentence or phrase in the “Essential Functions” section with an active verb tends to
produce a very concise style. Each item in this section (which is usually the longest part of the job
description) should be checked and double-checked to make sure that its inclusion is absolutely necessary. Job requirements or duties that are inherent in the position should never be omitted merely for
the sake of brevity, but at the same time it is not always necessary to describe every minute detail of
the method employed in performing a particular duty.
In some cases, employees have a standardized shortened terminology for a series of operations. The
term “make-ready” is a good example. In the printing trade, everyone knows and accepts this concept,
and it is therefore not necessary to use a great many words to explain the details of make-ready jobs.
The same would hold true for an aircraft mechanic who must perform an aircraft engine “run-up.” This
is always performed in the same manner, using a checklist to make sure that the engine is performing
within given parameters. It would take many words to describe how the run-up is actually performed.
But since aircraft mechanics, their supervisors, and anyone else who might have to use the job description knows what the words “run-up” refer to, it is usually safe to omit further explanations.
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An exception to this rule would be when the job being described is a newly created position within
the company. If this is the case, there may not be a standardized shortened terminology for the operations performed, or employees may not yet be familiar with such terminology. For example, if printing
were a new occupation in the company, the words “make-ready” would have little or no meaning in
terms of explaining the difficulty of the work. Under these circumstances it would be better to write
out the relevant details.
Supervisors and employees often complain that job descriptions are not complete enough. Their complaints may or may not be justified, but in any case they deserve a hearing. Employees may feel that the
job description does not adequately reflect the scope and difficulty of the job, and supervisors may worry
that it doesn’t present a complete picture of what the employee is expected to do. Job analysts or personnel staff members responsible for writing the job description should give their suggestions careful consideration, and either incorporate the proposed additions when writing the description or provide the
employee or supervisor with an explanation of why the additional information is not appropriate or necessary. Many proposed additions will consist of incidental tasks or elaboration of stated duties and
responsibilities. Employees and supervisors should understand why the additional information is not
required. Without their understanding and cooperation, the entire program can be undermined.
Designing or Choosing Your Own Format
The variety of available formats for job descriptions is almost endless, and you may decide to ignore
them all and design your own. Some companies have different formats for different level jobs. There is
nothing wrong with using more than one format as long as it doesn’t make it more difficult to rank or
compare similar jobs. In other words, it would certainly be justifiable to use a different format for
hourly and salaried employees, but there would be no point in using a particular format for some
hourly employees and not others.
Some sample formats are presented in the following pages. You will notice that not all of them
include all five elements discussed earlier in this section. Information can be added to or subtracted
from these basic formats, depending on your company’s needs. Use them as a reference source in
designing a “custom-made” job description format or use them exactly as they appear here. Either way
you will be assured of getting off to a good start.
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Sample Job Description Format
Job Title:________________________________ Date:____________________
Dept. or Division: _______________________ Status: __________________
Reports to: _____________________________ Job Code: ______________
Written by: ______________________________________________________
Approved by: ____________________________________________________
Job Summary:
Describes the general purpose of the job; why the job exists.
Job Duties:
Summary of typical duties and responsibilities of the job; may be divided
into “essential functions” and “additional responsibilities.”
Accountabilities:
Lists the end results that the job should achieve.
Job Specifications:
Lists the job requirements that must be met to perform the job.
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Sample Job Description Format
Job Title: _________________________________________________________
Department: ______________________________________________________
Accountability:
Title of job to which this jobholder must report.
Job Summary:
Short statement outlining the purpose of the job.
Duties and Responsibilities:
Series of statements, each outlining a particular duty, task, or responsibility and identifying “what,” “why,” and “how.” All statements should be
related to the work to be performed, should identify only the most significant or essential duties, and should convey some idea of the frequency of
occurrence.
Interaction:
When relevant to the job, a statement describing the relationships and
degree of contact with internal and external individuals or groups.
Prepared by: __________________________ Date: ___________________
Approved by:__________________________ Date: ___________________
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Sample Job Description Format
Job Title: ______________________ Job Grade: _______________________
Division: ______________________ Department: _____________________
Job Code: _____________________ Date: _____________________________
Job Summary:
Short statement of the job’s purpose.
Work Performed:
Numerical listing of specific duties and responsibilities; may be divided into
“essential functions” and “additional responsibilities.”
Qualifications:
Educational requirements, certification or licensing standards, experience and
basic knowledge requirements.
Written by: __________________ Approved by: ___________________
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Sample Job Description Format
Job Title: _______________________ Date: ____________________________
Department: ___________________ Incumbent: ______________________
Job Code: ______________________ Job Grade: ______________________
FLSA Designation: _____________ Supervisor: ______________________
Basic Responsibilities:
Summary of the basic responsibilities or goals of the job, including its scope or
limitations.
Specific Duties:
Listing of the specific duties or performances necessary to carry out the abovementioned responsibilities.
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Writing ‘Behavioral’ Job Descriptions
Behavioral job descriptions are an expression of what the individual does in specific and measurable
terms, with job objectives stated in the form of behaviors the individual is expected to display. This
approach is designed to eliminate the ambiguity that characterizes most traditional job descriptions
and renders them useless for many of the purposes we have already discussed.
The advantage of stating job objectives in precise, behavioral terms is that it makes the incumbent’s
role or function absolutely clear. An employee’s failure to perform well can often be traced to a disagreement between supervisor and subordinate over what is to be done and what constitutes satisfactory performance. By stating job objectives in specific, quantifiable terms, the job description establishes
goals and guides the employees in their efforts to obtain them. These goals also serve as convenient
“benchmarks” against which employees can evaluate their own performance. They know exactly what
constitutes satisfactory performance and can therefore judge how well they are performing at all times.
Needless to say, behavioral job descriptions are an invaluable aid to the company’s regular performance
appraisal program.
A closely related approach involves the writing of results-oriented job descriptions. By taking each
task or duty and stating it in terms of conditions, standards, skills, and qualifications, ambiguity is
eliminated entirely. This information may be arranged in a number of ways, but the same basic
approach is taken for each major function. The advantages here include giving employees a clearer idea
of the company’s performance expectations and of the minimum qualifications for promotion or reassignment. The disadvantages include the possibility that changes in conditions and standards will
necessitate constant rewriting to assure that the job description always is clear about the functions considered essential to the position.
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Chapter 4: Gathering Information: Job Analysis,
Job Specifications
There are a number of questions you should ask yourself before designing the final format. The questionnaire on the following page will help you decide what kinds of information to include. Then you can
take this information and organize it in a logical and useful manner. Some companies organize job duties
chronologically; others do it according to the work cycle. Information about noncyclical jobs (like office
or administrative work) can be organized in terms of subject matter, level of difficulty, or in some other
logical arrangement, with regular and recurring duties listed ahead of occasional or sporadic tasks.
Job Analysis
Job analysis is the process of determining what is performed and accomplished in the job. It is the
process of gathering data from which to construct one of the major sections of the job descriptions—
the essential functions. It has many other uses as well, but for the purposes of this book, it is intended
to be used as data gathering for the final product, the job description.
As discussed briefly in the preceding chapter, there are a variety of methods to gather data for job
analyses. The most thorough and accurate job analyses rely on multiple methods. Some of these
techniques are:
1. Direct observation of the job being performed
2. Interviews with the job incumbents and with their supervisors
3. Work logs kept by the job incumbents
4. Structured and unstructured job questionnaires filled out by the incumbents and/or their
supervisors
5. Conferences/oral interviews with incumbents and/or their supervisors.
The ADA
It is important that this chapter be read in conjunction with Chapter 10, which discusses the ramifications of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on the development and use of job descriptions.
Sample Job Analysis Questionnaire
We are providing you with a sample questionnaire. It can be modified to fit your own needs. You
may want to combine it with information from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) or
with other questions specific to your industry.
The questionnaire may be filled out by the job incumbents, as well as by their supervisors, for each
particular job. Then, the job analyst or other human resources professional could use the completed
surveys for further discussion and refinement of the job duties and functions in question.
Or, the job analyst could interview the incumbents and supervisors in person, using the questionnaire as the focal point of the interview.
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Preliminary Job Description Questionnaire
Instructions: Distribute copies of this questionnaire to supervisors, personnel staff members, job
analysts, and others who may be involved in writing job descriptions. Ask them to record their answers
to these questions in writing. This information will be used later in designing a job description format
or in filling out the existing job description form. For many questions, you might want to leave a full
page for an answer.
1. What is the job title? ___________________________________________________________
2. In what department is the job located? ______________________________________________
3. What is the title of the supervisor or manager to whom the jobholder must report? _____________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Does the jobholder supervise other employees? If so, give their job titles and a brief description of
their responsibilities:
Position Supervised
___________________________
Responsibilities
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
5. What essential function duties does the jobholder perform regularly? List them in order of importance:
Duty
Percentage of Time Devoted to This Duty
1. ______________________
___________________________________________
2. ______________________
___________________________________________
3. ______________________
___________________________________________
4. ______________________
___________________________________________
5. ______________________
___________________________________________
6. ______________________
___________________________________________
7. ______________________
___________________________________________
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6. Does the jobholder perform other duties periodically? Infrequently? If so, please list, indicating
frequency.
7. How often is jobholder given:
a. Supervision
b. Instructions
c. Discretionary authority
d. Authority over others
Constantly
Frequently
Infrequently
Seldom
8. What are the working conditions? List such items as noise, heat, outside work, and exposure to
bad weather.
9. How much authority does the jobholder have in such matters as training or guiding other people?
10. How much education, experience, and skill are required for satisfactory job performance?
11. At what stage is the jobholder’s work reviewed by the supervisor?
12. What machines or equipment is the jobholder responsible for operating?
13. If the jobholder made a serious mistake or error in performing the required duties, what would
be the cost to management?
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Job Specifications
Job specifications organize information gathered in the course of job analysis and make possible a
meaningful comparison of jobs for evaluation purposes. The exact contents of the job specification
sheet, therefore, are determined by the method of job evaluation used by the company.
Here are some typical questions the job specification sheet should answer. Remember, job specifications should describe job requirements, not human characteristics or qualifications.
• Experience. How long should the incumbent have worked in this job or in closely related
jobs? Within or outside the organization?
• Education. What does the job require in terms of formal schooling, training, or knowledge of
a specialized field?
• Responsibility. Is the employee responsible for the safety of other employees? for loss or damage to tools, materials, equipment, etc.?
• Complexity of duties. Does the job require the incumbent to show judgment and initiative?
to make independent decisions?
• Supervision received. How closely does the incumbent’s immediate supervisor check his or
her work? outline specific methods or work procedures?
• Supervision exercised. How many people does the incumbent supervise directly? indirectly?
What responsibility does he or she have for controlling policy decisions, costs, or work methods?
• Consequences of error. If the incumbent made an error, what dollar loss would be likely to
result? How often does the possibility of loss or error occur?
• Working conditions. Is there anything in the work environment that is unusually hazardous or
uncomfortable? For what percentage of the time is the incumbent exposed to such conditions?
• Mental, physical, and visual demands. What degree of concentration is required? Are there
special physical demands? Is there likely to be eye strain?
• Confidential data. To what extent is the incumbent responsible for confidential information?
What would be the consequences of unwarranted disclosure? To what extent are integrity and
discretion important?
You will notice that there is some overlap here with the “Essential Functions” section of the job
description. However, in the job specification sheet you are dealing with the requirements of the job
and the factors on which it will be evaluated, whereas in the job description itself you are dealing with
what the jobholder does. The same type of information, in other words, may be presented from two
very different perspectives.
Wherever possible, job specifications seek to describe measurable qualifications; for example, education and experience in terms of years. Specifications may suggest the relative importance of solving
arithmetic problems, understanding mechanical devices, or making decisions rapidly.
The information is usually arranged in three or four vertical columns: the job evaluation factors
(education, experience, physical demands, etc.); the job facts pertinent to each of these factors; the
level or degree to which each factor is represented in the job; and the number of points each degree
is worth. At the bottom there is usually a place for tallying the job points and for including any
additional remarks.
These are the most important factors both for job performance, and to assure that members of protected groups are not kept out of jobs because of bogus job specifications.
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Accountability for Job Specifications
There are two common approaches to the preparation of job specifications. One is to have the job analyst record the facts pertinent to the job and then let the job evaluation committee assign degree numbers and point ratings. The other is to have the same person who performed the job analysis prepare the
specification, including the point ratings. This second approach regards job specifications as an end
product of job analysis and job description, rather than as a preliminary step in job evaluation. In some
ways it is preferable, because having conducted the job study and having prepared the job description
places the analyst in a position to use this knowledge fairly and objectively in rating the job.
Writing and Approval Process
No matter what approach you use, job specifications should be reviewed and approved by someone
other than the person who prepared them. These are the basic writing, review, and approval steps:
1. Write a rough draft of the job specification.
2. Review it with the supervisor of the job, the union representative (if applicable), the job evaluation committee, and possibly the employee. As with the final job description, this depends
on the level of the job and company policy.
3. Review the changes that have been suggested; incorporate those that all concerned parties
have agreed upon.
4. Edit the job description and the job specifications together to make sure they are consistent
with each other.
5. Prepare a final draft, with enough copies for filing, reference, and use in job evaluation.
Problems with Job Specifications
Specifications are usually determined by interviews with employees and supervisors, with questions
geared toward the job experience. For example, if experience has proved that the ability to keyboard,
using a specific word processing program, is essential to success in a certain secretarial job, these
requirements will be written into the job specifications.
The underlying assumption is that the items listed in the job specifications are those required for
full performance of the job duties. A number of state and federal government agencies (particularly the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) have concluded in a number of instances that job specifications are either unrealistically high or simply not relevant to the job. When too stringent, overqualified but underutilized persons are hired for the job, and people who could perform the work effectively
are not hired. This is a particularly sensitive issue for minority groups, women, and persons who are
disabled. Making job specifications conform with the job description will certainly solve some of these
concerns before they become discrimination complaints.
For example, if the jobholder is not required to perform any duty requiring more than a high school
education, the job specification would call for a high school degree or equivalent diploma. Requiring a
college degree would not only be inappropriate for the job, it might also get you into trouble.
You should get in the habit of examining your job specifications periodically. Ask yourself the following questions:
• Are people being hired who are overqualified or who have the wrong skills for the job?
• Are these individuals becoming dissatisfied with their jobs?
• Are current job specifications actually being used (in hiring, job evaluation, performance
appraisal, etc.)?
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•
Are current specifications keeping out individuals who might make a valuable contribution to
the organization?
• When was the last time that job specifications were reviewed?
Invalid job specifications are of no use to anyone, and may end up harming the individual and the
organization. Improper placement, high training costs, excess waste of both human and material
resources, dissatisfaction, low productivity, high turnover, and unnecessary legal expenses are just a few
of the possible consequences of poor job specifications. The sample job specifications that follow will
give you an idea of what you should be aiming for. While these samples are quite detailed, keep in
mind that the job specifications for many lower-level jobs can be summed up in a sentence or two.
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Sample Job Specification for Ambulance Driver
Compensable Factors
No. of Points
Job Requirements
Education
Experience
Working Conditions
40
24
20
Physical Demands
18
Mental/VisualDemands
28
Safety of Others
18
Initiative and Ingenuity
34
High school diploma (or equivalent) preferred.
One-year driving experience.
Part of day spent in comfortable office environment; some time spent in garage area. Must
occasionally drive through heavy traffic and/or
hazardous weather.
Must be able to lift and/or carry patients for
short distances, push and pull stretcher. Eyehand-foot coordination essential.
Constant alertness required while driving and
attending to patients.
Must often transport seriously ill or injured
patients and administer first aid.
May be required to improvise first-aid measures. Sympathy and tact required in dealing
with patients and their families.
Sample Job Specification for Machine Operator
Factors
No. of Points
Job Requirements
Education
7
Knowledge
8
Supervision
2
Working Conditions
6
Responsibility for
Equipment and Materials
4
Hazards
4
Must have sufficient education to read blueprints, perform simple calculations, and keep
records.
Expert knowledge of complex tools, work
methods, and a wide variety of common metals
required.
General supervision; detailed instructions
available upon request.
Possible discomfort from smoke and small
chips flying through the air.
Errors due to setup and running jobs usually
less than $50 per week; possible damage of
$100 or more to equipment.
Minor scratches and bruises; possible skin
disturbances from oil.
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Sample Job Specification for an
Economic Research Assistant (Bank)
Job Requirements:
Education
Experience
Initiative
Responsibility
Contacts
Supervision
Mental Demands
Physical Demands
Working Conditions
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College degree (or equivalent) in economics or business
administration; broad knowledge of economics and business theory and an understanding of statistical methods
and their application and analysis.
Six months to one year of practical experience in statistical
methods and analysis.
Job requires judgment and initiative in determining
source of information and judgment in selection of significant data and application of statistical formulas to develop
informative results.
Considerable care is required, as most errors are difficult to
locate. Reports and publications are distributed beyond the
bank and relied upon as being correct and indicative of
trends. Work must be prepared promptly and deadlines met.
Routine staff contacts plus frequent public contacts by
phone and occasionally in person when requesting or furnishing information. Courtesy and tact are required.
Does not supervise anyone; works under general supervision.
Concentration required for the selection, development, and
analysis of economic information.
Job requires frequent use of calculator and adding
machine. Also requires frequent trips to public library and
other outside offices for information.
Typical office conditions.
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Chapter 5: Job Descriptions and the
Americans with Disabilities Act
According to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), employers may not refuse to hire an otherwise qualified individual with a disability as long as that individual can perform the “essential functions” of the job “with or without reasonable accommodation.” “Essential functions” are those duties
that an individual must be able to perform—i.e., fundamental rather than marginal duties—and this is
where job descriptions come in.
In determining whether a function is essential, one of the things that the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) will look at is a written job description prepared by the employer
before advertising the position or interviewing applicants. Job descriptions are not required under the
ADA, and some employers may choose not to use them. But for most employers, detailing the essential
functions in a job description will help ensure that applicants with disabilities are not rejected because
they cannot perform marginal job duties.
Because of the importance of the ADA, we’ll discuss some of these issues in more detail.
What is a Disability?
The EEOC defines disability broadly, as:
1. A physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of life’s major activities
when using mitigating measure such as eyeglasses, pills for hypertension, or a hearing aid;
2. A record of having such an impairment; or
3. Being regarded as having such an impairment.
‘Otherwise Qualified’
A person with a disability is “otherwise qualified” for the job in question if he or she:
1. Has the prerequisite education, skills, experience, licenses, and other background needed for
the job; and
2. Can perform the essential functions of the job with or without reasonable accommodation.
Essential Functions
Throughout this book, we discuss the use of essential functions in job descriptions. These functions
are those that a person must be able to perform in the job, either unaided, or with the assistance of a
“reasonable accommodation.”
How do you know if a particular function qualifies as “essential”? The first question you should ask
yourself is whether the employee is actually required to perform that function. For example, you might
say that typing is an essential function for a receptionist, but if you’ve never required any employee in
this position to type, it would obviously not be considered an essential function.
If individuals who hold the position are actually required to perform the function, then the function
may be considered essential. To find out, you should answer the following questions:
1. Does the position exist to perform this function? For example, when a person is hired to
proofread documents, the ability to proofread is an essential function because this is the only
reason for the existence of the job.
2. Is the function highly specialized? In certain professions and highly skilled positions, you
may hire a worker because of his or her special ability or expertise in performing a particular
function. The performance of that specialized task would be an essential function.
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3. Are there a limited number of employees among whom the function can be distributed? If
you employ relatively few employees, you may require each of them to perform a variety of
functions, and the options for reorganizing the work may be more limited. In this type of situation, functions may become essential that might not be considered essential if there were a
larger staff. In a larger group, where the work can be spread out more, the same functions
may not be considered essential because there’s always someone who can step in and perform
the functions when necessary.
4. Would the job be fundamentally altered if you were to remove the function in question? If
the purpose of the job would still be accomplished without performing the function, it might
not be an essential one.
5. What happens if the function is not performed? If the consequences of failure to perform
the function are severe, then the function might be essential.
Other factors that might be considered in determining whether a function is essential or not:
• How the function is treated in documents, such as the job description, that are created before
advertising or interviewing for the job.
• The amount of time spent performing the function.
• The terms of a collective bargaining agreement.
• The work experience of incumbents performing the same or similar jobs.
Nonessential Functions
It is vital that employers separate essential functions from nonessential functions. However, this
doesn’t mean that marginal functions are deleted from your job description. They may be included, but
they should be separated from the heading “Essential Functions” and be listed under a heading such as
“Additional Duties and Responsibilities.” We don’t recommend using the term “Marginal Functions,”
although the EEOC often uses this phrase, because it might imply on a job description that the task
doesn’t have to be done.
Nonessential functions would be considered as tasks that are marginal, or incidental to the completion of the essential functions. In addition, nonessential functions would be those that could be performed by other workers.
Job Analysis and Essential Functions
The ADA doesn’t require a job analysis to be performed, just as it doesn’t require a job description.
Nor does the ADA limit an employer’s ability to establish or modify the functions, content, or nature
of a job. The ADA does, however, require that the job qualifications of a person with a disability be
evaluated in respect to the job’s essential functions.
‘Reasonable Accommodation’
The ADA requires employers to “reasonably accommodate” qualified disabled applicants so that
they can perform the job’s essential functions, unless the accommodation would cause an undue
hardship. Note that accommodations may range from a simple adjustment such as raising the level of a
desk so that the arms of wheelchair can fit under it to purchasing devices such as hydraulic lifts, special
telephones, or voice output devices for computers. According to the EEOC, the requirement to accommodate is best understood as a duty to remove or to alleviate barriers to employment.
Other possible accommodations:
• Part-time or modified work schedules.
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•
•
•
Job restructuring.
Providing qualified readers or interpreters.
Allowing the use of accrued paid leave, or providing additional unpaid
leave for necessary treatment.
Just how far an employer has to go, and how much it has to spend, to accommodate an individual
with a disability is something that the EEOC will determine on a case-by-case basis. The agency will
consider the size of the company, its financial resources, and the impact of the accommodation on the
operation of the facility.
Note that the concept of undue hardship is not limited to financial difficulty, but can include any
accommodation that would be unduly extensive, substantial, disruptive, or that would fundamentally
alter the nature or operation of an employer’s business. In addition, the EEOC has said that an employer doesn’t need to offer the “best” accommodation possible, as long as the accommodation is sufficient
to meet the person’s job-related needs.
No Requirement to Have Job Descriptions
The ADA does not require employers to develop or to maintain job descriptions. However, if you do
have them, the EEOC will look at them, as well as at other relevant information, when determining
essential functions. Therefore, it’s important to keep job descriptions current. Claiming later that some
function not listed on the description is a task essential to the job will be more difficult to prove than
if the job already was listed on the description.
‘And Other Tasks as Assigned’
This catchall phrase has been found at the bottom of job descriptions probably since the form was
first used. It’s been a helpful item for employers who need workers to chip in and get the job done. But
now this phrase is in jeopardy because of the ADA. You may still use the phrase—it’s not against the
law. However, we recommend caution. If you do put it on your descriptions, note that duties covered
under it should not be considered essential functions.
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Chapter 6: Organizing the Information
A good job description format makes organizing the information fairly simple. Some sections, for
example, the “Job Identification” section, automatically will present the desired information in a useful
and logical sequence, and all you have to do is fill in the blanks. (That is, assuming you have done the
necessary work to determine whether the job is exempt or nonexempt, etc.)
However, the “Essential Functions” section presents more of an organizational and writing task. If
the functions are numerous and complex (and for many jobs they are), you’ll want to decide ahead of
time how to organize them. Here are some alternatives:
1. The “sequence of operations” approach. This is a simple way to organize job information—it
follows the sequence in which the functions are carried out (if there is such a sequence). This
approach is best suited to jobs where tasks tend to be repetitive and usually performed in a
particular sequence over and over again.
2. The “major duty” approach. Many jobs, particularly those of a supervisory or administrative
nature, have no daily sequence of functions and duties. In this case the information can be
organized into major job segments or duties, the most essential listed first, with specific
duties outlined below each of these broader headings.
3. The “relative importance” approach. This approach organizes information about job duties
and responsibilities on the basis of their relative importance (as judged by the incumbent, the
supervisor, and the job analyst or human resources specialist). A variation on this idea would
be to arrange the functions in order of the amount of time spent on them.
These are just a few of the organizational frameworks that you can follow. The most appropriate
choice depends to a large extent upon the job analysis method used and on the nature of the job in
question. For example, if you use a structured job analysis procedure, such as function inventories, you
may want to arrange duties in alphabetical order in the job description. Or if you are trying to describe
a job that consists almost entirely of interpersonal contacts, you will naturally want to organize the job
description on the basis of these relationships.
Sentence Structure and Content
The content of sentences used in a job description will also vary greatly with the nature of the job
and the job analysis method being used. The sentences may be very simple, consisting of only a verb
(in the third person, present tense) and an object (possibly modified by an adjective), as in “Operates
power saw” or “Installs thermostats.” However, most jobs demand somewhat more complicated sentences, examples of which are:
Compound sentence (contains two or more main clauses and no subordinate clauses). “Greets customers at Information Desk and ascertains reason for visit to Credit Office.”
Complex sentence (contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses). “Contacts customer to obtain delivery address when address is omitted from letter.”
Compound-complex sentence (contains two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate
clause). “At end of year, when requisitions for coming year are submitted, prepares report on supplies
used by each department and suggests areas for cost reduction.” Note that all unnecessary words have
been eliminated. There is no stated subject (it is understood that the subject is “incumbent” or “jobholder”) and words like “a,” “an,” “the,” “their,” etc., are left out when they are not absolutely essential
for clarity.
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Sentences in a job description should always be positive, never explaining what the worker doesn’t
do. But sometimes this rule may pose problems. When it does, the writer can give an example illustrating the limitation rather than using a negative statement.
Another trap to avoid is using the words “responsible for.” An employee can be “responsible for” any
number of tasks and never do anything to accomplish them. Furthermore, “responsible for” duties cannot be classified or graded. Once it is known what duties the worker performs and what the desired
product of these functions are, the individual’s responsibility becomes clear. For example, don’t say
“Responsible for answering telephone calls from customers” when what you really mean is “Answers
telephone calls from customers.”
Relative adjectives, such as “extremely complex” or “moderately difficult,” should be avoided unless
their meaning is clarified by a comparison. Such terms are occasionally found in classification or grading standards, but only to compare levels of difficulty or work within a certain occupation. In a job
description, judgmental words of any type should be strictly avoided. “Extremely complex” to one person might be only “moderately complex” to another. Another example of vague language would be
“Exercises good judgment in handling personnel problems.” Who is to say exactly what constitutes
“good” judgment here? Similarly, to say that the incumbent “is allowed a wide latitude for the exercise
of independent action” is not as meaningful as it would be to state exactly how much discretion the
incumbent has through specific examples of the circumstances under which it is exercised. All other
sentences in the job description—that is, the job summary, accountability, job specifications, etc.—
follow the same general rules.
Choosing Your Words Carefully
To achieve the two primary goals of job description writing—accuracy and brevity—you must check
and double-check the words you have chosen to describe each job activity. Sometimes it is helpful to
have someone who is not as familiar with the job read over what you have written. If an outside consultant is preparing the job descriptions, a professional in human resources also should check them over
carefully. Here are a few guidelines regarding the use of words in a job description:
• Use a simple word rather than a sophisticated one. For example, never say “metropolis” when
“city” will work.
• Use a single word rather than three or four.
• Avoid technical words unless you are sure they will be easily understood. If you must use
them anyway, explain.
• Use few adjectives.
• Keep the use of gerunds and participles to a minimum. A gerund is a verb used as a noun; for
example, “Handles processing of change-of-address forms.” A participle is a verb used as an
adjective. Of course there are times when gerunds and participles provide the most effective
means of describing a task, but there are many more times when they merely clutter up the
sentence. In the first example above, why not just say “Processes change-of-address forms”?
• Avoid imprecise words such as “situation,” “facilitate,” “interface,” etc. Ask yourself if the
word you have used might be interpreted differently by two different people.
• Use words that focus on the outcome of the job function, rather than on the process used to
create the outcome.
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Writing Guidelines and Style Recommendations
The following recommendations are vital because the way in which job descriptions are written can
make or break the success of your program, and they deserve to be repeated here. It is strongly suggested that you copy this list of writing guidelines and distribute them to anyone who might be involved
in the writing process.
1. A terse, direct style should be used throughout the description.
2. Keep sentence structure as simple as possible; omit all words that don’t contribute necessary
information.
3. Begin each sentence with an active verb (see “Glossary of Useful Verbs and Other Terms”),
third person singular. Always use the present tense.
4. Wherever possible, describe the desired outcome of the work, rather than the method for
accomplishing that outcome. For example, instead of “writes down phones messages”—a taskoriented approach—you might say “accurately records phone messages.”
5. Focus on essential activities. A task that is performed frequently throughout the day may not
be as essential or as critical to the job as something done only once or twice a week.
6. Disregard minor or occasional tasks that are common to all jobs or are normally taken for
granted, unless they are still essential to the job. If nonessential, list under “Other
Responsibilities or Functions.”
7. Avoid the narrative form. You are writing a job description, not a story. When possible, eliminate adjectives and articles (a, an, the).
8. Be consistent when using terms like “may” and “occasionally.” Their meanings should be
spelled out to avoid confusion. For example, make sure that if the word “occasionally” is used
in the essential functions section of the description, the occasional work performed truly is
essential to the job.
9. Avoid words, such as “handles,” that don’t tell specifically what the employee does. Others
you may want to avoid: “checks,” “prepares,” “examines,” “sends.” If these words are the most
accurate and specific ones available, it may be acceptable to use them. But if a more specific
term would describe the task more clearly, use it.
10. Be clear and use nontechnical language whenever possible. A good job description explains
the objectives, duties, and responsibilities of a job so that they are understandable even to a
layperson.
11. Refer to job titles rather than people. For example, “Reports to Human Resources Director”
instead of “Reports to Estrella Simpson.”
12. Be precise in defining responsibility. The degree of responsibility given indicates the importance of the job and is a vital factor in evaluating it.
13. Use parentheses to indicate qualifying or incidental explanatory details, as opposed to actual
job duties.
14. Discriminate between important and trivial facts. If an item is really trivial, perhaps it should
be omitted.
15. Qualify whenever possible. Don’t just say that a file clerk “files” materials; say that the clerk
“files alphabetically.”
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16. Stick to a logical sequence in describing duties and responsibilities whenever possible.
17. Keep the user’s needs in mind. While the point has been made that job descriptions should
never be limited to one particular use, it is wise to keep the primary goals of the job description program in mind when writing. For example, if this is part of an effort to improve
recruiting and hiring procedures, you will naturally want to stress specific job duties and
job specifications.
18. Remember that the length of a job description does not indicate the importance of the job.
The job description for the president of a firm can be put into one sentence: “Responsible
for the successful operation of the company.”
The writing style of your job descriptions may vary widely because they’ve been prepared by a number of different staff members. Someone should be made responsible for editing all the descriptions
when they are done to make sure there is a consistent style throughout. If these guidelines are followed
closely, editing for consistency should not be difficult. The “ideal” job description is written in a very
impersonal style. The emphasis on conciseness and the use of very specific terminology encourages a
finished product that reveals little of the writer’s personal style. If the editing process turns out to be a
difficult one, it may be a sign that not everyone has followed the necessary guidelines, or that the
guidelines themselves are inadequate.
Writing the First Draft
The first draft of the job description may be written by either the incumbent, his or her superior, or
a specialist (consultant, personnel specialist, etc.). Sometimes a joint effort can be successful, with the
first draft written by the incumbent and the final draft by a personnel specialist. Obviously, the incumbent has the advantage of greater familiarity with the job’s challenges, problems, duties, and responsibilities. But a specialist offers the advantages of objectivity and experience. The final decision usually
depends on the incumbent manager’s writing ability and the availability of a specialist who understands the work.
In the majority of cases, the finished product should not exceed two typewritten pages in length. In
fact, setting two pages as your limit will encourage you to write clearly and concisely and to think
twice about what facts are truly relevant. The adoption of a uniform style and format greatly enhances
the usefulness of job descriptions at every level.
Here are a few additional tips to keep in mind when writing job descriptions:
• A good description takes time to write. A rough estimate would be four to five hours to gather the information and write a careful first draft. This will vary, of course, from job to job and
will depend on the amount of experience you’ve had in describing jobs in the past. But don’t
make the mistake of underestimating how long it’s going to take and then end up rushing to
meet an unrealistic deadline.
• The uses to which jobs descriptions will be put should be kept in mind while you’re writing
them.
• Don’t express opinions; stick to facts and quantitative terms.
• Stay away from technical jargon and aim for a writing style that is clear and easily read.
• Job descriptions must have a certain amount of flexibility built into them. At lower levels of
the organization, an employee’s job behavior must conform to fit the job description. But a
manager or executive must be given a certain amount of latitude to shape the job to his or her
particular skills and experience. This latitude should be reflected in the job description, or if
appropriate, in the position description for the middle- to upper-level manager.
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•
The completed description should be accessible to the appropriate people, including the incumbent. Highly confidential items of information do not belong here.
The Approval Process
Before the first draft of a description can be accepted, it must be read and approved by at least one
company executive. The usual requirement is that at least two executives (one line and one staff)
review the first drafts of all job descriptions.
If the first draft is not approved, it must be reworked until it is considered satisfactory to these individuals. The revisions might be relatively minor, changing or inserting a word here and there, or they
might entail rewriting the entire description. Generally speaking, the incumbent is not asked to
review the description if he or she has taken part in its original preparation. However, if the first draft
has been prepared entirely by someone else (say, the job analyst), then it is not uncommon to have the
incumbent participate in the review process.
What happens if, during the review, it becomes apparent that an incumbent and his or her superior
see a particular aspect of the job in entirely different ways? Such conflicts of opinion are bound to arise
when descriptions are being prepared for the first time, although they should diminish once the program is well established and lines of authority, etc., become fairly well defined. The best way to deal
with the problem is to hold a conference with the parties involved (the incumbent, supervisor, job analyst, etc.) and try to work it out. Some companies feel it is better to have the incumbent, the supervisor,
and perhaps the supervisors superior meet (i.e., without the person who drafted the description) and reconcile their differences. Once these are brought out in the open they are usually fairly easy to resolve. In
fact, a primary reason for implementing a description program in the first place is that it brings conflicts and misunderstandings to the surface where they can be dealt with in a constructive manner.
The Final Draft
Writing the final version of the description is usually not as difficult as composing the first draft. A
good first draft will not require many radical changes, and preparing the final version may merely
involve incorporating the necessary changes and rewriting to assure clarity and a uniform style. If first
drafts are formulated according to a standard format, one person can usually handle the work involved
in getting the final version of all the descriptions ready.
The key to writing a good final draft is a thorough review of the first draft. This is the point at
which differences should be reconciled and recommendations made, thus making it fairly easy for
someone (either the incumbent, the personnel specialist, or a company executive) to make the finished
product reflect these recommendations. Some employers think it is best to have the same person who
wrote the first draft prepare the final version, whereas others deliberately avoid using the same writer
for both stages. It doesn’t really matter which approach you take, as long as the first draft is prepared
in a competent manner.
The final draft always should be reviewed with an employment law attorney to assure that there are
no legal “red flags.” After review, and modifications if needed, the final draft goes to top management
or the company’s executive or compensation committee, as appropriate, for final approval.
Words for Your Use
On the following pages are a number of active verbs and other words that form a useful glossary for
use in preparing job descriptions.
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Glossary of Useful Verbs and Other Terms
Act: To exert one’s powers in such a way as to
bring about an effect; to carry out a purpose.
Add: To affix or attach; to perform mathematical
addition of figures.
Administer: To manage or direct the application
or execution of; to administrate.
Adopt: To take and apply or put into practice; to
accept, as a report.
Advise: To give advice to; to recommend a course
of action (not simply to tell or inform).
Affirm: To confirm or ratify.
Align: To arrange or form in a line.
Amend: To change or modify.
Analyze: To study the factors of a situation or
problem in order to determine the solution or
outcome.
Anticipate: To foresee events, trends, consequences or problems.
Apply: To adjust or direct; to put in use, as a
rule.
Appraise: To evaluate as to quality, status, effectiveness.
Approve: To sanction officially; to accept as satisfactory; to ratify (thereby assuming responsibility
for). Used only in the situation where individual
has final authority.
Arrange: To place in proper order.
Ascertain: To find out or learn for a certainty.
Assemble: To collect or gather together in a predetermined order; to fit together the parts of.
Assign: To fix, specify, or delegate; legally, to
transfer or make over to another.
Assist: To lend aid; to help; to give support to.
Assume: To take to or upon oneself; to undertake.
Assure: To confirm; to make certain of, to state
confidently.
Attach: To bind or fasten; to tie or connect.
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Attend: To be present for the purpose of making
a contribution.
Audit: Final and official examination of accounts.
Authorize: To empower; to permit; to establish
by authority.
Balance: To arrange or prove so that the sum of
one group equals the sum of another.
Batch: To group into a quantity for one operation.
Calculate: To ascertain by computation.
Cancel: To strike out, cross out, or revoke.
Carry: To convey through the use of the hands.
Center: To place or fix in or at the center; to collect to a point.
Chart: To draw or exhibit in a chart or graph.
Check: To examine; to compare for verification.
Circulate: To disseminate; to distribute in accordance with a plan.
Classify: To separate into groups having systematic relations.
Clear: To obtain the concurrence, dissent, or
agreement of other officers prior to signature.
Closet: To end or terminate.
Code: To transpose words or figures into symbols
or characters (letters or numbers).
Collaborate: To work or act jointly with others.
Collate: To bring together in a predetermined
order.
Collect: To gather facts or data; to assemble; to
accumulate.
Compile: To collect into a volume; to compose
out of materials from other documents.
Compose: To make up; to fashion; to arrange.
Consolidate: To combine into a single whole.
Construct: To set in order mentally; to arrange.
Consult: To seek the advice of another; to confer;
to refer to.
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Control: To directly exercise guiding or restraining power over.
Cooperate: To act or operate jointly with others;
to collaborate.
Coordinate: To bring into common action, condition, etc.
Correlate: To establish a mutual or reciprocal
relation.
Copy: To make a copy or copies of; to transfer or
reproduce information.
Correct: To rectify; to make right.
Cross-foot: To add across; horizontally.
Cross off: To line out; to strike out.
Cross out: To eliminate by lining out.
Date-stamp: To note the date by stamping.
Definite instructions: Explicit instructions that
are precise in detail and limited in determining
the course to follow.
Delegate: To entrust to the care or management
of another.
Delete: To erase; to remove.
Determine: To fix conclusively or authoritatively; to decide; to make a decision.
Develop: To evolve; to make apparent or bring
to light; to make more available or usable.
Direct: To regulate the activities or course of; to
govern or control; to give guidance to.
Disassemble: To take apart.
Discuss: To exchange views for the purpose of
arriving at a conclusion.
Disseminate: To spread information or ideas.
Distribute: To divide or separate into classes; to
pass around; to allot.
Divide: To separate into classes or parts; to subject to mathematical division.
Draft: To write or compose papers or documents
in rough, preliminary, or final form. Often for
clearance and approval by others.
Edit: To revise and prepare as for publication.
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Effectively recommends: Person recommending
the action or procedure initiates the action or procedure, subject only to the routine or administrative control of some other person.
Establish: To set up; to institute; to place on a
firm basis.
Evaluate: To appraise; to ascertain the value of.
Examine: To investigate; to scrutinize; to subject
to inquiry by inspection or test.
Execute: To give effect; to follow through to the
end; to complete.
Exercise: To bring to bear or employ actively—
e.g., exercise authority or influence.
Expedite: To hasten the movement or progress
of; to remove obstacles; to accelerate.
Facilitate: To make easy or less difficult.
Feed: To supply material to a machine.
Figure: To compute.
File: To lay away papers, etc., arranged in a
methodical manner.
Fill in: To enter information on a form.
Find: To locate by search.
Flag: To mark in some distinctive manner.
Follow up: To check the progress of, to see if
results are satisfactory.
Formulate: To put into a systemized statement;
to develop or devise a plan, policy, or procedure.
Furnish: To provide, supply, or give.
Implement: To carry out; to perform acts essential to the execution of a plan or program; to give
effect to.
Inform: To instruct; to communicate knowledge of.
Initiate: To originate; to begin; to introduce for
the first time, as a plan, policy, or procedure.
Insert: To put or thrust in; to introduce, as a
word in a sentence.
Inspect: To examine carefully and critically.
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Instruct: To impart knowledge to; to supply
direction to.
Instructions: Directions; procedural information.
Intensive: Exhaustive or concentrated; extreme;
high-degree.
Interpret: To explain the meaning of; to translate; to elucidate.
Interview: To question in order to obtain facts or
opinions.
Inventory: To count and make a list of items.
Investigate: To inquire into systematically.
Issue: To distribute formally.
Itemize: To state in terms or by particulars; to
set or note down in detail.
Line: To cover the inside surface; to rule.
List: To itemize.
Locate: To search for and find; to position.
Maintain: To hold or keep in any given condition; to keep up-to-date or current, as records.
Make: To cause something to assume a designated condition.
Manage: To control and direct; to guide; to
administer.
Measure: To determine length or quantity of.
Merge: To combine.
Mix: To unite or blend into one group or mass.
Multiply: To perform the operation of
multiplication.
Nonroutine: Irregular or infrequent—referring
to situations that arise relating to business or official duties. Characteristic of higher-level jobs.
Note: To observe or notice; to heed.
Notify: To give notice to; to inform.
Obtain: To gain possession of; to acquire.
Observe: To perceive or notice; to watch.
Open: To enter upon; to spread out; to make
accessible.
Operate: To conduct or perform an activity.
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Organize: To arrange in interdependent parts; to
systematize.
Originate: To produce as new.
Outline: To make a summary of the significant
features of a subject.
Participate: To take part in.
Perform: To carry on to a finish; to accomplish;
to execute.
Plan: To make ready for a particular purpose.
Post: To transfer or carry information from one
record to another.
Process: To subject to some special treatment; to
handle in accordance with prescribed procedures.
Program: To make a plan or procedure.
Provide: To supply for use; to furnish; to take
precautionary methods in view of a possible need.
Purchase: To buy or procure.
Purpose: To offer for consideration or adoption.
Rate: To appraise or assess; to determine the rank
or quality of.
Read: To learn or be informed of by reading.
Receive: To take as something that is offered.
Recommends: Suggests courses of action or
procedures to other persons who have the primary responsibility for adopting and carrying
out the action or procedures recommended.
Reconstruct: To construct again; to restore.
Record: To register; to make a record of.
Refer: To direct attention; to make reference as
in referring to record.
Register: To enter in a record or list.
Release: To permit the publication and dissemination of, at a specified date but not before.
Remit: To transmit or send as money in payment.
Render: To furnish; to contribute.
Report: To furnish information or data.
Represent: To take the place of.
Request: To ask for something.
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Requirement: That which must be accomplished.
Requisition: To make a request for (usually
records or supplies).
Responsibility: Accountability for decisions.
(1) Complete Responsibility: Individual has complete authority to take whatever action he or she
deems advisable or necessary, subject only to the
policies or general rules laid down by his or her
immediate supervisor.
(2) Delegate Responsibility: Individual has the
authority to take whatever action he or she deems
advisable or necessary and may initiate and carry
out the action but is required to advise superiors
of the action taken when deemed necessary. Must
inform superiors of nonroutine situations.
(3) General Responsibility: Individual is
required to get supervisor’s approval before taking action that she or he believes is required or
advised.
Review: To go over or examine deliberately
or critically, usually with a view to approval
or dissent.
Revise: To make a new, improved, or up-to-date
version of.
Route: To prearrange and direct locations to
which an article is to be sent.
Routine: Regular or normal—referring to
procedure, course of business, or official duties.
Scan: To examine point by point; to scrutinize.
To read hastily or to glance at.
Schedule: To plan a timetable; to set specific
times for.
Screen: To examine closely, generally so as to
separate one group or class from another.
Search: To look over and through for the purpose
of finding something.
Secure: To get possession of; to obtain.
See: To make certain of; to learn through
observation.
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Select: To choose from a number of others of
similar kind.
Separate: To set apart for others for special use;
to keep apart.
Sign: To affix a signature to.
Sort: To put in a definite place or rank according
to kind, class, etc.
Stack: To pile up.
Stimulate: To excite, rouse, or spur on.
Study: To consider attentively; to ponder or fix
the mind closely upon (a subject).
Submit: To present information to others for
their decision and judgment.
Subtotal: To take an interim total.
Subtract: To deduct one number from another.
Summarize: To make an abstract; to brief.
Supervise: To oversee; to inspect with authority;
to guide and instruct with immediate responsibility for subordinate’s performance; to superintend;
to lead.
(1) Direct Supervision: Involves guidance and
direction over individuals who report to and are
directly responsible to the supervisor. Includes
supervision of work, training, and personnel
functions.
(2) Close Supervision: Individual does not use
own initiative. Is instructed by supervisor as to
the solution and selection of the proper procedures to follow.
(3) Limited Supervision: Individual proceeds on
own initiative in compliance with policies, practices, and procedures prescribed by immediate
supervisor.
(4) General Supervision: Involves guidance and
direction actually carried out by the immediate
supervisor.
(5) Supervision of Work: Includes work distribution, scheduling, training, answering of questions
related to work, assisting in solving problems, etc.
Does not include any personnel functions such as
salaries, discipline, promotions, etc.
(6) Training Responsibility: Involves advice,
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information, and guidance on specialized matters;
involves no authority. Gives instruction in regard
to procedures.
Survey: To determine the form, extent, position,
etc., of a situation, usually in connection with
gathering of information.
Tabulate: To form into a table by listing; to
make a listing.
Trace: To record the transfer of an application or
document; to copy as a drawing.
Train: To increase skill or knowledge by capable
instruction, usually in relation to a predetermined
standard.
Transcribe: To make a typewritten copy from
shorthand notes or a dictated record; to write a
copy of.
Transpose: To transfer; to change the usual place
of order.
Type: To typewrite.
Underline: To emphasize or identify by drawing
a line under the characters or subject.
Verify: To prove to be true or accurate; to confirm
or substantiate; to test or check the accuracy of.
Write: To form characters, letters, or words with
pen or pencil; to fill in, as a check or form; to
express or communicate through the use of the
written word; to compose or to create as author.
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Chapter 7:
Position Descriptions:
An Alternative for Managerial Personnel
The higher up you go in the organizational hierarchy, the more difficult it becomes to define a job
in written terms, and the more important it becomes to update job descriptions regularly. This is
because upper-level managers and executives tend to carry their work patterns with them when they
take on new jobs and may end up drastically modifying the jobs to which they are assigned. The development of “position descriptions,” rather than job descriptions, for these higher-level jobs is one solution to the problem.
Some companies have position descriptions as well as job descriptions, and some confusion exists
over the proper terminology to use for the document that describes duties and responsibilities. Some
firms differentiate according to rank in the organization, with higher-level jobs (particularly managerial
jobs) having position descriptions and lower-level jobs having job descriptions. For our purposes, a job
can be defined as a collection of essential functions, tasks, duties, and responsibilities that are grouped
into a unit and regarded as a reasonable assignment for an employee. A position, on the other hand, is a
group of essential functions performed by and therefore related to a particular individual. There are as
many positions in the company as there are employees, but there may be more than one person
employed in the same job.
To the extent that a managerial job can often reflect duties and responsibilities that are characteristic
of the incumbent’s skills and areas of expertise, the two terms may be synonymous. This is why so
many firms feel that their managerial and executive personnel merit a different type of job description—one that reflects the way these particular individuals perform their particular jobs. Position
descriptions usually differ from job descriptions in the following ways:
1. They stress intangibles to a greater extent.
2. The emphasis is on results as well as on the positions responsibilities, the contribution the
work makes to the company’s welfare, and the impact of the job on the company’s operations.
3. They usually are written in more general terms and tend to give more weight to relationships
and lines of authority (how the position fits into the overall organizational scheme).
Some people feel that the differences between position descriptions and job descriptions are a natural
outgrowth of the differences between the two types of work (lower-level and managerial) in terms of
functions, scope of responsibilities, and expected results. The distinction may also reflect the different
purposes for which the two types of description are used. Job descriptions are frequently written for
wage and salary administration purposes and therefore focus on essential duties and day-to-day assignments, whereas position descriptions are more closely related to organizational planning and therefore
deal with interrelationships, overall responsibilities, and lines of authority.
The term “job description” is the more general of the two, and it is often used to cover position
descriptions as well. The important point is that if your company does maintain position descriptions for
managerial and executive personnel, they should be reviewed and revised every time a new incumbent is
appointed, because he or she can be expected to “shape” the job to conform to his or her managerial style.
How Position Descriptions Are Used
The uses of position descriptions are not all that different from the uses of other job descriptions.
Both are used, for example, in performance appraisal, selection and recruiting, orientation, etc. And
like job descriptions, position descriptions have a tendency to be underutilized.
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Before You Get Started
Whether you are contemplating initiating a new position description program or merely continuing
or updating an existing program, there are a number of basic issues that merit serious consideration.
The first, of course, is whether such a program is really worthwhile. Preparing managerial position
descriptions involves a significant amount of time and money, especially if your plans include bringing
in outside consultants. Here are some of the issues that you should discuss candidly with top management and anyone else participating in the decision:
1. Can your company really afford position descriptions? A good program requires the full-time
effort (at least in the beginning) of at least one person. It also demands a great deal of time
from the executives and managers whose jobs are being described. If you hire an outside consultant, the expense is increased. You need to present a budget—even if you end up doing
some guesswork to top management before implementing the program.
2. Writing position descriptions takes a great deal of time. It usually takes a minimum of three
months to organize and initiate the program, and several more months may pass before most
of the descriptions have been written, approved, and distributed. It may take an additional
two or three months to eliminate the bugs in the program and get it running smoothly. In
short, you must allow approximately a year from the starting point to really get a program
operating. It is recommended that you proceed slowly rather than rushing your program into
operation, and that you be prepared ahead of time to commit the time and effort required.
3. Position descriptions prepared for a one-purpose-only use are probably not worth the effort. For
example, if a new company president is brought in and he or she wants an overall look at the
management structure, position descriptions are not the best way to provide this overview.
However, even when descriptions are prepared for just one function at the outset, it is likely
that they will be put to other uses sooner or later. But it is better to formulate the descriptions
from the very beginning with the understanding that they will be used in many different areas.
4. Position descriptions written during a period of sudden, unexpected growth are often a
wasted effort, since they are soon outdated. However, if your firm is planning an expansion
program, position descriptions can be used as a blueprint for some of the changes that will
take place. For example, you might decide to develop a new set of descriptions before setting
up a new facility. Along with a good organizational chart, these descriptions will provide you
with a blueprint of the new facility’s management structure. They also may be used as an orientation and training aid for the personnel who will staff the facility.
5. As a general rule (to which there may well be exceptions), managerial position descriptions are
not worth developing when a company is small, has a closely knit top management group,
and/or has little prospect for expansion. In this type of environment, duties, responsibilities, and
accountabilities are fairly well understood by managers and executives, and it may not be necessary to put them in writing. On the other hand, if a small organization wants to change existing
managerial relationships or job content, a position description program can be a useful tool.
6. Position descriptions are worth more if they are kept up-to-date and revised whenever job
content changes significantly. Descriptions kept in a confidential file because the work
involved in updating them seems too burdensome are not serving any real purpose to the
organization.
7. The process of preparing position descriptions demands that the organization take a long,
hard look at itself. Overlaps in authority, ambiguities in the chain of command, and even
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duplication of effort by whole departments may be discovered during the process. But if top
management or anyone else involved in the program is unwilling to make the changes that
will clearly be needed, the descriptions may not be of much value.
8. Position descriptions won’t solve all your problems; in fact, they may even make life a little
more difficult in the sense that they open up rather sensitive areas for discussion and change.
Everyone involved in the program must be aware that certain problems are not going to disappear overnight, and that new problems might even erupt as a result of the program.
Getting Your Program Started
Once the decision has been made to set up or revise your position description program, there are a
number of other important considerations. Which jobs, for example, are going to be described? If it is
announced that a managerial position description program is going to be carried out and several positions are not included, the incumbents may feel this implies they are not members of management.
The result can be upsetting to everyone. Some firms establish definite criteria for deciding which jobs
are to be covered—for instance, salary level. For example, if management bonus programs are used,
position descriptions might be written first for those in the executive bonus program, and then for
those covered by the middle management bonus program. Lower-level managers as well as supervisors
might not be part of the program.
The advantage of this approach is that everyone understands who will be included in the program.
Other companies use less well-defined criteria, such as job titles, degrees of responsibility, specific
accountabilities, etc. The point is to publicize your criteria from the outset so as to minimize resentment and hurt feelings.
You should also decide on program objectives. Most employers start out by gearing their programs
toward (1) compensation administration only, (2) a combination of compensation administration and
other managerial purposes, or (3) managerial purposes alone. As noted earlier with the use of job
description programs, in determining your specific program objectives, therefore, it is better to overestimate the range of purposes to which the descriptions may be used rather than to underestimate
their usefulness and restrict their content.
Management Support—A Necessity
In launching a new position description program successfully, perhaps the most important thing is the
support of top management. High-level authorization and backing give the program a certain amount of
prestige and emphasize its importance to the managers and executives whose positions will be described.
In many cases the impetus for the program has come from top management, and its support is therefore
implicit. But in a situation where the human resources (HR) director and his or her staff are charged with
operating and “selling” the program to the rest of the company, top management’s support is essential.
Usually, an HR/personnel executive is put in charge of the program at the outset. Sometimes, another department manager or executive is placed in charge of the program because he or she proposed the
idea, possesses a more intimate knowledge of the positions to be described, has already established a
reputation in the company for impartiality, or simply has more time available to spend on the administrative tasks associated with the program. But once the program has been initiated and is successfully
in operation, the responsibility for administration usually shifts to HR.
It goes without saying that the individual responsible for guiding or coordinating the program
should understand its purpose and have extensive background experience in writing position
descriptions. While experience in developing job descriptions is helpful, it must be remembered
that managerial position descriptions may be more complex and require a sensitivity to status and
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prestige. In other words, the task requires someone who is diplomatic as well as experienced.
Sometimes a program administrator is hired simply because he or she has the ability to handle managerial egos and thus minimize status conflicts.
It is somewhat more common to contract with an outside consultant in writing position descriptions
than in implementing a job description program. This is especially true when the company is writing
position descriptions for the first time. Management consulting services range all the way from implementing the entire program and training people within the company to maintain it to simply providing a
few days of consultation and advice. While some employers feel that an outsider’s perspective will achieve
more objective results, others feel that consultants lack familiarity with the organization’s problems and
structure. The deciding factor is usually whether or not there are individuals within the company who
have the necessary time and talents to set up the program without help from an outside source.
One way of obtaining outside assistance, without the high cost of external consultants, is to send
staff professionals to seminars or training courses on the subject, or to purchase reference materials on
the subjects.
Format and Content
As with standard job descriptions, content tends to reflect the uses to which position descriptions
will be put. For example, if your company plans to use position descriptions primarily as recruitment,
selection, and placement guides, it should plan to include job qualifications or specifications. Similarly,
if it wants to use them to clarify promotional lines, you’ll want to make the section on reporting relationships longer and more detailed.
Another issue affecting content is whether they are intended to describe the job as it is currently
being performed or as the company would like to see it performed. Generally speaking, descriptions
written for purposes of salary administration describe the jobs as they exist, while those intended for
multiple uses describe the positions as they should be. One of the more noticeable trends over the past
several years is to provide some means of measuring a manager’s performance. By including information under such headings as “accountabilities,” “end results,” “spec objectives,” etc., employers establish yardsticks against which managerial performance can be measured.
No matter what the intended use of your managerial position descriptions—and especially if you are
aiming for multiple uses—they should answer the following questions:
1. Why does the job exist? What is its general function and primary objective? What are the
important end results (accountabilities) that must be achieved for the incumbent to fulfill the
job’s primary objective?
2. What kind of job is it? In what type of environment does it operate? What is its role in the
organizational scheme? What are the job’s essential functions? How does it relate to other
jobs? to groups or individuals outside the organization? What are the job’s basic challenges?
3. What kind of knowledge or know-how is needed? What skills are required for acceptable
performance (including technical, managerial, and HR skills)?
4. How complex are the problems that must be solved? What kind of thinking is required for
analyzing and evaluating problems? for creating or arriving at solutions?
5. How much independent action is allowed? What are the controls limiting the incumbent’s
ability to make final decisions and to take action?
6. How much impact does the job have? Does it contribute directly or indirectly to the
achievement of major corporate goals? How?
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7. What is the financial scope of the job? In what areas does the incumbent have financial
responsibilities or accountabilities?
8. Does the job have direct reports? indirect reports? If so, what is the size, scope, and nature
of the supporting staff?
Although the variety of position description formats is almost as wide as that of regular job descriptions, the typical description is divided into three or four major sections. Depending on the position to
be described and the intended use(s) of the finished product, these sections may be arranged in one of
the following ways:
• Objective
• Essential functions or accountabilities
• Authority
• Relationships
A brief discussion of what kind of information belongs under each of these headings is presented here.
Objective. This is sometimes called “Function,” “Summary Statement,” “Purpose,” “Basic
Objective,” or “Mission.” It states the basic reason for the position’s existence concisely and in very
straightforward language. It should provide the major factors that distinguish it from other positions.
Although this section is often written last, it is always put at the top of the finished description. It
often states the purpose of the position in performance-oriented objectives.
Essential functions or accountabilities. This section specifies the essential functions that must be
carried out to fulfill the position’s basic objective. This section lists the important end results which
this particular job must achieve. Each item should be a concise statement of what the incumbent must
do, accompanied by a statement or clause explaining “why.” Each statement should pinpoint an
accountability against which some measure of performance can be applied.
Here are some examples of areas for which a job might be held accountable:
• Organization. This includes accountability for planning the structure of the organization,
staffing it, and carrying out such activities as selection, training, performance appraisal, wage
and salary administration, hiring and firing, etc.
• Planning. This includes accountability for long-range planning, for establishing policy objectives, long-range goals, and targets, and for setting quality standards. It also covers accountability for managing, supervising, or carrying out activities on a day-to-day basis.
• Review and control. This covers accountability for assessing the company’s effectiveness in
achieving its objectives.
Position descriptions may or may not have a section on job specifications or qualifications. Where
such information is given, it is usually a very brief discussion of previous experience requirements, training, and other qualifications that an individual must have to be hired for the position. Job specifications
are usually considered optional for position descriptions, and are reserved only for those positions in
which the incumbent must possess unique qualifications in order to achieve the expected results.
Two other sections that are becoming more and more common in position descriptions are “position
dynamics” and “challenge.” The first deals with the potential growth of a managerial position. The
“challenge” section is usually included in accountability-oriented descriptions, and it defines what is
important or crucial in the job.
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Authority. Many companies feel that responsibilities and authority are so inextricably entwined that
they combine this with the section on “Essential Duties and Responsibilities.” When “Authority”
receives separate treatment, this section defines the limits within which the incumbent must operate in
performing his or her duties. It specifies the extent of power or authority held by the manager and is
sometimes referred to as the “charter” under which he or she operates.
Relationships. This section usually contains three different types of information: (1) the status of
the incumbent’s superior, (2) the titles of those who report to the incumbent, and (3) internal and
external relationships. A discussion of internal relationships might include communication channels,
supervision received, and supervision exercised. External relationships usually include the company’s
relationships with the general public, other corporations, and public agencies.
Accountability objectives. This is another approach to the “objective” section discussed before, but
it states the purpose of the position in terms of performance-oriented objectives.
Dimensions. This section is usually found only in accountability-oriented position descriptions. It
summarizes all the statistics that are pertinent to the job, giving the reader a clear picture of the magnitude of the end results affected by the job. It species such items as annual production volume and
operating budget, average inventory value, capital assets maintained, number of operating plants
supervised, and number of exempt/nonexempt, salaried/hourly employees supervised.
Nature and scope. This section is the real “heart” of the position description in which it is found. It
tells the reader what the job is all about (usually in narrative form), emphasizing the following aspects:
1. How the job fits into the organization, including significant internal and external relationships.
2. The general composition of the supporting staff, including a short summary of each job
supervised (if applicable).
3. The technical, managerial, and human relations know-how required.
4. The key problems likely to be encountered by the incumbent.
5. The existing controls on the job’s freedom to solve problems and take action.
Accountabilities. It is worth reemphasizing here that an accountability is an end result or objective
that the job exists to achieve, while a duty or responsibility is the means by which end results are
achieved. Management position descriptions usually focus on the former, not the latter.
Program Maintenance
Once a position program is operating routinely, it is common practice to shift the management
responsibility to a lower-level manager (usually from the HR/wage and salary administration department). Assuming that all the major problems have been worked out, this person should be able to handle any minor problems that arise. It is usually his or her responsibility to see that the descriptions are
maintained and revised as appropriate.
Continuing programs usually run into one or more of the following problems:
1. Keeping managers involved in the program once it becomes “old hat”
2. Keeping up with continually changing job content
3. Dealing with the inability of the program to keep pace, particularly if the company is
expanding rapidly or has a high technological base.
Typical position description formats are presented on the following pages.
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Sample Position Description Format
Job Title:_______________________________
Date: ____________________________
Division/Plant: _______________________________________________________________
Department __________________________________________________________________
Information Provided by: ____________________________________________________
Written by:___________________________________________________________________
Reviewed by: ________________________________________________________________
Essential Accountabilities:
Dimensions:
Nature and Scope of Position:
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Sample Position Description Format
Job Title:_______________________________
Date: ____________________________
Major Function:
Technical Know-How:
Human Relations Know-How:
Managerial Know-How:
Accountability:
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Position Descriptions and the Organizational Chart
A few words should be said about the relationship between the organizational chart and the written
position description. Normally, most of the information concerning “relationships” found in the position description is meant to supplement what can readily be seen by studying the organizational chart.
The written description can be particularly helpful in clarifying relationships that are not clearly
defined by the chart. Take a factory manager who reports to a vice president in charge of manufacturing as an example. The chart may indicate that the vice president is responsible for overseeing the factory manager’s activities. But to what extent has the vice president delegated authority to the factory
manager? If a question arises concerning the purchase of capital equipment, to which individual should
it be addressed? This is the type of question that should be answered in the position description.
Someone promoted to a managerial position for the first time might find it difficult to understand
his or her place in the organization without a careful study of the organizational chart. But from a
glance at the chart, the new manager can usually see how the job is related to other managerial positions throughout the company. If an organizational chart is well drawn, you’ll be able to eliminate a lot
of detail in the written description. In fact, if you try to translate all of these relationships into words
in the written description, you are wasting valuable time and space.
Preparing the Position Description
The steps involved in preparing position descriptions are very similar to those for other job descriptions, and for this reason they are only mentioned here. The process usually falls into four stages: (1)
gathering the information on job content; (2) writing a first draft of the description; (3) reviewing,
revising, and approving the first draft; and (4) writing and approving the final version.
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Chapter 8: Communications, Access, and Maintenance
Communicating the Program
Communications is an essential element of any job description program. Employees get very concerned about rumors about most things that happen in a company, and certainly about anything related to their jobs. So it’s important to have an adequate, comprehensive communications program in
place when establishing or when revising a job description program.
An effective approach for this type of communication is to use several methods, including memos,
small group meetings, and company newsletters. For example, you might introduce the job description
program to top management through a summary memo that details the plan of action as well as the reasons for the program (including discussion of the legal considerations, such as the Americans with
Disabilities Act [ADA] on job descriptions). This paper then could be followed by small group meetings with upper management so that issues such as time spent in each department, methods to be used
for job analysis, etc., are covered.
The same technique could be followed with the next level of managers and supervisors and on down.
For example, top executives might meet with division or department heads to explain the program’s
purposes; then each department head calls a meeting with his or her supervisors, who in turn hold
small group meetings with their subordinates. Human resources (HR) professionals, or outside consultants if appropriate, would conduct part of the sessions and answer questions as needed.
The advantage in this “series of meetings” arrangement is that with smaller groups it becomes possible to answer detailed questions more fully. In addition, the needs of each group are different. It is certainly important to explain certain issues, such as the legal considerations of such a program, to supervisors and managers. These types of issues are less important to nonsupervisory personnel, and it may
not be appropriate to go into detail about them.
In a larger group, employees spend a great deal of time listening to questions that do not apply to
their jobs, and may be too inhibited to bring up those that do. Employees are more apt to open up
about their fears and anxieties in front of their immediate supervisors. They won’t be afraid to ask
questions like, “How is this program going to affect my chances for a raise (or a promotion)?”
These group meetings may be run by one of several people. We’ve already mentioned the possibility
that the supervisor or department head in charge of the group might call the meeting and introduce
the job description program. This is more common at the lower-level meetings. But when top executives or high-level managers are being introduced to the program, it is not uncommon for the company
president, vice president in charge of personnel, or management consultant (if one is being used) to
open the meeting and outline the program’s basic objectives. The support and prestige this kind of
high-level participation lends to the program is invaluable.
In fact, some companies have a company executive or member of the personnel staff present at all
group meetings, either to introduce the program briefly (before turning the meeting over to the supervisor or manager) or to answer questions at the end. Certain points should be made clear at the meeting. Use the following as a checklist of ideas and thoughts to be included in your presentation or as an
outline for the meeting itself.
1. Explain why it has been decided that job descriptions (new or revised) are needed; give examples of problems or inequities that the program is expected to cure. Describe the benefits to
both the individuals in the group and the organization as a whole.
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2. Emphasize that the job description program has the full support of top management. (This
point will be conveyed automatically if a member of top management is present.)
3. Point out that the objective of the program is to describe jobs—not to appraise performance
or adjust wage and salary levels.
4. Stress that no one will lose his or her job as a result of the program (if this is accurate; if not,
it is unwise to make such statements).
5. If a consulting firm has been hired to write the job descriptions, give a brief résumé of its
background and experience, perhaps mentioning a few of the companies with which it has
been especially successful in the past.
6. Explain exactly what will be required of group members and what advance preparations (if
any) they should make. Explain how the information will be obtained, what will become of
it, in what form it will be presented, and whether the employee will have access to his or her
completed job description.
7. Ask the group for their cooperation and suggestions.
8. At the conclusion of the meeting, answer all questions as clearly and completely as you can. If
time runs short or if there are more questions than you anticipated, tell the group members
how they can submit additional questions after the meeting.
Sometimes it is explained at these meetings that new job descriptions are being written as part of an
effort to reduce inequities in compensation, and that job content will not be altered as a result of this
effort. Or, on the contrary, the company may say that job duties and responsibilities are being reviewed
but that compensation will not be affected. While it is certainly desirable to be as up-front as possible
about the program’s aims and to allay employees’ fears before they impede the program’s progress,
experience has demonstrated that the eventual uses of job descriptions often go far beyond the purposes
expressed at the outset of the program. Any statement you make at an introductory meeting that
descriptions will be used for one purpose and that purpose only is likely to prove embarrassing later on.
Union Participation
One other group that merits a special introduction to the job description program is union officials.
In situations where one or more unions represent a strong force in the life of the organization, union
representatives often participate in the drafting of job descriptions. But even if the union is not going
to be actively involved in the preparation of the descriptions, it deserves to be notified in advance that
such action is anticipated. In a small organization where communications are more open, a series of
group meetings might not be necessary.
The majority of employees may already have heard about the job description program from their
supervisors or personnel staffers, and they may even have had an opportunity to ask questions and
receive clarification informally. In this case the company may decide simply to issue a memo outlining
the reasons behind the program and its primary objectives. An introductory memo may also be sent out
to all employees just prior to the small group meetings. When signed by the company president, such a
memo provides the support that is so essential to the program’s success. A sample memo follows.
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Sample Introductory Memo for Job Description Program
TO:
All Employees
FROM: Eleanor Andersen, Company President
As most of you know, there has been widespread dissatisfaction for some time with our
existing set of job descriptions. These were prepared almost ten years ago, and in the
space of those ten years our company has undergone unprecedented growth. Many of
you are now, on a regular basis, performing functions and fulfilling responsibilities that
do not appear in your job descriptions. Others are performing jobs that do not even have
written descriptions. These and other inadequacies associated with our job descriptions
have made recruiting and hiring more difficult, have complicated grievance handling,
and have caused other problems.
Why is an accurate, up-to-date job description so important? It is valuable both to yourself and to management because:
1. It helps your supervisor make the proper work assignments, and ensures that you will
not be asked to perform functions that do not fall within the limits of your skill, experience, and responsibility.
2. It enables you to understand what your supervisor expects of you, and to appraise
your own performance in light of established job objectives.
3. It serves as a basis for the annual performance appraisal by providing you and your
supervisor with a basis for setting objectives for defining the limits of your responsibility and authority, for clarifying important relationships with others in your department,
and for deciding how specific results will be measured.
4. It helps management evaluate the differences in skills and abilities required to perform
specific jobs, and thus to set appropriate wage and salary levels.
5. It can be used by management to develop skills and experience required by the job
so that it can be staffed with an individual who meets these requirements.
6. It serves as a valuable orientation tool, giving the newly hired employee a concise
summary of the job.
In the near future you will be asked to meet with your supervisor and a member of the
human resources staff, and to fill out a job description questionnaire. Please fill out this
questionnaire as carefully and completely as possible, and provide human resources as
much help as you can. Feel free to ask questions of either your immediate supervisor or
a member of the human resources department.
Thank you.
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Accessibility of Descriptions
Once the descriptions are written, the question remains of who should have access to them.
Company policies vary widely on this, but in most firms employees have access to their own job
descriptions. This is certainly recommended—how else can employees determine whether they’re
doing all that is required in their jobs, unless they know exactly what is entailed in the job.
It also is standard procedure for managers and supervisors to have access to the descriptions for their
subordinates as well. Beyond this, however, there is a tendency among the majority of employers to
keep their description programs relatively “closed.” It seems that organizations that use descriptions
primarily for salary administration are less likely to allow all employees free access to them than are
companies who use them for other purposes. It is very unusual to allow clerical and production workers
to examine managerial descriptions, except when they have a legitimate need to do so.
Based on widely accepted personnel practices, the following guidelines seem reasonable for the
majority of cases. While your company’s particular needs may demand some deviation from these
guidelines, they can be used as a starting point for establishing company policy:
1. Employees should have access to, and preferably a copy of, their own description.
2. Supervisors, managers, and executives should have access to the descriptions of their subordinates.
3. Nonmanagerial employees should not have access to managerial descriptions.
4. There may be instances when managers or executives (but not usually supervisors) would have
access to the descriptions of employees who do not report to them. This may be appropriate
during reorganizations, long-range development, or other situations. In addition, it might be
appropriate for managers to view the job descriptions of employees from other departments
vying for open positions in the manager’s department.
5. When employees are applying for internal transfers or promotions, it may be appropriate for
them to receive copies of the description of the open job. If this procedure is abused, access
could be limited to viewing only by final candidates for the open job.
6. HR staffers should have access on a “need-to-know” basis. This means that the HR vice president, director, or manager generally would have unrestricted access to any description. The
same generally would be true for most professional and managerial compensation, employment, employee relations, training, and related personnel. Other HR staffers, such as benefits
managers, as well as clerical and administrative staff not specifically designated to work in the
job descriptions area, would have more restricted access.
Keeping Job Descriptions Up-to-Date
A crucial factor in the success of any job or position description program is the procedure for keeping descriptions up-to-date. Next to inaccurately phrased job descriptions, failure to maintain descriptions is the most frequent reason job description programs fail. Today, more than ever, the importance
of a serious maintenance program, because of ADA, cannot be overdone. An obsolete job description is
not only worthless but also may actually be harmful to the company and the incumbent. Experts and
commentators note that employers are probably better off if they have no job descriptions than if their
job descriptions are out-of-date.
To assure that persons who are disabled have equal access to jobs, it is vital that they be familiar
with all the current essential functions of the position. An old job description may include functions
not now required in the job that may keep a person with a disability out of the running for the position.
Or, the opposite may occur when new functions may not be reflected in the job description. Either sce-
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nario may be an invitation to a lawsuit by a disabled job applicant kept out of the position because a
job is described inaccurately. Similarly, the company may suffer if an obsolete job description prevents
an employee from making the best possible contribution to the job.
Changes in jobs take many forms and occur for a variety of reasons. For example, a change in the job’s
physical surroundings might affect the level of hazard or fatigue, creating the need for protective garments or equipment and/or creating a need to accommodate an otherwise qualified individual in the job.
A technological change, either in the product itself or in the equipment or process used to manufacture it, might make the job easier or more difficult to perform; it might also create or eliminate a need
for special knowledge. For example, a change in supervisors might result in a reorganization of several
jobs into completely new combinations of essential functions.
Some of these changes are abrupt, making it fairly obvious that the job should be reviewed and the
description revised. But others are more gradual, and frequently go unnoticed for long periods of time.
It can be very difficult to decide when a change in a job is significant enough to merit the time and
effort involved in rewriting the job description. Sometimes minor changes are ignored. But even small
changes can accumulate over a period of time to the point where they can’t be ignored any longer.
The promptness with which such action is taken will depend on the nature of the change.
Obviously, anything affecting the rate of pay for a job should be dealt with as soon as possible. Other
changes can be processed as time allows, but even these should not be unduly postponed.
Set Up Formal Review Program
Today every company should have a formal schedule for reviewing all job descriptions in the company. Preferably, because of the legal climate, a review should occur at least once a year. These days it
would be “penny wise and pound foolish” for employers to contend that they cannot afford the time
and resources required for annual reviews.
If a yearly review is not possible for every job, then at the very least, certain jobs should be classified
as benchmark positions for the purposes of review. These jobs, then, would be reviewed (and updated as
appropriate) yearly. Other jobs in the same family would then be reviewed on an as-needed basis, based
on the findings of the benchmark reviews, as well as on some other predetermined interval. In addition, as a general rule, a job or position description should be reviewed and (if necessary) revised when:
1. The job content changes.
2. There is an organizational structure change.
3. The employee or his or her supervisor requests a review.
4. There is only one incumbent in the job, and that person leaves the job.
5. There are continuous problems in a department or division—the validity of job descriptions
in the area should always be considered when there are internal problems.
Most organizations follow essentially the same procedures when revising their descriptions as they
did when they wrote the originals. If, for example, an employee’s supervisor writes the first draft and
approval must be obtained from the HR/personnel manager and the department head, then this same
approval process is followed for revisions.
But who is responsible for noticing when revisions are needed and for initiating the appropriate
action? Under some circumstances—for example, when the change might lead to an increase in pay—
the employee or the union will be quick to call attention to the need for a revision. But generally
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speaking, it is the immediate supervisor who should arrange for a review of the job. Unfortunately,
most supervisors are not aware of this responsibility, or they are reluctant to say anything for fear of
creating an awkward situation. Supervisors and job incumbents alike must be trained to recognize the
mutual advantages of keeping job descriptions up-to-date. This can be integrated into the orientation
phase of the program, with periodic follow-up in the form of memos, small group meetings to review
updating procedures, etc. Supervisors, employees, and the union must all understand that the company
gives top priority to job description maintenance. Supervisors in particular should know that they will
be held accountable for any undesirable consequences that might occur as a result of their failure to act
promptly.
On the following pages you will find sample job descriptions taken from BLR’s comprehensive
Encyclopedia of Prewritten Job Descriptions. They will give you some idea of the variety of formats currently in use and the overall appearance of the finished product.
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Licensed Practical Nurse
Reports to: _______________________________ Department:______________________________
Classification: ____________________________ Division:. _________________________________
Date: _____________________________________ Approved:________________________________
Job Summary:
Works under the direction of a qualified professional nurse. Participates in the planning, implementation,
and evaluation of nursing care, within the objectives, standards, and policies of the department and within
the parameters of his or her preparation. Cooperates with the members of the nursing and medical staffs and
other hospital departments.
Essential Functions:
1. Provides direct and individualized nursing care to an assigned group of patients based on the application
of scientific principles, under the supervision of a registered professional nurse.
2. Assists in preoperative, postoperative, and relevant health teaching for patient and family.
3. Shares responsibility for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of nursing care plans and nursing care.
4 Participates in team conferences, sharing knowledge, information, and ideas among team members.
5. Prepares, administers, and records medications in accordance with the policy regarding the administration of medications by a Licensed Practical Nurse.
6. Performs more-complex nursing activities as competence increases.
7. Participates in emergency care.
8. Communicates frequently with the Team Leader regarding patients’ physical and mental conditions.
9. Records information concisely, accurately, and completely.
10. Identifies and utilizes appropriate channels of communication.
11. Constructively participates in appropriate committees within the Nursing Department and/or the hospital.
Additional Responsibilities:
1. Floats as requested by the Team Leader and/or Supervisor/Staffing Coordinator.
2. Assists in the orientation of new personnel when requested.
3. Performs other related duties as assigned.
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities:
1. Demonstrates clinical competence.
2. Assumes responsibility for own continued personal and professional growth.
3. Appropriate manner, conduct, and grooming.
4. Ability to work cooperatively and communicate effectively.
5. Good health and consistent attendance.
6. Membership and participation in Licensed Practical Nurses Association encouraged.
Education and Experience:
1. Completion of a formal education program in practical nursing.
2. Current state licensure.
3. One (1) year of clinical practice preferred.
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Personnel Assistant
Reports to: _______________________________ Department:______________________________
Classification: ____________________________ Division:. _________________________________
Date: _____________________________________ Approved:________________________________
Essential Functions:
1. Performs diversified duties in the processing and monitoring of the employee benefits program, and
maintains all employee personnel files. Assists the Assistant Personnel Manager, under the direction of
the Director of Human Resources.
2. Processes group insurance claims covering company employees and dependents. Forwards claims to specified carrier; reconciles claim payments if needed. Checks and verifies dental insurance bills and authorizes
payment. Answers employee questions concerning benefits; refers to various resources for information as
needed. Enrolls new employees in programs; conducts short orientation to explain benefits. Explains
additional benefits at the end of the probationary period.
3. Sets up files on all new personnel and assigns employee numbers. Records changes on employee status as
necessary (e.g., change of address, departmental transfers, rate increases, terminations, etc.) and forwards
to Accounting for payroll update. Verifies payroll changes with computer printout.
4. Performs clerical functions; types, posts, and distributes letters and memos. Updates bulletin boards.
Answers phones for department and others. Signs invoices authorizing payment for various office and
first-aid supplies for the company. Verifies employment and medical insurance of employees.
5. Attends meetings for the company newsletter. Writes articles for the newsletter and follows up on
production.
6. Prepares the individual retirement account (IRA) contributions report and forwards to the Accounting
Department. Takes statements from injured employees for workers’ compensation; updates OSHA report.
Completes wage and salary reports and surveys as needed. Updates targeted job tax credit file and keeps
balance of savings.
Additional Responsibilities:
1. As needed, screens applications/résumés and tests applicants. Orders temporary help for various departments.
2. Performs other similar or related duties as requested or assigned.
Qualifications:
High school graduation, or equivalent, with at least two years’ business experience of a clerical nature.
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Programmer
Reports to: _______________________________ Department:______________________________
Classification: ____________________________ Division:__________________________________
Date: _____________________________________ Approved:________________________________
Position Description:
Performs maintenance and modifications of programs currently in production to keep them responsive to user
needs and to ensure efficient operation in the production environment.
Essential Functions:
The person in this position reports to the Manager of Systems Development and is responsible for the financial,
human resource, and manufacturing computer systems. The incumbent in this position has no direct reports.
The Systems Development group is a service organization for the division whose primary responsibility is to
plan, design, and install integrated data processing systems to support management control and decisionmaking activities. The incumbent in this position performs maintenance and modifications of programs currently in production. This individual is responsible for analyzing existing program logic to determine last
method of accomplishing required changes or cause of program malfunction. In addition, this person designs
program logic to eliminate problems, accomplish needed changes, or increase operational efficiency. The
incumbent modifies or expands coding to accomplish specified processing changes. Also required is testing
modified programs to ensure that changes operate correctly and that changes have no adverse impact on programs or systems operations. The incumbent updates programs’ historical and procedural documentation to
reflect modifications. The incumbent creates special reports and file extracts from existing databases using
generalized routines or report writers.
The incumbent in this position is governed by corporate policies and procedures as well as division goals.
Typical decisions made by the incumbent include determining the method of how to resolve problems as well
as determine the impact the method used will have. Day-to-day directions on a project basis are given by the
Senior Programmer Analyst. Any problems or situations that users may be experiencing will be referred to
the Senior Programmer Analyst. Among the requirements of this position is a working knowledge of programming languages, systems analysis and designs, and database designs.
The person’s principal challenge is to resolve a user’s problem within limited time constraints. The incumbent is often on a 24-hour emergency need basis to resolve and correct any malfunctions that may occur.
Principal Accountabilities:
1. Analyze and design program logic to eliminate problems and to ensure efficient operation in the production environment.
2. Test modified programs to ensure user data accuracy and that modifications have no adverse impact on
systems operation.
3. Provide documentation for Operations and System Development to reflect system and job flow.
4 Provide administrative reports to ensure up-to-date and accurate information.
Additional Responsibilities:
May work on special projects from time to time.
Qualifications:
Success in this position also requires interpersonal skills for frequent interactions with users, managers, and vendors.
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Telemarketing Representative
Reports to: _______________________________ Department:______________________________
Classification: ____________________________ Division:__________________________________
Date: _____________________________________ Approved:________________________________
Job Function:
Represents the company with customers and prospects by soliciting orders for merchandise or handling customer questions or complaints over the telephone.
Essential Functions:
1. Develops a list of prospects from resource material or company records.
2. Calls or receives calls from prospective customers, explaining type of service or product offered.
3. Quotes prices, delivery dates, and payment terms and tries to persuade customer/prospect to buy, using
knowledge of company products and services.
4. Enters into computer the names, addresses, purchases, and comments of prospects solicited.
5. Completes order form, including delivery date and credit information. Confirms with credit department
acceptability of the order.
6. At end of shift prepares summary report of activity as required by company telemarketing operations
manual, and e-mails report to corporate Telemarketing Operations.
Additional Responsibilities:
1. May be required to contact customers on miscues (delayed shipments, shortage of materials, etc.) and
explain circumstances.
2. May cross-reference prospect lists with actual customer lists to avoid duplication of calling.
3. In slack hours may perform other duties as assigned by Telemarketing Supervisor.
Qualifications:
1. Friendly, persuasive telephone manner.
2. Ability to read, write, and understand English well. Proficiency in Spanish or French also a plus.
3. Three-week training program will offer knowledge of company products or services. Probationary period
will include satisfactory passing of this training course.
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