1. home and garden
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PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE
FARM
WHY,
AND
WHEN,
HOW
TO
TILE
DRAIN.
BY
C.
G.
ELLIOTT,
DRAINAGE
ENGINEER.
NEW
JOHN
LONDON
:
YORK
WILEY
CHAPMAN
"
"
1903.
:
SONS.
HALL,
LIMITED.
COPYRIGHT
ROBERT
DRUMMOND,
SECURED.
PRINTER,
NEW
YORK.
PREFACE.
THE
following
interested
are
has
short
tile
in
been
have
scarcely
actual
and
in
subject
his
all
say
This
say
is
enough
to
of
knowledge
his
farm.
these
constant
language
is
September,
and
close
is
pages
of
the
where
the
soil
ing
drain-
the
elementary
how
methods
author
subject, but
an-
and
drain
to
described
and
tested,
It
men.
G.
is
be
to
to
which
contemplates
are
in
in
now
hoped
that
understood
ELLIOTT,
Civil
ILLINOIS,
of
that
intention
C.
TONICA,
time
few
farmer
well
begun
western
manner,
sufficientlyclear
all.
to
of
requisite
practice
these
he
So
farmers
have
they
the
practical
by
the
upon
when,
been
acquire
said
practical
have
use
be
give
why,
The
pages
if
the
not
to
that
plain
know,
is
States,
requires
of
who
introduction
adapted
and
there
the
those
to
drainage.
drainage
object
It
since
before
be
must
should
farm.
farm
to
The
concise
a
of
prairie
the
The
farmer
the
by
the
surroundings.
give,
the
time
time
States
observation.
to
the
operations.
Eastern
to
subject
taken
of
knowledge
the
in
drainage
presented
are
pages
Engineer.
1882.
lii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
AND
SOILS
THE
of
Land
of
Mechanical
Water"
Soil
(Illustrated).
and
Subsoil
Tile
Drains.
of
of
Kinds
"
the
CHAPTER
ACTION
How
Tile
Changes
OF
Drought
"
Commencing
LEVELING
Location
Notes
of
of
"
Drains
Main
and
"
Tile
"
"
Adjusting
Chemical
Before
Tile.
DRAINS.
Notes
Staking
and
Instruments
Leveling
"
Leveling
Grade
Computing
for
and
Field
Drains"
Depth
"
"
mining
Deter-
Grades.
AND
and
Depth
Concrete
"
SOIL.
Considered
be
LOCATING
Level
Drains"
DEPTH
Basins
Drains
Temperature"
to
CHAPTER
Silt
Surface
the
III.
AND
Leveling
"
Dry
Drain.
to
Outlet
and
Open
"
THE
Soil"
the
CHAPTER
The
of
Contour
Drains
UPON
Questions
"
Wet
a
II.
DRAINS
Affect
Drains
--Sources
Drainage
Between
Relation
The
THEM.
TO
Requiring
Difference
Drainage
to
DRAINAGE
OF
RELATION
Kinds
Introduction"
I.
IV.
SIZES
Distance
OF
DRAINS.
Apart
of
Drains
"
Sizes
of
CONTENTS.
VI
CHAPTER
DETAILS
PRACTICAL
Drains
Mapping
Difficulties
in
OP
the
Grading
"
V.
THE
WORK.
Outlet
Bottom
"
Obstruction
Drains"
Constructing
Tile-
Laying
of
Drains-
Junctions.
VI.
CHAPTER
DITCHING
Involved"
Difficulties
The
MACHINES.
The
Principles"
Blickensderfer
Tile
Drain
Cost
of
Cost
Drainage
PROFIT.
Mains
"
Profits
ROAD
of
of
Tile
Drainage.
Roads
VIII.
DRAINAGE.
Surface
Drainage
"
Effect
of
"
CHAPTER
Improvement
Drains
Ditcher-
VII.
AND
of
Tile
Ditcher.
CHAPTER
COST
Johnson
upon
Roads"
Care
"
of
Under-DrainageDrained
Roads.
LIST
ILLUSTRATIONS.
OF
FTG.
PAGE
1.
A
Dry
Soil.
5
2.
A
Wet
Soil
5
3.
A
Drained
4.
Surface
5.
Proper
6.
How
7.
Faulty
8.
Leveling
9
Comstock
Soil
Subsoil
and
7
for
Form
Tile
5
Ditch
Open
Affect
Drains
10
Soil
the
14
Outlet
24
26
Level
29
10.
Plan
of
Drainage
32
11.
Plan
of
Drainage
33
12.
Plan
of
Drainage
35
13.
Staking
Drains
37
14.
Silt
15.
Cross-Section
16.
Map
of
17.
Tile
Hoe
18.
Grading
19.
Outlet
66
20.
Junctions
70
21.
Johnson
22.
Blickensderfer
23
Plan
Basins
46
of
Drained
50
Field
61
62
the
Tile
for
Drains
Bottom
64
Ditcher
Tile
Improving
73
Drain
a
Ditching
Cross-Section
25.
Cross-
Section,
of
Road
Showing
74
Road
87
.
24.
Machine
.
.
,
Improved
a
Drain
88
for
Intercepting
Water.
vii
90
CHAPTER
AND
SOILS,
Introduction
Water
The
THE
RELATION
Kinds
"
of
Relation
Drainage
of
TO
of Drains
of
Wet
Sources
"
and
Surface
Drains
Open
"
a
the
THEM.
Drainage
Between
Contour
the
DRAINAGE
Kequiring
Difference
Kinds
"
OF
Land
Mechanical
"
I.
Dry Soil
a
"
Sub-Soil
and
to
Drains.
Tile
"
of
INTRODUCTION.
But
in
A
little attention
very
Illinois
casual
when
glance
of
many
for the
slow
of
farms
them
the
and
that
the
benefit
immense
with
problem
"
others,
Can
will
and
this
arrived
experience
my
probable
useful
until
of
others,
is, and
what
may
be
from
it will
field
or
the
oration
evap-
before
he
man
be
would
water
and
is at
upon
this
the
what
and
outlay?"
matter
obtained
"
the
thoroughly,
not
can
ourselves
availed
have
present
himself
farm
justify
of
ideas
correct
thorough
the
drainage
accomplish.
a
drainage which
are
to
and
the
sun,
asks
my
returns
mention
well
year,
observing
work
farmer
principles of drainage
of the
the
any
this
have
we
land, and
surplus
conclusions
at
the
agricultural community.
The
drain
recently.
of
spring
from
convince
the
many.
I
the
and
Valid
It
will
practicalfeasibilityof
The
of flat
heat
of
to
the
age
drain-
teams, is impatiently waiting
by
removal
rapid
land
to
states, until
in
drainage
rainfall
given
partially submerged,
are
men
natural
been
western
our
begin operations,
can
be
other
at
idle
with
farmer,
of
and
has
few
of
the
of actual
benefits
money
cruing
ac-
value
2
to the farmer.
the
a
FARM
PRACTICAL
but
soil,
DRAINAGE.
These
benefits
be
by
may
seen
field with
well-drained
not
are
which
one
in
away
will compare
who
one
any
hidden
and
is wet
un-
drained.
of exfailure of crops on account
cessive
Almost
rains.
put down
may
every farmer
total failure of several
his losses the partial
or
is
First,there
among
acres
of land to
part of the
produce a
season,
Second, the
at the proper
growth at
no
the land
crop
was
because,during some
too
soil is in condition
wet.
to receive the crop
of the year, and it beginsa healthy
dollars to the
This will add many
season
once.
labor.
value of the field each year, and cost no more
Third,the labor which producesa poor crop on undrained
land,will producean
land when
properlydrained.
often doubled
on
in winter
one
on
the
same
this way crops
is called average farm land.
what
Fourth,by reason
the soil,
grainand
out
excellent
In
of the absence
grass
are
not
of
water
surplus
"heaved"
and
are
in
frozen
time.
material is put on the land
Fifth,whatever fertilizing
available for plantfood,for the reason
is made more
that the soil is more
and not surface-washed,
porous
and fertilizers are
in the soil.
at once
incorporated
Undecayed matter put upon the soil decaysmore
idly
rapand becomes
sooner
preparedfor the use of plants.
Fertilizing
gases held in the air are carried by the rain
into the soil,making it more
rich,instead of being
washed
away or taken with vapor into the air again.
Other
advantageswill be mentioned as we proceed
but these justnamed
will perhapsbe sufficient
farther,
to show the importanceof the subject. Each season
as
it comes,
turns
another
the
telling
same
leaf of the book
of Farm
omy,
Econ-
story in differentways, and
em-
BELATION
OF
it at
phasizing
times
DRAINAGE
in such
TO
a manner
3
SOILS.
as
to
compel the
farmer to heed its teachings.
KINDS
Ponds
OF
LAND
REQUIRING
DRAINAGE.
sloughsare wholly unfit for cultivation,
in the dryestyears, without drainage. Ponds are
even
basins which seem
for
to have been providedby nature
of surpluswater
ing
receptacles
flowingfrom the surroundhigh land, and are reservoirs for the drainageof
land which givesthe farmer his profits.These ponds
are
generallycovered with aquaticplants,which are
of life in wet
soil,but easilykilled
very tenacious
when
deprivedof their natural nutriment by drainage.
of prairieland,
Sloughsare the natural water-courses
being to level land what creeks and rivers are to more
rollingand hillysections. These are often broad and
flat,
allowingwater to spreadover rods of valuable land,
where by suitable ditches it might be confined to a
much
and
space and
narrower
many
of valuable land
acres
reclaimed.
Flat
land
under
which
directs the farmer's
season
which
when
soil,
usuallythe first land
attention to draining. A
cultivation is
is drier than usual shows
not
that such
wet, will producea crop equalto his
too
best fields. On
to him
this land the natural
drainageis not
rapidenough in the spring-timeto fit it for the growth
of plants. It is generallycultivated when
too wet,
which causes
the soil to become
compact and in time
of drought it shrinks and cracks,resulting
in the ruin
of the crop
soil is in a
before the
worse
more
than
condition
plow
was
or
runs
where
the
Channels
common
and
loss of the
labor ; for the
than
in the
it
was
spring
started.
through cultivated land often are
land is rolling.Water flows down
4
FARM
PRACTICAL
the
slopesand
from
oozes
DRAINAGE.
the banks
until these
they rarely
producea
greatinconvenience in cultivating.
are
wet
so
that
SOURCES
OF
crop, and
runs
are
a
WATER.
of all water of use
or
injury
Primarilythe source
ever,
howis the rain-fall. Considered,
to the agriculturist
with reference to drainage,
we
speak of surfacewater, which rests upon the surface of the soil,a part
the
a part flowingover
passingdown to the sub-soil,
raised by
surface and passingoff,and the remainder
or used by plants
; ooze water,which passes
evaporation
through the soil below its surface and finallyrests in
channel or flat land,saturating
it until it is unfit
some
in
has its source
for cultivation ; springwater, which
of the field,
or
one
some
locality
proceedsfrom some
distant source
throughits own channels in the sub-soil.
be providedfor by drainage,
to
These must
according
the nature
MECHANICAL
of the
case.
DIFFERENCE
A
WET
AND
A
DRY
SOIL.
of a
lump of dry soil by means
common
magnifyingglasswe see that it is made up of
small particles
thrown together
having
miscellaneously,
small cavities between
them resembling those of a
The
also have minute
particles
pores and
sponge.
hold liquidsby the power
cells which
of absorption.
here given are drawn to illustrate this,
and
The figures
similar in idea to those of Col. Waring, which he
are
borrows
from an English Keport on
Drainage. Let
us
dry a portionof soil and from it cut a small block.
This, placed under a magnifying glass,will appear
somewhat
in figure1.
It is composed
as
represented
of irregularly
shaped particles
having channels and
cavities between
them
similar to those existingin a
If
we
look
BETWEEN
at
a
RELATION
pileof
minute
small stones.
DRAINAGE
OF
SOILS.
These
in turn have very
particles
ture.
absorbingand holdingmois-
cells,
capableof
In the piecebefore us there is no moisture between
the particles
in them, both beingfilled with
nor
Fig.S
air alone.
growth
plant.
-
A
It is evident
drained
Soil
from
the laws
that such soil is unfit for the
If
pour
until it will hold no
water
shown
The
in
we
figure2.
space before
Seeds and
water.
every
TO
we
growthof
have the
cavities,
pores,
occupiedby
roots
vegetable
seed
or
this block of
upon
more,
of
in such
air is
a
soil
"
dry soil
state of things
in short,
cells,
now
can
filled with
not
thrive.
7
6
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
excluded,except what little may pass
throughthe water to the growing roots.
If we notice the soil as we
put the water upon the
will see that a drop placed
block under the glass,
we
side or the top, changesthe color of the soil,
upon one
showing that the soil is moist,but there is no change
in the figure. This state is
in the spaces represented
shown
The
minute
in fig.
3.
spaces in the particles
for all air is
filled with
are
between
here
an
roots
moisture
will hold
and
certain
a
centage,
per-
while
varyingwith the kind of soil,
filled with air.
the particles
are
example of a drained soil in which
the spaces
both air and
It will be
have
to
access
We
the
moisture.
have
plant
then,that drainingis simplyremoving the surplus
water from the soil. This allows the atmosphereto
take its place,
therebygivingthe plantneeded oxygen
at its roots, and
producinga chemical change in the
soil which givesthe plants
nourishment.
more
The
of water
held by absorption
varies
amount
greatlywith the kind of soil. To show that a well
drained soil is by no means
have expera dry soil,
we
iments
dred
by Professor Schubler,who found that one hunpounds of dry soil would retain the following
:
weightof water that would not flow off by drainage
seen,
THE
Sand
25
Loamy Soil
Clay Loam
Pure Clay
40
RELATION
OF
50
70
THE
CONTOUR
TO
A
section
THE
SURFACE
AND
SUB-SOIL
DRAINAGE.
prairiesoil usuallyshows, first,
what is known
which consists of loam, more
as the soil,
less vegetable,
or
to a depth of from 18 to 30 inches,
then a few inches of mixed soil and clay,
then fine clay,
cross
of
OF
pounds.
pounds.
pounds.
pounds.
RELATION
varyingin
OF
DRAINAGE
TO
7
SOILS.
color
This constitutes
accordingto locality.
the sub-soil,
and in its natural state is not so
easilypermeated by water.
Natural drainagein such a soil is accomplished
by
the surface water flowingdown the slope,
and the ooze
of it passingdown
most
water flowingthroughthe soil,
thence graduallyoozes
down
the
to the clay sub-soil,
place of exit or level. By
slopeuntil it finds some
that the relation of
reference to fig.
4 it will be seen
surface and sub-soil has much
to do with the facility
with which artificialdrainageis effected.
Fig A
At
the surface than
layerof clayrises nearer
at other places,
holdingthe water back of it until its
the obstruction,
level becomes highenough to flow over
when
it oozes
down the regular
slopeand is discharged;
after passingthrough the soil is
at B, the water
or
as
held below by the claybasin in quantities
sufficient to
make
the soil at D
unfit for profitable
cultivation.
Such
A
the
is the
case
at
C.
We
do not
wish
it understood
that sub-soil
It is only
clayis imperviousto water.
soil is so susceptible
The
to the
so.
comparatively
passage
marked.
of
water
that
the
difference
is all the
retentive power
varies greatly.Understanding these natural
we
As
can
seen
before,the
arrange
our
drainagewith
more
of soils
ties,
difficul-
reference
to
3
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
These
overcoming them.
things are mentioned,not
with the intention of coveringall cases, but to suggest
to the thinking and
thing
someinvestigating
agriculturist
take into consideration
he should
of what
he undertakes
to drain
land.
wet
OF
KINDS
DRAINS.
to find
have been made
Many experiments
material for,and method
drains.
ditches
None
stood the test
have
for surface
drains,and
drains.
If the western
effective
he
drainage,
when
farmer
of
some
expensive
in-
constructing,
of time
but
open
pipes for under
wishes permanent and
tile
be at the expense
of constructing
ditches for largewater-courses,
must
suitable open
well laid lines of tile drains for
generaldraining
Drains constructed of boards,
brush,gravel,
purposes.
less effectualand in the long run
more
are
etc.,
sive.
expen-
and
OPEN
However
are
often
a
much
DRAINS.
ditches may be disliked,
they
necessity.The farmer who has experienced
the convenience
open
and
profitof
under-drains
conceives
doing away with all open ditches by using
tiles and coveringthem, thus saving all inconvenience
occasioned by the ditch,
and also addingto his tillable
land that occupied
This operation
water-course.
as a
will often retard the action of drains which discharge
into the largechannel,and if the slough is largewill
wholly prevent good drainage. As noticed before,
the natural water-courses,
are
sloughson the prairies
give surface drainageto largetracts of land either side
of them, and duringseasons
of heavy rain require
large
the water
capacityin order to remove
coming to them.
In many
cases
a
pipe eleven or twelve inches in dithe idea of
10
be
into
provided,
discharged.
must
ditch which
A
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PEACTICAL
all lesser drains may
which
is to be
in
water-course
a
be
ordinarily
than a
largesloughs,should be of greater dimensions
ditch,
cow-path, furrow or spade ditch. A narrow
if deep enough,will soon
wash at the sides,
ing
causeven
sods and earth to fall in. These, with the growth
of grass, will soon
obstruct the ditch to such a degree
that it will be worthless,
unless the water flows rapidly
work.
enough to wash out all matter, or it is cleaned by handBesides
little freshet the land
every
and
this it will hold
little water
so
that in
each side will be flooded
on
injurydone.
12FEET
for Open Ditch.
Fig. 5." Proper Form
Figure 5 gives the
will stand at the
The
cross-section
sides and
be
can
of
a
ditch which
kept
easily
ditch is twelve feet wide at the
deep.
sides
The
slope 2
to
clean.
top and three
1, that is,one-half
the
width at the top is twice the
should
be taken
should
3 feet from
be smoothed
should
and seeded to grass.
remain
in grass.
of land for the
Such
a
the
depth. The earth
edge of the ditch,and
feet
ditch
This
will
ditch,giving firm
can
be
kept clear
A
border
of 10 feet
requiretwo
land
of weeds
for the
and
rods
banks.
long grass
burning the weeds in
the bottom
of the ditch.
In making the ditch short
should be avoided as much
these
turns
as
as
possible,
retard the flow,and occasion washing away on one side
by mowing
with
a
machine
and
RELATION
OF
DRAINAGE
of the ditch at the turn.
TO
11
SOILS.
The
grade may be, in almost
all cases, uniform with the slopeof the surface,
as
ally
usuthe inequalities
in prairiesloughs.
are
very slight
The magnitudeand expense of a ditch of this description
induces the farmer
at firstoften
substitute
to
his
easilyconstructed one, and thus cripple
whole system of drainage. After a few years of trial
he will have reason
to regret his half-way
work, and
some
more
will take
dry
be
excavated
road-plowand
it.
correct
of the year, the
season
may
to
measures
ditch
When
as
taken
above
quite rapidlywith
the
at
a
described
helpof
a
scraper.
TILE
DRAINS.
good effectsof drainagepreviouslymentioned
not be brought about by a system of open
can
drains,
only as such a system is constructed for the purpose of
In obsufficient outlets for under-drains.
serving
affording
in
the process of natural drainage
shown
as
fig.
4, we see that such drainageis very slow,since it
dependsupon the nature of the soil and the relation
of the contour
of the sub-soil to the surface.
Open
drains are simply an aid to natural drainage,acting
principally
upon the upper six or eightinches of soil.
is
the soil,during the spring-time,
Deeper than this,
allowingthe plowshareto
tough and compact, scarcely
because of its adhesive
cut and turn
it to the surface,
The
At
nature.
soil which
the
sun
and
the
same
has been
air,will
time,a
few inches of the surface
surface-drained and
be friable.
Later
acted upon by
in the summer,
dry,the lower soil will be found partially
well drained
becomes
it never
dry,but generally
but they
except at the surface. We must have ditches,
should
be regardedonly as necessary accessories to
if the
season
is
12
PRACTICAL
under-drains,
A
if
tile-drain,
It
depths,
to
line
The
the
pipes
ends
Each
series
of
all
away
should
have
should
have
to
permit
line
separate
of
The
in
following
pipes
carry
their
full
its
benefit.
purpose
requisites
sufficient
:
size,
which
water
fectly,
per-
may
laid
at
come
them.
Each
at
of
to
realize
accomplish
the
consist
DRAINAGE.
to
to
possess
should
proper
wish
we
order
in
should
FARM
orde'r
inclines,
tiles
to
should
be
a
of
be
a
sufficient
water
should
regular
of
permanent
perfectly
good
to
free
space
outlet.
between
them
enter.
be
laid
on
an
incline,
grade.
material
improvement.
and
well-burned,
or
ACTION
DRAINS
OF
CHAPTER
ACTION
OF
DRAINS
Drought
Chemical
Temperature
"
Questions to be Considered
"
SOIL.
THE
UPON
"
"
13
SOIL.
IL
Tile Drains Affect the Soil
How
THE
UPON
Before
Change
Commencing to
Drain.
HOW
A
WATER
ENTERS
A
DRAIN.
termine
helpus to dejoints,and also to
of
understanding
correct
TILE
this will
the
the best way to make
locate the lines as regardstheir distance
tiles should
of.
The
joinedas closelyas the
moulding and burningwill
their ends
have
inequalities
arisingfrom
admit
apart.
this is done
When
there
will yet remain
pass in or out, but
not
enough to admit soil,
except in the form of very
the bottom
of the drain and nearly
fine silt. At
sufficient space
on
for the
water
to
level with either side of
a
with water, that is,it
forming the
can
hold
surface
upper
it,the
no
earth is saturated
more.
The
plane
of this saturated earth is
Figure 6 shows a cross-section
the waterof a drain,the curved line AB
representing
the darker partof the figure
table,or line of saturation,
and the lighter
the saturated earth,
portion
repesenting
called the water-table.
above
the water-table
the
drained
the
the
water
rain
down
until it reaches the saturated
further,it saturates the
go no
portion of the drained soil,thus causingthe
can
change its placeand rise higher. As
rises throughthe joints
the water
water-table rises,
water-table
the
When
surface it descends
passes
soil,when, as it
lower
soil.
downward
directly
of the
all the particles
force of gravity. When
soil contain all theywill hold by absorption,
falls upon
by
the drained
to
14
FARM
PRACTICAL
and they beinginclined,
and
a flow begins
tiles,
ol tne
continues
until the water-table
drain,when
the flow
the water-table
will vary
the
of
DRAINAGE.
It will be
ceases.
in
heightwith
in the soil.
drainagewater
rises to the
recedes to the floor of
When
seen
the
that
quantity
the water-table
a
top of the drain,the tile will discharge
largeas its caliber. If the water-table rises
locity
higherthan this,additional head is given and the vestream
as
of flow
is
but the
increased,
depthof drained
soil is decreased.
The
tiles
fact that the
are
porous
does not increase
the flow
.
to their
6
would
They
properties.
be
suitable for
as
nor
add
draining
draining
of glass,
of glazedware, as when
or
purposes if made
made
of porous clay,
for they will be taxed to their
full capacityby water
flowinginto the joints. The
water-table
does
either side of the
of rise
will be
extend
not
drain,but
on
rises
varyingwith the nature
alluded to again in the
a
as
level
indefinitely
the angle
it recedes,
of the soil.
discussion
This
fact
of the distance
apart of the drains.
HOW
TILE
Depth of Soil.
"
will be
seen
the action of
of the
DRAINS
From
that the
AFFECT
what
depthof
has
the
THE
SOIL.
before,it
soil is increased by
been
said
it not for the ence
presthe water-table rises high,thus
tile-drains,
since,were
drain,when
remain
it would
the depth of drained soil,
decreasing
until the surpluswater was
carried oif by slow natso
ACTION
OF
DRAINS
UPON
THE
15
SOIL.
ural
in placeof rapidly,
All
as by the drain.
drainage,
the soil acted upon
by the drain is made similar to
that at the surface. Air takes the placeof the surplus
water, so that a chemical action is begun. The inert
soil matter
is slowlychanged into plantfood,making
the whole depthof drained soil the natural home
for
the roots of plants. It is often thoughtthat the roots
of farm plantspenetrate but a few inches into the soil,
and that if the surface is dry, rich and porous
to a
depth of ten inches,the plantshave sufficient room
for growth. Professor
ican
W. O. Atwater,in the Amerthe
Extent
on
Agriculturist,
givesthe following
and Depth of Koots":
I have often been interested in noting the ideas
most
peoplehave as to how far and how deepthe roots
of plantsextend.
The
majorityguess roots of grass
and
and clover penetratebetween five and ten inches,
several feet. I
to find that they reach
are
surprised
have some
roots of timothy,
clover,and other plants,
dug from a very heavy clay soil,a good qualityof
in
brick clay,so compact and hard that a sharp knife,
cuttingit,leaves a surface as smooth and shinyas it
I have traced
the end of a pine board.
would
cut on
feet and
the roots of the timothy to a depth of two
inches.
four inches,
and the clover three feet and two
German
number
of years ago a very intelligent
A
farmer named
Schubart, made some
very interesting
observations upon the roots of plantsas they grow in
the field. An excavation five or six feet deep or more,
was
dug.in the soil so as to leave a vertical wall.
Againstthis wall a jetof water was playedby means
washed
of a garden sprinkler
away,
; the earth was
and the roots of the plants
growing therein laid bare.
The roots thus exposed in a field of rye, in one of
"
"
16
in
beans,and
of
a
"
Roots
mat
four feet.
as
one
case, in
deep as
sown
April,had
and six weeks
In
or
of wheat
the 26th of
the apgarden peas, presented
pearance
felt of white fibers,
extendingto
bed of
a
depthof about
a
DRAINAGE.
FAEM
PRACTICAL
September26,and
three and
penetrated
later about
a
feet,below
wheat
lightsubsoil,
feet. The
seven
four
roots
roots
uncovered
a
half
feet,
the surface.
found
were
of the wheat
in
April
fortyper cent, of the whole plant. Hon.
John Stanton Gould, I believe it is,says that he ' has
feet
the roots of Indian
corn
seen
extendingseven
downward/ and Prof. Johnson states that 'the roots
of maize, which in a rich and tenacious earth extend
have been traced to a lengthof
but two or three feet,
fifteenfeet in a light,
ten or even
sandy soil.' Roots
of clover,
extend
mellow soil,
when growing in a rich,
and vertically.
Prof. Stockbridge
far,both laterally
'washed
out
root of common
a
clover,one year old,
growing in the alluvial soil near the Connecticut river,
and found that it descended
to the
perpendicularly
depthof eightfeet.' Lucern roots are stated to reach
a depth of twenty and
even
thirtyfeet. Alderman
Mechi, in England,tells of a neighbor who ' dug a
which measured
thirteen feet six inches in
parsnip,
"
but was
broken
at that depth.'
length,
unfortunately
It will be seen
not
by this that maximum
crops can
be expecteduntil the soil is made lightand porous to
ment.
nourisha sufficientdepthto give the plantabundant
In prairie
soil the depthwhich is so desirable
be obtained in no other way than by under-draining.
can
constituted
Temperature. A
"
When
no
means
are
soil is another
warm
the
soil becomes
providedfor
the
removal
effect of
saturated
der-draining.
un-
and
of the water
18
PKACTICAL
the earth is in
when
"
the air is allowed
placeand
find its way to it,
which
is removed.
water
Drought.
soil dry in a
dry time?"
DRAINAGE.
FARM
it can
asked
It is often
do until the
not
to
surplus
drainingmakes
make
it too dry in
"If
year will it not
been shown
It has already
wet
that
a
a
a
drained
largequantityof moisture by absorption.
the roots of plants
The soil being very much
deepened,
have access
to the moisture contained in a much
larger
undrained.
of soil than when
mass
Again, a soil is
filled with capillary*
tubes,which carry moisture to
the surface,
where it is quicklyconverted into vapor.
If the surface is mellow
and the whole depthof soil
that water is conveyed
so
loose,the tubes are much
larger,
quently,
Conseto the surface in much
less quantities.
less moisture
is lost by evaporation. Still
in dry times the soil below the surface is much
further,
cooler than the air,hence,when
air containing
vapor
is brought in contact
with it,the vapor
is condensed
into water
of soil. In
and absorbed
by the particles
undrained
ing
soil the surface is made compact by standan
water, is baked
by the sun when the water is
is compact below, giving little depth of
evaporated,
soil for the plants.
Moisture evaporatesrapidly
through
the hard surface,
and roots, having a comparatively
soil holds
*
The
a
called
force
of the soil.
very
capillary attraction
It is
so
called
from
is of great importance
the
fact that
it is most
vator
to the cultinoticeable
in
exists between
It is the attraction which
tubes, called capillary tubes.
small tubes
When
liquid and a solid when
brought into contact.
small
a
the liquid rises in them
higher than the surface of the
placed in water
the
smallest
and
tube
water, rising highest in
varying in height inversely as
of capillary
the diameters
of the tubes.
The soil contains an endless number
are
tubes
which
tubes
are
communicate
much
smaller
with
than
each
in loose
other.
and
In hard
mellow
and
ones,
compact soils these
according to the
and
face
surface, where it is evaporated. If the sursuch
to
be broken
the capillary tubes are made
larger
up by any means
extent
that but little moisture
is conveyed
an
by them to the surface to be
evaporated.
law, moisture
is conveyed
to the
ACTION
small
Some
DRAINS
OF
enough
19
SOIL.
feel the ill effects of
range, soon
soils are
naturallyvery rich and
dry
weather.
porous,
the spring rains are
crops when
to allow the soil to be
good
found
THE
UPON
that such soil
worked, but
producesmuch
ducing
pro-
light
it has been
largercrops even
In short,thorough
dry times when well drained.
under-draininghas been found to be a most efficient
preventiveof drought. It also makes better tillage
which
and it
in itself is a great advantage,
possible,
in
makes
all
parts of the soil available for the
of
use
ful
use-
crops.
TO
QUESTIONS
There
BE
CONSIDERED
BEFORE
COMMENCING
farmers who
have
many
find very little profit
in
consequently
their land suffers from an excess
are
TO
poor
DRAIN.
and
crops
farming,not
cause
be-
in the
of water
of poor management and poorer
soil which is naturally
well drained.
It is
soil,but by
reason
of a
tillage
a weakness,particularly
prevalent
among
to
Farmer
put
a
littlework
should
on
understand
a
ers,
farm-
western
great deal of land.
the value of labor upon
The
the
loil before he invests much
in under-drainage.
capital
\f the land which he has been cultivating
has become
illled with seeds of noxious
sist
plantsuntil the crops conof half grainand half weeds,let him turn his attention
and capital
to more
thoroughcultivation as the
first thing to be done in order to make
agriculture
"
If his soil has become
furrow-trod " and
profitable.
producesa sicklycrop, let him rotate his crops, plow
in the fall,
seed to grass and pasture until,
by the best
the results of his labor
known
to agriculturists,
means
show
that he
for
time
a
has
by
poor
will suffer the full
friend.
profitable
succeeded.
He
but
cultivation,
for
penalty
may
at
cheat
the soil
last the farmer
his treatment
of his most
20
PRACTICAL,
FAEM
first questionthat
.a
DRAINAGE.
.
The
farmer
fore
consider be-
should
Is my land,which
is this :
undertakingdrainage,
is naturally
drained,receivingsuch .treatment at my
maximum
hands as to give me
crops? Draining is
returns
expensive,and in order to obtain profitable
from
the outlayhe must
cultivate in such a way that
the soil will bring him the largest
possible
crops. The
there is invested
money
there is for making
necessity
more
The
return.
gardenerwho
three hundred
which
dollars
will afford him
an
a
in the
sure
is to
of
good
market
hundred
two
pay
greater
corresponding
a
for land
acre
the
land
near
for his
or
city
products,
some
should
take into account
the crops
whether
carefully
pend
which he intends to raise,
the amount
of which will deskill,
capitaland adaptationof the
upon his own
the
soil,and the priceshe can get for them, will justify
purchase. He very well knows that with poor crops as
his only source
of revenue
he would
be lost in
soon
a
hopelesslabyrinthof debt. It is much the same
with the farmer
industrious
in draining. A careful,
farmer
drain
can
from
the
his land
investment.
not
cultivate well
and
drained
for
the
land
him, need
and
A
realize
handsome
slovenlyman,
which
not
a
nature
expect
turn
re-
who
will
has enriched
to make
draining
Pay-
Again, fashion
he is often
rules
the farmer
to
an
extent
which
A new
unwillingto admit.
implement has
its run
in a neighborhood as surelyas a new
pattern of
builds a
ladies of society. If one
goods among
man
convenient
and showy barn many
of his neighborswill
and
speedilyfollow suit,regardlessof their means
needs.
If neighbor A drains a field and therebyincreases
his crops, neighborB, seeing that he has sue-
ACTION
ceeded
OF
well,will
DRAINS
UPON
THE
21
SOIL.
forthwith
begin drainingone of his
fields. This habit of imitation is not to be discouraged,
for it is an important incentive
in all
to advancement
But
things. A good example is worthy of imitation.
in the last case
mentioned
neighborA may have given
the matter
careful thought,and have laid his planswith
much
and
carried them
with
such
out
so
foresight,
that the results are highly satisfactory,
thoroughness,
while
B, seeing only the results,hastens to obtain
similar ones
without the preparatory care.
He, perhaps,
does his work
finds the profits
at random, and
much
smaller
should
what
than he
make
his
soil and
the
his
case
In
he
man
with
connection
should
facilities he
natural
Each
to suppose.
own.
done
neighbor has
the
led
was
has
studyhis own
for thorough
work.
Another
pense.
seriously
thoughtof is the exDraining,if done thoroughly,is expensiveat
the outset.
the
farm
to be
matter
Of
course
does not
a
small
involve
drain
much
and
here
outlay.
there
on
prairie
But
usuallywet to such an extent that outlets
be provided at considerable
must
expense, which, in
tire
themselves,give no adequatereturn, and often an enfarms
are
system of
mains
and
sub-mains
be laid before
must
much
should
be
ent
differ-
A survey
be directly
obtained.
can
profit
made, giving the elevation and distances of
this
portionsof the farm or field. From
of the cost of
estimate
drains
can
the farmer
and
be made.
should
be
money
to
However
a
drain
much
or
or
an
approximate
system of
little is done
edge
knowlpreparedwith the requisite
begin at the right placeand do
thoroughwork as far as he goes.
that under-drainingis not
It must
like
be
bered
remem-
buildinga fence,
22
which
which
be
may
in
few
a
present.
the
if
moved
but
benefit
FAEM
PRACTICAL
farm
will
years
it
is
for
it
a
work
future
DRAINAGE.
is
in
not
rot
the
down
which,
right
and
if
generations
place,
require
well
as
building,
re-
done,
well
or
will
as
the
LEVELING
AND
LOCATING
CHAPTER
LEVELING
The Outlet
AND
23
DRAINS.
III.
LOCATING
DRAINS.
cation
LoLeveling Level Notes
Leveling Instruments
of Drains
Field
Staking and Leveling for Drains
of Main
Drain" Computing Grade and Depth
Determining
and Adjusting Grades.
"
"
"
"
"
Notes
"
"
THE
The
first and
drainageis
small
as
as
OUTLET.
importantconsideration
most
the outlet.
We
and
please,
graded,and even
we
railroad is
the lines ten
may use
laythem
go to
feet apart,and
in
good
tiles as largeor
as
as a
accurately
the expense
of locating
yet if the outlet is
the drainage
will not be successful in all respects.
free,
The
lack of good natural outlets is perhaps
the greatest
that the western
farmers have to
difficulty
in drainingflat prairie. To make
undersurmount
he must
often deepen the watercourse
drainingsuccessful,
even
by making open ditches,
largerand deeper
than the one
In order that a
described.
previously
tile drain may discharge
all the \vate*r that it is capable
of carrying,
the water
flow away
with perfect
must
not
freedom.
It is
contrivance
thought by many that some
may
vented,
be used by which the force of gravitymay be circumits water,notwithstanding
and the drain made to discharge
outlet. A box or barrel is sunk
a faulty
made to
the water
at the lower end of the drain,and
inches and then flow away through
rise twenty or thirty
a
shallow
open
ditch.
The
effect of this is shown
in
24
FARM
PEACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
that if water
will enter at
fig.7. We must remember
the jointsof the drain,it will flow out into the soil
justas readilyif the stream in the tile is retarded or
entirely
stopped. The water, as shown in the figure,
flows through the drain to its outlet A, where}being
held by the sides of the pit or box, the water
must
the level Bb
rise to
above
before it
drain becomes
the
flow off.
can
The
soil
saturated
up to the line
the outlet
near
Bb,
leavinga portionof land
drained,or only partially
drained,accordingto
thus
un-
the
Fig.7- FaultyOutlet
the
relation between
rise and
the
is this
mouth
the water
in
must
and
off,
that
hundred
one
a
When
the
distance
Nor
the
where
land, especially
inches
twenty-four,
the grade of the drain
an
The
feet,and
of three
gradeof
damage is not
of
slight.We
feet.
the
the drain
case
must
the drain is laid.
before
rise
for six hundred
for
of
waste
the drain is
which
the water
will suppose that the
that
of the drain is three feet below the surface,
grade of
flow
grade upon
small
a
which
height to
becomes
drain will
will
so
serious.
saturated
obstructed
is
now
feet above
great near
When
from
the
outlet,
can
is four inches
back
water
greatlyinjurethe
hundred
the drain
it
the
land
the outlet.
the
outlet,
soil above
any cause, as in the
combined
weight of
26
PEACTICAL
For
FARM
DRAINAGE.
in
levelingfor drainagepurposes,
we
begin at the placewhich we consider the lowest
and make
a
pointupon the farm or field,
preliminary
convenience
level survey
in order to find the elevation of the lowest
portionsof land requiring
and the distance
drainage,
of such places
from the com
outlet. We
mon
outlet
startingor
the surface of the
be 100
feet above
point at
ground to
an
inary
imag-
plane below
datum
planeor
the
Place
the
called
datum.
instrument
at
distance
convenient
some
the
assume
from this point(the
distance
will
dependupon
and
accuracy
take
the
we
the power
ment),
of the instru-
reading at
pointA, Fig. 8, which
will
to
a
for illustration
assume
be
feet; add
four
this to the assumed
A, and
of
which
feet,
the
line
the
Now
which
we
the
take
will
reading from
assume
the
rod
to
to
and
be two
height of
the
have
we
104
heightof
sight or of
is the
of
above
instrument
B
tion
eleva-
take
feet.
a
reading
Subtract
instrument
tum.
da-
and
this
we
point B. Change
the instrument
to some
place beyond B, as at C.
or
another
Take
reading at B, called a backsight,
is
will suppose
commonly a plus sight,which we
have
102
as
the
elevation
of
the
LEVELING
1.5 feet.
heightof
Add
LOCATING
this to
the
the instrument
feet.
103.5
AND
Take
27
DRAINS.
elevation
in its new
of
B
for
the
which
position,
is
readingat C, which is one foot.
Let these operations
be repeated
until the elevation of
all points desired is found.
that at every
Observe
change of the instrument a back-sightmust always be
taken upon the last pointat which a reading
was
taken,
and its readingadded
to the elevation of that point
for a new
Also subtract
height of the instrument.
ment,
readingfrom the heightof the instruevery fore-sight
to obtain the elevation of that point. The notes
should be kept as indicated below :
a
LEVEL
NOTES.
Back-sight
NOTE.
The
"
point is
a
The
and
and
of
two
distance between
stations
be
the
can
the
may
farmer
pointsshould
A
made.
rude
sketch
From
this
ascertain
what
be measured
of the lines
preliminary
fall he has
and how he had best layout
given distances,
for
he can
tell what it is possible
In short,
LEVELING
is
as
made
in
his drains.
him
to do.
INSTRUMENTS.
instruments
kinds of leveling
many
reach of the farmer.
Perhaps the ordinarywater
There
Eleva-
height 100 is used to avoid minus quantities.
some
point should be 98, it would indicate that
feet lower than the startingpoint.
recorded in the notes.
survey
Fore-sight
datum
If the elevation
such
Height of
are
easilymade and as efficient as
in the followingmanner
: Get
within
level
This may be
any.
the tinner to make
28
PRACTICAL,
tin tube
a
one
inch
FARM
DRAINAGE.
in diameter
and
four
feet
long,
shown
as
up at the ends two or three inches,
fig.9. Insert in either end phialsone-half inch
turned
and long enough to allow about
diameter,
knocked
above the tin,having previously
two
in
in
inches
toms,
out the bot-
that there may be free communication
between
The phials
them.
may be fastened in placeby plaster
to a block of wood
paris. Clamp the tube securely
that it may turn readily
and placeit upon a tripod,
so
upon a pivot. The legsof the tripodmay be hinged
of
upon
the head.
This
will add to its convenience.
To
it,pour water in the tube until it is nearlyfilled,
the tube so that the water
and adjust
may be easily
in the glasses.The water having been previously
seen
in the two
colored by carmine, the heightof water
phialswill form a level or horizontal line. The eye
should be placedat a distance of three feet from the
tube,and raised or lowered until the line of sightprolonged
will coincide with the heightof the water
in
the tubes.
An assistant should move
the targetupon
the rod until a signalfrom the one
cates
at the level indithat the targetmarks
the intersection of the level
line with the rod.
A good eye-sighting
along this
line can, with considerable care, obtain very good results.
for long distances,
This is a slow method
for
the eye can
not prolongthe line indicated by the water
in the phials
the level is
to any great distance.
When
be corked
until it is
to be moved, the phialsmay
moved.
nearlyadjustedagain,when the corks should be reuse
A
to
level having sightsupon it,and made
carpenter's
turn
a^pivoton a tripod,is another kind of
upon
level with which'
a
fair work
may be done.
level is used,it should be examined
spirit
Whenever
to
see
if it
LEVELING
AND
LOCATING
DRAINS.
29
is in
adjustment. If not, correct work can not be expected
The
to be done.
advantagewhich the water
level has,over
the spirit
level is that the water always
indicates a horizontal line,while the spirit
level may
be out of adjustment
to such a degree as to be unreliable.
The sights
level require
put upon the spirit
curate
acor
construction,
theywill not give correct results.
Either level accurately
constructed
is reliable
but it will be seen
that the former is more
in itself,
made
than the latter. Whichever
so
instrument
easily
THE
COMSTOCK
LEVEL.
is
used,no little care is requiredon the part of the
He
should first
beginnerif he wishes correct work.
will work, by finding
how correctly
his instrument
see
the elevation of the same
pointfrom different positions
of his instrument.
If the results disagreeto any extent,
he should
work
or
try to find whether
the
error
is in his
in his instrument.
It is often the
case
level is not ditious
expelevel is
the engineer's
that the water
enough in its work, and
too complicatedand
high-pricedfor the farmer. To
the Comstock
meet this want
Level,shown in the above
well adapted. It is manufactured
seems
by
figure,
30
PRACTICAL
T.
William
The
DRAINAGE.
Comstock, 23
is made
instrument
will not
FARM
tarnish.
of
York,
St., New
Warren
brass,lacqueredso
It consists of
that it
sightingtube A A,
fourteen inches long,having a pin-holethrough one
and adjustable
cross-wires
end,through which to sight,
The tube is mounted
at the other.
upon Ys Y Yr, and
be taken out and reversed upon them for adjustcan
ment.
The
Ys
mounted
are
a
circle,which
upon
within another circle,
The
shown
at C C'.
moves
as
inner circle contains the level bulb, which can
also be
beneath
the plate. One
adjustedby a small screw
grees,
quadrantof the outer circle is graduatedto singledeand the inner one
marked
at intervals of 45",so
that it may be used in layingoff anglesfor buildings
and
by
other similar work.
of the
means
The
a
is leveled up
S S, which
rest upon
instrument
thumb-screws
the
B.
A plumb-bob with its line passtripod-head
ing
through the center of the instrument,permitsits
center
ment
to be set over
any desired point. The instrumounted
and in adjustmentis thus made
very
convenient
and well adaptedto the purpose for which
it is made.
The
level can
be turned to any pointof
the compass, and its parts are all arrangedfor adjustment.
The
is the
engineer'sspirit-level
and
can
to
be done.
the
the
The
subjectof
care, with
common
which
most
accurate
strument,
in-
the most
rapidwork
farmer,by givingconsiderable study
and using a great deal of
leveling,
one
with
instruments
can
do work
be
that will
but
for ordinaryfarm drainage,
accurate
sufficiently
he will find it,as a generalthing,to be a matter
of
ments,
instruwith accurate
to employ a surveyor
economy
whose
in their use
experienceand reputation
will be
a
guaranteefor
correct
results.
LEVELING
AND
LOCATING
LOCATION
Mains.
OF
Having found
portionsof the
"
of various
3)
DRAINS.
DRAINS.
difference of
the
land
to
be
elevation
drained,we
are
prepared to
This
is
fix upon
the lines for the main
drains.
work
which, in many places,
givesopportunity
a
for the exercise of much
skill in the
pertainingto drainage.
sufficient level-notes
have
of knowledge
use
It will be assumed
been
taken, and
that
distances
measured,to determine the fall per 100 feet between
the particular
spot to be drained and its nearest outlet,
the amount
of slopeit has
or, if the land is nearlyflat,
in any direction.
The
first knowledge that the
himself
in the
with
of
is,that which
springof
water.
above
At
he
can
farmer
obtain
should
by
avail
observation
the
the soil is saturated
year, when
such times water
ing
will be found stand-
the surface in hollows
or
basins in the
land,
ing
high as the surroundsurface.
these placesand determine,if posMark
sible,
whether
the water
is held by a claysub-soil,
as
shown
in fig.
4, or by the quantityof water retained
in the soil at lower portionsof the field. In the first
the natural drainage will be very
case
slow, even
though the elevation be sufficient ; while in the latter,
the natural drainagewill go on rapidlyif the surplus
is removed
from the lower portionsof the field,
water
therebygiving the water an outlet through the soil.
if there are not
If the whole field seems
see
nearlyflat,
some
spotswhich are wetter than others,though the
of the surface does not indicate it. Upon excontour
amination
and
also
on
flats which
seem
as
of this is with
it may be found that the cause
it
with the soil itself,
the sub-soil,
before noticed,
or
as
beingmade
water.
up
largelyof clayand
more
retentive
of
32
PKACTICAL
The
mains
FARM
DRAINAGE.
bearingof these
observations
is this :
are
There
mentioned, which
must
the location of
on
places,such as have been
be drained
by a system of
branch
the
drains.
mains
these the
The
be
can
broughtto
less will be the
of the branches
and
j*/tion.
By
ac-
these observations
farmer
method
pense
ex-
the
effectualwill be their
more
the
nearer
has
an
accurate
of
findingthe lowest
places
throughwhich all main
lines of drains
is often
cases
and
also
by
The
variation in the
the
main
precludedby
the
extra
should
the
expense
to
suit
course
pass.
of
particular
slopeof the surface,
a
longermain would
incur.
The
them
generalrule
for the location of mains
follow the lowest
The
both
surface then
natural
and
is to let
of natural drainage.
land,or course
ing
slopestowards the drain,makWe
artificialdrainage easy.
might say here that in all cases we should try and take
has given us in this work,
every advantagethat nature
for artificialdrainage is only completingthe work
which nature has begun.
There are cases
which requireus to make exceptions
to the generalrule justgiven. First,the drain should
be as free from anglesand short turns as possible.In
other words,it should be laid on a straight
line,or a
A
series of straight
lines,connected by long curves.
of the advantage of straight
few words in explanation
lines and easy
curves
importance.There
will convince
the reader of their
is a certain number
of feet or inches
34
PRACTICAL
FARM
DRAINAGE.
for mains.
In making the line shorter
proper course
in order to lessen the expense and increase the fall,
we
turn, increase
may by a deep cut, made to avoid some
the cost
than
more
fail to drain
some
all
we
land
save,
or
by
so
doing we
may
the drain should
through which
pass.
It
only by carefully
weighing all those things
which enter into the expense and efficiency
of the work
that the farmer or drainage
engineercan arrive at the
most desirable plan.
It must alwaysbe borne in mind that in small ponds,
the drain should pass
drained by a singleline of tile,
entirely
through the pond, and thence to the outlet,
instead of beginningat the edge of the pond as in the
case
when
is
of
an
we
The reason
for this is evident
open ditch.
remember
that water
from the land on either
side of the drain enters
it throughthe
while the land at the end
jointsof
the
tile,
of the drain is drained but
very little.
Sub-mains
singleline
and
Branches.
"
It is often the
case
that
a
of tiles laid
basin or hollow
througha flat,
will aiford a sufficient drainagefor the purpose of the
farmer.
"When we wish for the thoroughdrainageof
flats,
ponds or swamps, we must have mains to givean
outlet for the
sub-mains
water
when
and branches
and
collected,
to collect the water
a
system of
from
the
ferent
difThere
are
dischargeit into the mains.
systems of layingout branches,the value of
each dependingupon the area
to be drained.
Figure 10 shows a system commonly used,but as a
It consists
generalthing it is not to be commended.
drains discharginginto the main,
of parallel
branch
is of proper
often at rightanglesto it. If the main
soil and
size it will of itselfdrain the soil for
a
distance of from
LEVELING
AND
LOCATING
35
DRAINS.
feet on either side. It will be seen
fortyto fifty
that
the portionof the branches between
the lines a b and
then superfluous,
the main
c d are
alone being sufficient
to
drain that amount
of land.
A
better system for largeareas
is shown
in fig.
11.
Parallel sub-mains
dischargeinto a silt basin,and
branches
with
its
own
to
parallel
these
but littlewaste
area
of
into the sub-mains
discharged
drains,each drain actingupon
of soil.
of both systems to
adaptation
suit the land. Upon the rightis a narrow
pieceof flat
distance from the main, which
land,extendingsome
be drained
most
can
economicallyby two parallel
At
branches running at a proper angle to the main.
the left of the main is a flat extending
lengthwaysof
the main, but wider than can
be drained by it,hence a
small branch is laid out parallel
to the main.
These examples are, perhaps,sufficient to show the
branch
drains are
to be adaptedto accomplish
way in which
In
12
fig.
is shown
the work
an
desired.
depth will be treated of under
The junction
of all branch
Their
their
distance
apart and
heads.
appropriate
drains with
mains
and
36
FARM
PRACTICAL
anglethat the pipewill
dischargeas nearlyas possiblein the direction of the
and largerstream.
it is
of the main
Where
current
at rightor obtuse
to have the drains connect
necessarv
rection
angles,the junctiontiles should be curved in the diinto which it discharges.
It will
of the current
be observed that in the figuresgiven all anglesare
When
avoided.
a changeof direction is desired curves
should
sub-mains
used.
are
The
fullyfurther
We
be at such
DRAINAGE.
about
are
urge upon all who
of correct
drainagethat the application
wish to
nearer
we
next
prepare
should
is most
to
come
AND
STAKING
The
more
on.
practiceis what
always fullycarry out
or
for this will be discussed
reasons
to
the
an
be done
We
it the better will be
LEVELING
for their
principles
not
can
but
theoryin practice,
correct
a
step is to layout
them
needed.
take
to under-
FOR
work.
DRAINS.
the drains and
actual
our
properly
construction.
This
guess work, either by the farmer
ditcher.
land is a
Draining on prairie
professional
not
by
very different thingfrom
the bank of some
lake or
waste
and
time,money
when
draining,
before the ditch
the
or
near
drainingon hillsides,
creek.
We
can
not
afford to
strengthtryingexperimentsin
of the work
may be known
singletile laid. There
success
is
understood
begun or a
of preparingthe drains for the
methods
it is probablethat the one
that is best
to him the most
by the operator will seem
desirable.
The
are
several
and
ditcher,
the
method
we
shall describe
we
think
has
advantageof being applicableto every case, and
the drain.
easy to work from in constructing
We
of it
shall attempt such a minute
description
that any one, whether
he possesses an engineer's
level,
LEVELING
AND
LOCATING
DRAINS.
37
of obtaining
or
zontal
level,
a horiany other means
stake out and level the drains.
can
line,
In all the operations
of staking
out, leveling,
ing
gradand layingdrains,we begin at the outlet. This is
water
the base upon
which
calculations.
our
to found
Having
determined
of
the
the
viously
pre-
tion
posi-
outlet,and
the
of the
servations
from obdrains,
made
in the early
spring,and the preliminary
levels before mentioned, we
course
stakes of two
kinds
prepare
with which
the
to stake out
lines.
a
One
one
tion, and
The
is called
peg, and should
inch square in
grade
about
of these
eight inches
other
is called
a
and
slake,
is best when
of boards
one
inch
inches wide and
be
sec-
1
^
long. *
guide
made
thick,two
feet
two
long.
The
upper four inches of this
stake should be planedon one
side
smooth
to receive
sufficiently
and hold a pencil
mark.
An
idea
their
use
of these
may
stakes and
be obtained
from
fig.13. Knowing about the
length of drain to be laid out, prepare a set, which
consists of a grade peg and guide stake for each fifty
feet of length. We
also need a measuring chain or
and a hatchet with which
to feet,
a tape line graduated
to drive
the stakes.
38
PRACTICAL
peg
the
about
ootlet of the
the
Begin at
one
drain,and
DRAINAGE.
FARM
foot to the
as
rightof
the end
near
and
main
the
drive
line of
center
is desirable.
as
grade
a
At
the
rightof the peg and about five inches from it,set a
mark
O with a
the top of which
guide stake,near
a
heavy lead pencil(seefigure).Measure
lengthof
fiftyfeet from the O stake and set a gradepeg and accompanying
guidestake,as in the first case, and mark
the figure50 upon the guidestake. The upper marks
of feet of length
upon the guidesindicate the number
from the outlet. The grade pegs should be placedas
and
to the edge of the proposedditch as they can
near
remain firm after the ditch is dug. There is no reason
feet apart rather than
why the stakes should be set fifty
to
except that in practiceit seems
any other distance,
be the most
convenient
line be staked out
main
work
to
or
numberingthe
there is
Where
tape follow
the
know
the exact
number
Another
thingto
be noticed at the time
may
staked out is,where
Wherever
the whole
Let
in this manner,
stakes O 50, 100, 150, etc.
the ditch let the chain
from.
a
curve
line,that
in
we
of tiles required.
the sub-mains
the main
and branches
is
enter.
junctionis made a grade peg and guide
should be placed. This peg marks
the outlet of another
in
drain,and should be marked O, and its name
addition to its number, on the main line. An example
of this may be seen
13.
at stake 150 in fig.
Some system of designating
drains is needed where
there are
in order that the notes may be kept
many,
which
without confusion,
and correspond
with (lie plat
a
is made
after the drains
known
simplyas
fi'-iit
own.
branch
VV"
the main.
of the
";.ll UK*
are
slaked
out..
A sub-mum
rmtin,which
The
is 11
hus hnmclirs
*iih-nmlnflbranch
A.lmmeh
main
is
promiof
its
H, ""("".,
LEVELING
in order
of
the
No.
in order
the main.
peg,
each
peg
which
should
be
and
taking
under
the
of
the
datum
a
head
of
of
the
surface
will
plane
; Xo.
simple it
driven
down
of the
peg
the
outlet
where
the
away
the water
level
will
at
the
The
same
as
give the
There
depth.
The
sliow
the
fast
find the
rod
with
the
on
the
face,
sur-
it is
as
Call the elevation
Take
another
level
placed (seea, fig.13),and
Ml
below
it to
of
bottom
carry
This
discharged.
of the
elevation
are
length
of
here
we
the
last
tile
call the
added
are
columns
for
to
the
method
set
of
computing
for the
and
line,but
given.
keeping
purpose
of
both
for
marked,
it is not
This
the
a
will be
before
notes
following is given merely
section
a
stakes
notes
be, and
level
ing
level-
our
grade line at O stake.
method
of levelingand keeping the notes
is the
as
previouslydescribed,except that it is more
three
gives
drain.
is sufficient
what
outlet,or
complete.
to
source.
take
even
feet.
100
tile will be
there
that
sure
its
branch
described
reading in the manner
leveling. The pegs being driven to
the
ground, their elevation above
truly represent the surface of the
line of the
be
the sub-
each
on
may
by settingthe
the
outlet
junction of
guide stakes
ground along
at
the
outlet
designated
B; and
are
1, 2, etc.,of
junction towards
our
lines,we next
out
the
sub-mains
its
instrument, however
elevation
from
counting
from
The
from
staked
Having
A
39
DRAINS.
of the
1, 2, etc.,of
numbered
are
laid out,
are
numbering
with
LOCATING
Branches
main.
on,
main
they
as
as
so
AND
the
as
grades
an
notes.
showing
scribed,
deand
example
Figure 13
how
the
depth of ditch and
true
profilefrom the
referred to again.
FARM
PRACTICAL
FIELD
drain
Each
The
stake
1 from
of notes
set
may
up the
take
the
be
of A.
225
referred
method
A
to
of
the
at
DRAIN.
similar
would
A
everythingpertainingto
and
MAIN
OF
of main.
300
No.
headed
a
for branch
notes
from
has
NOTES
DRAINAGE.
be
headed
branch
By
to the
this
of A
above.
branch
A
would
be
system of
notes
is kept distinct,
survey
We
will next
any time.
computing grade and finding
depth.
COMPUTING
It will be noticed
GRADE
DEPTH.
that in the "Field
columns
of
Notes"
given,
than were
figuresmore
given under the head of "Leveling." The first of
Grade Line," so called because it conthese is headed
tains
of pointson the line
the elevation above datum
These
which it is proposedto lay the drain.
upon
points are below and oppositeevery "grade peg"
there
are
three
AND
"
42
PRACTICAL
volved
DRAINAGE.
FARM
in this will be discussed
and divide
hereafter),
this by the number
of hundred
feet,and we have the
grade,or fall per 100 feet. Suppose that this,as given
before referred to, is .50 feet,
in the first of the notes
.25 for each 50 feet of length. Add
.25 to 9~
or
and this will give us the gradeline elevation at stake
50, or 97.50 ; then to thi" result againadd .25,and we
have the grade line elevation at stake 100, or 97"
and so on
continuingto add .25 to each gradeline
elevation to obtain the succeeding
perhaps,
one, until,
the
it becomes
necessary to change the grade,when
new
grade,or fall per 50 feet (whichin the notes given
is .16),
tions,
is substituted for the .25 in the successive addi"
and
the process
obtain the next
To
from, the
elevation
subtract
station,or
column
from
horizontal
the
continues
as
before.
column, subtract
each
gradeline
elevation
of the peg at the same
number
in the grade line
each
number
corresponding
line in the
elevation
on
the
The
column.
same
result
depthof ditch to be dug at each peg. Thus,
97.50 the gradeline elevation at station
by subtracting
50 from 100.13,the elevation of the gradepeg at the
have 2.63 as the depth of the cut.
same
we
station,
decimals
then changed to
The
in this column
are
inches,and the depth in feet and inches written,for
will be the
convenience,in
in the
a
marked
now
as
headed
"
comes
2.63 feet be-
7f inches.
Depth in
The
bers
num-
Feet and Inches"
upon the stakes at the
The stakes
in fig.
13.
tions,
starespective
now
show
two
tance
indicates the disone
upper
the depth
shows
from the outlet ; the lower one
which the tiles should be laid,measuring from the
sets
at
shown
2 feet
column
next
in this column
are
separate column, thus
of
numbers.
The
top of die grade peg.
This
is the
mechanical
oper-
LEVELING
AKD
UOCATLSG
43
TVRATXR.
tion of
computing grades,and we trust that sufficient
has been given to make
the methods
explanation
plain.
There are, however, importantprinciples
which should
this work
govern
in order
DETERMCsLS-G
insure economical
to
AJTD
ADJUSTING
results,
GRADES.
We
will suppose that the desired drains have been
staked out and leveled,and we have all of the necessary
in our
book.
notes
leveling
Determininggrades
skill if it is done rapidlyand in the
requiresmuch
best manner.
It at least requires
careful thought,
and
the inexperienced
will find that a profile
made
from.
the notes will greatlyaid in the work.
The
questionof how little grade a drain may have
and
work
be answered
successfully
by asking,
may
We
How
will the drain be laid ?
know
of
accurately
drains laid on a grade of one
inch to 100 feet. Such
drains must
be laid with the greatest possible
precision,
or
they will fail. Drains laid on a grade of two and
when
three inches have proved eminentlysatisfactory
Were
the work
has been well done.
it possible
to
should never
avoid it,we
lay a drain on a less grade
than
inches
two
where, if we
places,
of things,
we
and
not
in
100
drain
feet
at
But
all,under
there
are
many
the present system
a less grade,
upon
to do so, too much
painscan
correct
grade,and layingthe
lay drains
must
when
it is necessary
be taken in findinga
tile with
precision.
into the details of deciding upon
Entering more
for the sake of giving a clear idea of every
grades,
will suppose that the outlet of the drain is to
3 feet deep,and the length of the drain 700 feet.
step,we
be
By subtractingthe
elevation
at
the
elevation
source,
as
at
found
the outlet from
in the notes,
we
the
find
44
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
that there is a fall of 28 inches in that distance.
the number
hundred
feet.
as
feet,we
of inches of fall by the number
have
If the drain is
inches
4
run
the upper end
the drain 3 feet
on
deep at
to have
feet 5 inches
inches
gradeof
deep at
as
as
this
the
of
grade per
grade it will
at the outlet.
deep at
the
which
fall,
more
viding
Di-
If
100
then
we
be
wish
the
and only 2
outlet,
end, we shall have 7
upper
will be available
to
use
in the
drain,making a fall of 35 inches,or 5
wish to
inches per 100 feet. Again, supposing we
have the outlet only 2 feet deep,and the upper end 3 feet
deep,the fell which can be used in the gradeof the
drain will then be decreased 12 inches,which leaves us
only 16 inches total fall,or 2^ inches per 100 feet.
Again, taking the same
example,we have the same
but there is a rise of
total fall in the whole distance,
between
the outlet and the upper
ground somewhere
end, as may be seen in fig.13, through which, if the
laid on a uniform
drain were
grade,as noticed in the
much
first examples,
deep diggingwould be required,
which
by using two or more
grades.
may be avoided
For example,let us lay out the first300 feet from the
outlet on a grade of 6 inches per 100 feet. We
have
used 18 inches of the fall,
and
if we
wish the
now
drain to be the same
let,
as at the outdepth at the source
have only 10 inches fall left for the remaining
we
400 feet,
or
2J inches per 100 feet. This givesa grade
that may be relied upon to do good work, and will not
be as expensiveto construct.
It is often the case that
there is not sufficient fall to permitthe use of two or
the deep
line ; in such cases
more
gradeson the same
cut
can
We
the
not
be avoided.
might go on multiplying
examples,but those
alreadyexplainedmay be sufficient to show the way
LEVELING
AND
45
DRAINS.
LOCATING
any
practicablesystem
of
Each
field
which
drainage is undertaken
which
will
present examples peculiar to itself,
new
will
upon
abundant
afford
opportunity for
the part of the
on
is desirable
It
toward
the
is best
friction
if
especially
to
the bend
few
much
rule
as
a
do
be
fruitful
in
best
enough
to
in hand.
of
considered
soon,
seen
on
any
depth
will
often
No
lute
abso-
uniformityshould,as much
Carelesslylaid out grades
trouble
with
drains.
alternatelyflows rapidly,and then
the tile is at one
place full,and at
still,
be
rifice
sac-
enter
The
determining grades.
source
to
enable
with
at.
tion.
junc-
short.
be
aimed
comes
over-
line the additional
will
but
or
velocityof the
grade at that point,
is somewhat
given ;
It will
This
at the
is not
other
an-
inch
an
drain.
this
the
water
part full.
of
in the
the
increase
to
enters
the bend
bend
decrease
work
skill
increase
let the branch
case
be
possible,
are
but
the
to
can
of the
be
adapt his
outfall
an
suggestionsmay
of drains, which
have
to
of
drain
branch
it
slight,
every
a
out.
opposite,though
a
by
is very
causes
it is best
flow, and
one
grade
At
the
have
of it in this way,
made
exercise
of the
When
offered
grade
regular grade.
These
the
to
resistance
the
any
the
than
to
the
grade
done.
be
two, in addition
If
the
be
may
engineer.
or
outlet,rather
drain,it
the
farmer
that
always
not
can
grades
that
the
almost
another
tile will
If the
stands
only
discharge
capableof doing and would do
laid on a carefullyarranged grade. A careif it were
ful
and correspondinggrade will often add onesurvey
of the drain.
half to the efficiency
only part of what
it is
46
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
CHAPTER
DEPTH
Silt Basins
SIZE
Distance
Apart
Kind
of Tile"
Concrete
SILT
The
of
siltbasin is often
drains,but
be described
of
and
an
a
as
a
small
singledrain,or
used
as
should
depthof
be
a
much
as
a
tem
sys-
it would
better understood.
It may
well,placedeither in the line
at the
junctionof
It may
be built of brick,stone,
from twelve to
vary in diameter
use
"
SOt Basin
several different purposes.
idea of the construction and use
the
Sizes of Tile
to
auxiliary
serves
accordingto
"
Tile.
valuable
a
it is not
advantageswere
of Drains
BASINS.
Fig. 14-
be if its
DRAINS.
OF
and
Depth
"
AND
IV.
for which
twelve
several
drains,
Figure 14 gives
of the silt basin.
plank,and may
twenty-fourinches,
or
it is intended.
inches below
There
the tile for
DEPTH
the
AND
of muddy
deposit
SIZE
OF
47
DRAINS.
In
the
figuregiven it
is shown
feet in diameter,
two
constructed
of brick,
with a stone foundation.
In drainingit is often desirable
that several sub-mains
branches should joinat
or
one
place,and there unite in one line as an outlet to
the whole system. This is the use
of the basin,as
shown
in the figurehere given. It permits us
to
unite several drains enteringat different angles,
out
withthe objectionable
feature of short turns,which we
have
before
noticed.
matter.
To
facilitate the
drains,the
outlet of the basin
lower
the outlets of the
than
should
be
action
a
of the
few inches
lines of tile
Another
enteringit.
earth,or " silt,"
advantageis,that the fine
it is called,
which
finds its way into the tile and is
as
carried along with the drainagewater, is permitted
to
settle in the basin,instead of being carried on by the
portionof the drain where a
current, to lodgein some
is decreased
is made, or where the velocity
turn
by a
less grade. The basin should have a cover, which may
be removed
and the silt taken out before it impedes
the flow of water through the tiles.
Another
of the silt basin is to prevent the silt
use
the grade
where
the drain in cases
from obstructing
ably
suddenlychanges from a steep grade to one considerthe silt
less. This retards the flow,which causes
ited
coming from the upper part of the drain to be deposthe change to a less grade is
at the point where
in
made.
Here
is where the basin should be placed,
and removed
be intercepted
order that the silt may
when
the lower
portion of the basin becomes full.
be
of the basin may
the diameter
this purpose
the water
less than for the purpose of collecting
much
of several drains.
For
In the
ordinarydrainageupon
western
farms,there
48
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
for the construction
is but little necessity
for there is
silt,
simplycollecting
enough difference in the grade to cause
the purpose
not
alarm
of basins for
of
Yet
that account.
on
near
streams
which
ally
usu-
any
break
the land up into alternate steepslopesand flatbottoms,
ever,
they are sometimes a necessity.In long mains, howit is best to
locate silt basins
at
various
places
along the line for the purpose of watchingthe action
of the drain,and to see that its several sections are in
condition.
perfect
soil,
the soil consists of loam on a firm claysubWhere
there is very little and sometimes
no
depositof
silt after the drain has been in operation
a few weeks.
There are many
in prairie
even
lands,which
sub-soils,
contain streaks of sandy material,
which, for some
of the drain,will find its
time after the construction
that the provisions
way into the tiles. It will be seen
made
for the interception
of silt must
be regulated
by
the kind of material
in the soil through which the
drain
runs.
sin
stronglythe use of the silt bafor the purpose of collecting
of several
the water
drains into one, and thence conveying it to the ultimate
outlet.
scribed
deIn the system of layingout drains,
in a former paper, and shown
in fig.
11, the
and importance
A juof the silt basin is shown.
use
dicious
We
not
can
use
for which
urge
too
of the siltbasin
several purposes
it is intended,
will greatly
increase the efficiency
of any
DEPTH
for the
system of drains.
AND
DISTANCE
APART
OF
DRAINS.
subjectsof depthof
drains and their distance apart connected,
that we can
not fix upon
without takinginto account the other.
one
Depth.
"
So
are
intimately
the
50
PRACTICAL
FARM
In order to obtain
DRAINAGE.
given depthof drained soil,let
notice a few things connected
us
with the action of
drains which were
merelyhinted at in the explanation
of fig.
In fig.
6.
15, we have a section of three drains
T
T T.
It
was
a
stated under
"
this heading,
How
Enters
a
that
Tile-Drain,"
the line of saturation
on
side of the drain
a
line,and
ter
Wa-
that
is
either
curved
this
line,or,
more
properlyspeaking,the
varies in height
water-table,
accordingas the soil is completelydrained or only parThe line of saturaso.
tially
tion may be as represented
by
the line bb,or it may descend
much
more
sharplytowards
is represented
the drain,
as
by
difference in
The
CG.
is caused
curves
of the soil.
the
In
these
the nature
by
the first
case
soil is
lightand easily
penetrated
by water, and but
littleresistance to the flow toward
the drain is offered
In
soil.
soil may
the second
be
clay,
very
of water, and
not
allow water
to
flow towards
by the
case
retentive
in its nature
the drains
the
will
except at
a
portionof soil between
the lines of tile is left undrained,which,in the case of
Some
would be well drained.
a more
permeablesoil,
steeperincline.
writers
assert
throughthe
In this
that there
soil towards
case
is
the
a
no
lateral flow
drains,but
a
few
of water
experi-
DEPTH
ments
and
and
AND
SIZE
OF
51
DRAINS.
careful observation
will prove the contrary,
the truth of the reasoningherein given.
It will be
seen
that the kind
of soil to
be
drained
and
governs the depth at which the tile should be laid,
also the proximityof the lines to each other,when
we
consider
The
amount
the
thoroughnessof the drainage.
a greater
advantagesof deep drainageare, first,
of soil is made
effects are
more
water
that water
felt from
available to crops, and fewer ill
for
drought; second,there is room
in the soil in times
of
so
heavy rainfall,
the drains for
above
considerably
the crops.
short time without
a
seriouslyaffecting
Suppose the drains are located at tit (seefigure).The
soil becomes
drained no deeperthan the floor of the
tile. In time of heavy rain the water can
not pass off
and of course
fast as it falls,
saturates the earth much
as
In this
above the drains,and often to the surface.
the tiles must be much
to carry off the
so
as
case
larger,
if we wish to keep depth
water
nearlyas fast as it falls,
enough of drained soil so that no injuryfor the time
This
will many
being may be done to the crops.
for the cry often made, " My tiles are too
times account
small."
The same
tile placeddeeper,therebygiving
reservoir in which
to collect drainagewater
a larger
ficulty.
the difwould
often remove
in times of heavy rains,
may
rise
generalin the discussion of
depth. The questionwill be asked,"What particular
If
all things considered?"
depthis most preferable,
careful to lay out gradesto the best advantage,
are
we
of the
our
depth will vary much with the inequalities
the experienceof many, it has been
surface. From
soil
found that a depthof from 3 to 3J feet in prairie
is most desirable. It will be found that some
portions
We
have
thus far been
52
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
deep and others only three feet,
if we aim at a generaldepth of 3J feet.
or
even
less,
The expense of diggingthe ditches for four-feet drains
is much
greater than for three-feet drains,so that for
the above instructions
generalpurposes of farm drainage
the best that can be given. It is
as
may be regarded
not always possible,
however, to obtain the desired
depth,because of the shallow outlets which farmers are
sometimes
obligedto use.
Distances Apart. According to the principles
ready
albe
drains in a retentive claysoil must
noticed,
than in ordinary
vegetableloam,
placednearer
together
will be laid four feet
"
if we
wish
to drain
all the land between
then the water-table will not
of the drain
as
when
recede
the water
so
them.
near
to
Even
the floor
more
percolates
freely
In our experience,
drains
loamy soil,and 3J feet
rapidly
throughthe soil.
placed100 feet apart in our
deep,will thoroughlydrain the land where the surface
flat. It has been found that so easily
is ordinarily
and
rapidlydoes our soil drain,there is no necessityfor
such close proximityof drains as is used in the East.
If, however, the soil is very retentive,
especially
the surface,
50 to 75 feet may
near
a distance of from
be required
to givethorough drainage.
Let us now
of Depth and Distance
sum
up the subject
The line aa, fig.
15, may represent
Apart of Drains.
and
the water-table when
greatextent, and
is
the
soil is not
retentive
to any
drained.
This watercompletely
table takes different positions,
as
bb, dependingupon
of surplus
the quantity
in the soil. In this kind
water
of soil the drains may be placed100 feet apart. Suppose
that the drains are
placedat this distance in a
is one
which is largely
as
composed
very retentive soil,
of clay,and we
have left between the drains a portion
DEPTH
of soil which
The
cc.
SIZE
is undrained.
water-table
owing
which
AND
limits
the
This
is shown
rises from
the
to
53
DRAINS.
OF
the
by
drain
the line
ruptly,
ab-
more
greater resistance of the soil,
width
of land
acted upon
by the
drain. This requiresthe drains to be placed nearer
together.The line ee rises higherbetween the drains,
because
of the
of the soil ; hence
nature
be
placed nearer
to give any
perhaps,
must
together. It
demonstration
laws which
them.
govern
of their existence is all we
We
have
been
the
drains
is not
necessary,
of the curves
from
The
statement
of the fact
shall
attempt
at
present.
lengthy in the discussion of
than in layingdown
definite rules,for the
principles
that a good generalknowledge of the princireason
ples
will enable
his
own
more
the farmer
particular
case,
to determine
the matter
definite rules would
where
for
not
apply.
SIZE
OF
TILES.
stated that the gradeof the
previously
of the flow of water, and condrain affects the velocity
sequently
in a
which
will be discharged
the quantity
given time. In consequence of this the gradesof the
before
drains which we wish to lay should be known
It has been
we
to
can
determine
be used
the most
to drain
in order
size of the tile
economical
a
field
or
farm.
In the
subjectwe shall endeavor to give
which have been found to be
a few practical
directions,
monstratio
without
reliable,
enteringinto the mathematical dewhich would not be of use to
of formulae,
to be
the farmer in ordinarydrainage. The questions
to this subject
taken into consideration relating
are
:
consideration of this
1. What
2. What
is the
area
is the
twenty-fourhours
to be
drained?
greatestrainfall upon' that
?
area
in
54
FARM
PRACTICAL
of
surpluswater which must
soil by drains,
compared with the
is the amount
3. What
be removed
from
the
DRAINAGE.
rainfall?
In the
case
of casual
or
random
by
drainage,
which
layingof a line here and there to drain
some
place,and of which there is a great
sag or wet
there is a much
deal done, and often necessarily,
greater
line of tile than we are apt
to be drained by one
area
The one
line will act directly
to suppose.
upon a strip
feet wide on
either side of it (in prairie
of land fifty
and indirectly
all
on
giving thorough drainage,
soil),
In
the land whose surface slopestoward
the drain.
of water,
of ponds and sloughs,
case
a great quantity
the
in times of heavy rains,passes very rapidlyover
the
surface of surroundingslopesand gathersupon
There is
lowest land throughwhich the drain passes.
of water
also a constant
percolation
through the soil
acted
upon the slopetowards the soil which is directly
This has before been described as
upon by the drain.
natural under-drainage.This beingthe case, we have
should
found by experiencethat the area
which
we
the size of the tile is,in addiconsider in fixingupon
tion
to the land acted upon
directlyby each drain,
one-third
of all the land beyond this which
about
slopestoward the drain,providedthe slopeis three
hundred
feet. The less the slope
feet or more
in one
For example,
the more
we
may decrease this amount.
drained
the land, which
is directly
(taking
suppose
is two
fiftyfeet each side of all the drains),
acres,
and the slopingarea
beyond this is nine acres, then
the area
for which we
must
providedrainageis about
in
five acres.
A failure to consider the drainagearea
we
mean
this way
small.
the
has often led to the
use
of tiles which
are
too
DEPTH
If the land
the
cases
AND
SIZE
is flat and
the
area
drained
is
we
need
only to
remove
the
district itself.
OF
55
DRAINS.
drains laid out
easilydetermined.
the
water
ically,
systematIn
which
such
falls
If,however, this district has
around
it which slopestoward
ing
it,therebythrowdoes not properly belong
it which
water
upon
there,we must regardthe area in the same
way as in
the case
of casual drainage. The average rainfall does
into this computation,but the greatestrainnot enter
fall
If we
time.
at any
one
can
provide for the
removal
of the surplus water
which
falls during
twenty-fourhours,in the succeedingtwenty-fourhours,
it will not do serious injuryto the crops.
To find what this maximum
quantityis,an actual
record of the rainfall at this place(Tonica,
La Salle
of 1880, will serve
to
county, 111.)
duringthe summer
show what we may expect. The table givesthe rainfall
hours previousto the
in inches for the twenty-four
morning of the day given in the column of dates :
upon
land
56
PRACTICAL
It will be
rainfall was
that there
seen
over
2.1 inches.
DRAINAGE.
FARM
are
inch,and
an
one
the
which
days in
day when
five
it reached
usuallyconsidered that one inch of
rain in twenty-four
hours is the maximum
for which
it is necessary to provide. The very excessive rains
after the soil is quitedry,and a
are
quiteapt to come
is absorbed.
As this is not always the
great amount
and
should
we
case,
It is
half inches
a
four hours.
This
fall upon
acre
The
one
be safe unless
not
would
will
at
we
times
give us
assumed
that
one
fall
duringtwenty40,731 gallonswhich
of land.
questionis,what part of this water is used
and what
by plantsand carried off by evaporation,
be removed
by drainage? Many experiments
part must
made
have been
to determine
this,and the
amount
dischargedby drains has been found to vary
much
with the soil. We
may say, in generalterms,
that
next
half
about
throughthe
inches
drains.
must
we
rainfall should
the
For
a
rainfall of
be
one
20,365 gallonsof
remove
off
carried
and
water
a
half
from
each acre, and this must
all pass through at least a part
of the main drain.
The
depth to which the land is
drained
so
and
of the soil will vary the conditions,
that the amount
of water
to be taken off may
be much
the nature
less.
fact that the soil when
The
drained
to
depth of three or four feet will hold an immense
fere
quantityof water, which will not, for the time,interwith growing crops, allows us to use much smaller
tiles than if we
all of the
were
requiredto remove
surpluswater in twenty-fourhours,and also renders
a
size very difficult. As noted
tiles of less capacity
for
before,
deep drainagerequires
close calculation
the
same
directions
area
may
as
than
be
to
shallow
given as
drainage. The following
a generalguide in regard
58
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
The
instructions
in times of heavy rain.
especially
definite as is desirable to
are
as
given upon this subject
give,unless we take up special
cases, in which we must
who
has had
A man
large
vary the generalrules.
experiencein layingout drains would, of course, do it
for he could
than the inexperienced,
more
economically
take into account
the gradesupon
which the drains
and the area
the nature
of the soil,
to
to be laid,
were
be drained.
In this subject
have not in all cases
we
for statements
made, since that would
given reasons
take
space than seems
be relied upon
more
theymay
the subject
under
OF
tile selected should
enough to ring when
not
as
TILE.
be well
struck
well to get those which
shape by
true
respecting
generally
consideration.
KIND
The
desirable at this time,but
excessive heat in
with
a
burned,beinghard
knife blade.
have been
drawn
burning. They
It is
out
of
should be
as the friction will be less. The
inside,
best shaped tile,
all thingsconsidered,
is that in which
the cross
be laid more
section is a circle. They can
easilyand give greater capacityfor the material used.
The requsites
then are circular tile,
of good clay,
well
burned,smooth and true in shape.
smooth
on
the
CONCRETE
While
clay have been well
tried and are safe where drainingis practicable,
a concrete
tile has been introduced during the past year,
It is
excellent purpose.
which promises to serve
an
manufactured
of a simplemachine, which is
by means
operatedin the ditch after it has been dug and graded
in the
tiles made
TILE.
usual way.
of burned
The
materials
used
qualityof hydrauliccement, lime, and
are
coarse
the
best
sand.
DEPTH
These
mixed
are
and
made
the
machine
inside
the
of
and
the
of
bottom
is
and
the
the
in
find
its
the
it
to
his
manufacture.
experience
will
and
dwelling.
far,
its
prove
especially
places,
barn
to
it
opinion
So
to
serve
for
lacks
the
desirability,
an
continuous
excellent
into
cut
that
the
are
sets,
weight
of
hardened,
fully
machine
the
this
and
will
farmer
new
of
tests
yet
for
soon
in
purpose
water
smooth
way
the
and
the
crevices
The
stone.
into
at
is
cement
investigate
it
a
When
of
fed
made
made
bear
expensive,
advantage
trowel
such
to
work
pipe,
The
enough
very
out
sufficient
water.
crushing.
not
are
comes
thus
yet
durability
is
a
in
length,
hard
without
has
material
is
day
filling
of
pipe
of
mortar
and
means
continuous,
entrance
a
tile
By
the
to
continuous
a
desired
left
the
The
continuous
any
suitable
hopper
a
69
DRAINS,
mortar.
machine
outside.
OF
proportions
stiff
a
the
purpose,
for
SIZE
through
sections
left
in
into
end
rear
AND
pipes
tile
time
the
and
and
writer's
in
about
many
the
60
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
FARM
CHAPTER
PRACTICAL
Drains"
Mapping
DETAILS
Tile"
to Drains
"
the
THE
WORK.
of
"
Junctions.
MAPPING
having been
gradesarranged,and
drains
The
OF
Drains, Grading the Bottom,
structions
ObDifficulties in ConstructingDrains
Construction
Outlet,Laying
V.
THE
DRAINS.
staked out upon
size and
the
the
number
ground,
of tile
fixed upon, we
should make
of the drains which
a map
will show their position,
length,fall per 100 feet,and
the physicalfeatures of the land through which they
This, with
pass.
the notes, will
the
respecting
The
preserve.
give all the
tion
informa-
drains which
map
it will be necessary to
is merely a sketch showing the
and lengthof the drains,
shown
like the one
position
in fig.16; can
be easily
made; will show what has
of the improvebeen done,and will serve
as a record
ments
in the drainageline,
justas others are shown by
houses,barns
and
fences.
One
may
think
he does not
selves
as
they will show themmap of his drains,
in the condition and improvement of the soil,
for
care
a
begins to forgettheir location he will
that he had some
of them to refresh
representation
his memory
and to show
his friends,
if nothing
yet when
wish
he
more.
THE
The
actual
will
work
done
diggingof
seem
to
many
CONSTRUCTION
OF
DRAINS.
thus far has been
the ditch and
that the
preparatory to the
layingof the tile. It
stakingout, levelingand
PEACTICAL
DETAILS
OF
THE
61
WOKK.
the grade of drains,is too much
work for
adjusting
little pay, if not wholly useless. The farmer,perhaps,
has seen
his neighbor do some
draining"by guess"
which
has worked
line of tile himself
the
running water
with
may
have
laid
a
short
with
as
a
good results,
by simplyusing
extended sysguide. In more
Fig. 16." Map
terns,and
he
well,or
no
of
water,
Draindd
a
or
even
Field.
with
water
for
a
or
entirelyfail.
partially
guide,he will sometimes
Be sure you're
rightand then go ahead,"is the motto to
in draining. With the drains laid out and depths
use
and every thing arranged as
marked
upon the stakes,
"
it should
work
be, we
know
in advance
if they are
perfectly,
If
the
whole
laid
system is
that the drains will
accordingto the
not
completed at
vey.
surone
62
FARM
PRACTICAL
be done
time,a part can
next,
pegs
to be
in
year and
one
the rest the
time,though it is better
any other convenient
the grade
it all at once, as the frost will move
or
do
to
DRAINAGE.
much
so
that the unfinished
part will be obliged
lagain. It is better,however,to do part
twice if necessary, rather than not have
leveling
leveled
of the
the drains laid out upon
connected
some
system.
Digging the Ditch. The tools which are necessary
to do good and rapidwork
a ditching
spade
are, First,
for the main
part of the digging. This spade has a
blade
about
eighteeninches
than the
long,a littlenarrower
wards
common
spade,and curved tothe front.
The superiority
"
of this
the
over
common
spade is that it is capableof
and
taking narrower
deeper
which will adhere to the spadeuntil itcan be lifted
drafts,
which
tile spade,
is narrower
than
out.
a
Secondly,
the ditching
and taperstowards the point.Third,
spade,
for cleaningthe bottom
of
a
pullscoop,"or tile-hoe,
"
the ditch.
The
handle
that the workman
ditch
sixteen
inches
of this should
can
it when
use
from
be at such
the
an
standingin
bottom.
As
gle
an-
the
this is
a
handy tool,and it is often necessary to get it
by the blacksmith,we give a drawing of it (fig.
17). It is most convenient when it is justlargeenough
very
made
/
^
."
"
to make
a
channel
firmly. This
into which
would
the tile to be used
necessitate
a
will fit
different hoe for
ev-
tile-hoe suited to threeery different sized tile. A
inch tiles may be used for much
largersizes,with a
little care
a
stick
square
and
extra
gauge, which is
one-fourth
inches
Fourth, a
long,and one and
inches
section,
graduatedto feet,
six feet
in
work.
and
eighths
PRACTICAL
of
DETAILS
inches,and
OF
having an
THE
63
WORK.
feet
long,which
slides up and down
the graduated stick. The
upon
should move
at a
arm
rightangle to the stick and
fasten at any desired pointby means
of a thumb-screw.
Fifth,a strong hemp line 100 feet long,for liningout
the ditch,
and also for a gauge line to be used in grading
the bottom
of the ditch.
Begin opening the
line about
out
ditch
four inches
draft with
one
from
does not
exceed
be clean
cut
the
apt
to
increase
final channel
as
the
ditch
is
The
sides.
it is started at the
the
Stretch the
wide,where
depth.
on
straight
when
outlet.
the
inches
four feet in
and
at the
grade pegs, and take
ditchingspade,making the
ditch ten inches to twelve
short crooks
two
arm
the ditch
ditch should
If there
surface,
they are
that
deepened,so
for the tile becomes
are
crooked
to
a
the
some
trouble-
should have in mind the
degree. The workman
depthwhich is marked upon the stakes,between which
he is working,and in digginghe should aim to leave
a bottom
spadingof sixteen or eighteeninches for the
who finishes and gradesthe bottom.
We
are
one
posing
supthat the soil works easily,
not beinghard enough
when
to requirepicking,
we
give ten or twelve inches
for the width of the ditch at the top. If the soil is so
its full
be pushed down
hard that the spade can
not
width
it must
be loosened with a pick,more
or
length,
be
must
the
allowed
"
sometimes
top, the ditch in all
toward
the
Grading the
Bottom.
sixteen
inches
within
slantingin,of
cases
the width
bottom, to
"
The
of the
twenty inches
even
at
"
course,
of the tile.
ditch
having been dug
bottom,
as
near
as
to
the
judge,we must take out the last draft
to a true
with the tile spade,and bring the bottom
grade and depth,as indicated by the stakes. These,
workman
can
64
we
PRACTICAL
FARM
DRAINAGE.
remember,give the depth measured
from
the
gradepointsso that
It remains for us to connect
these
peg.
of the ditch shall be a true line upon which
the bottom
we
may laythe tile. There are many ways of doingthis
but we
correctly,
give
has
only one, which
been
found
simple,
and correct,
easy, practical
and
which
method
who
vorite
is a fawith
have used
all
it. It
consists in
a
stretching
g
line at the
side of the
|
ditch at any convenient
to
|^heightparallel
| requiredbottom
the
of the
"
ditch,as
shown
3
18.
In
order
^
we
this,
take the gauge
before
a convenient
described,
lengthof which
feet,
though,of
for very
deep
is six
course,
ditches
to
it must
longer.
ditch
in
we
In
a
fig.
do
be
four-foot
may
set the
of the gauge at six
of feet and inches marked
arm
feet. Now,
the number
noticing
and note the
subtract itfrom six feet,
upon the firststake,
difference. Drive a stake,a, by the side of the gradepeg until the distance from the top of the peg to the
Set
as this difference.
top of the stake a is the same
another
stake at the
Stretch the line
over
next
grade-pegin
the
same
way.
the tops of these stakes and fasten
66
FARM
PRACTICAL
end
upper
of the drain
may be
If the bottom
which
from
protectedfrom mud
washed
down
the diggingproceeds.
as
of the ditch is soft,
the tiles may be laid
the surface with
should
DRAINAGE.
a
be
tile-hook.
Workmen
who
do
job work preferthis,as the work is done easier and
but for excellence of work
we
faster,
preferthe hand
laying. The upper end of each drain should be closed
by placinga stone or brick over the end of the tile
before covering. The tiles when laid should be imme-
clay,which has just been
taken out, or is obtained by slicing
off from the side's
of the ditch with the spade. This should be firmly
pressedabout the tile with the feet to a depthof six
covered
diately
with
moist
inches.
thingsto attend to is to secure the
outlet from injuryby tramplingof stock,etc.,and the
flow
of vermin.
If long delayed,
entrance
water may
interfere with any work
and seriously
throughthe tile,
at the outlet.
We
give an illustration of a good way
the outlet from injuryin fig.
19.
to secure
Dig a pit
and lay a
the outlet is located,
two feet square where
foundation of stone deep enough to be safe from frost.
Build this up to the line of the drain,layingthe stone
One
of the first
PRACTICAL
in cement
DETAILS
and
sand
mortar.
OF
THE
Lay the first two tiles
they connect
correctly,
this,being careful that
upon
and continue the stone work to within
surface.
A
front of the
of
proceeds; or
others,and have
the
in the
foot of the
one
be
placed a little distance in
the tile,
and fastened as the masonry
the outlet tile may be largerthan
wires passedthroughholes drilled
grate may
end
67
WORK.
tile for that purpose.
of stone,or even
wood
Brick
be
may
will be
good
used
stead
in-
longas
as
it lasts.
After
the
tiles are
first covered
filled in in any way
which
may
the earth is dry,it can
be done
the
required when
expense
the
should be heaped upon
there
will not
be
too
much.
the
ditch may
desirable.
seem
with
wet.
about
All
When
done
If
one-half
earth
of the
when
ditch,as
be
it settles
by
hand
a
method
is to pass a rope around
simpleand expeditious
then with one
the blade of a largescoop-shovel,
man
other
pullingat the rope on one side of the ditch,and anpushingupon the handle upon the other side,the
earth can
be moved
rapidly.
the
We
have described only one
way of performing
workmen
in drainage
Work.
Many practical
may take
recommend
to it,and
a better way.
Any
exceptions
and gives good remethod
which
is well understood
sults
That which
is apt to be regardedas the best.
have
described has been demonstrated
by actual
we
and correct.
to be practical
use
DIFFICULTIES
and
CONSTRUCTING
DRAINS.
with less expense
may be dug
favorable time can
than at others ; but the most
always be selected. The claysubsoil may be dry
At
not
IN
some
seasons
ditches
slow work,
hard,necessitating
and
sometimes
the
68
pick must
be used.
Under
should
14
inches
be
workman
If,on
to
20
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
such
wide
difficulties the ditch
the
at
for his arms
may have room
the other hand, the earth is so
top, that
and
the
shoulders.
that it will
wet
slump in,"the sides must be sloped from the surface
at such an
anglethat they will stand. Another way to
this difficulty
in deep ditches is to "sheet,"
overcome
by drivingtwo-inch planksendwise at the sides of the
"
ditch until the lower
requiredditch.
braces
cross
"
lines of
the
only
The
above, and
be taken
same
in
If the
the bottom
be
the earth taken
the
of the
kept in place by
between
out
the
tile laid to
grade. The
section prepared
up and another
This method
is to be
way.
deep ditches
treacherous
below
are
planks may
and
sheeting,"
planksmay
in
ends
opened
in
resorted
unstable
very
to
and
soil.
soil
subsoil
is
silt,
quicksand,or
"
which
other material
runs," the jointsof the tiles
should be covered with firm clay,or a band
of grass
This will keep such material
of the
straw.
out
or
drain until it has made
the soil sufficiently
dry and
firm to give no trouble from this source.
If the drain
be put in positionand the earth compacted about
can
it without
there is little to fear conmoving the tiles,
cerning
its success
and durability.
It is often desirable to drain a spring,but the earth
is usuallyso soft that the tiles can
not be placedin
position. In such cases a bottom can be most easily
made
for the tiles to rest
by placinga fence-board
upon, observingto have the tiles laid upon the proper
them
with a few inches of firm
grade, and to cover
earth
to
hold
or
them
the
obstructing
in
drain.
a
wet
place and
prevent mud
Gravel-stone
or
from
clay may
be
PRACTICAL
used
for
DETAILS
bottom
a
with
OF
THE
69
WORK.
but they are
good results,
not
alwayseasilyobtained.
OBSTRUCTIONS
Drains
such
TO
sometimes
are
obstructed
the
willow,the
fullyproved that a
trees
has
as
willows.
The
and
joints,
DRAINS.
fine roots
flourish with
by the
elm, etc.
water
tile drain is not
penetrate the
such
roots
ence
Experisafe
line
luxuriance
of
near
the
at
that in
one
filled with rootlets.
years the tile will be entirely
The
only safe way is to destroyall such trees
within seventy-five
feet. For a properlyconstructed
two
or
drain,the only care it requiresis to keep the outlet
free from mud, remove
the silt which
accumulates
in
and to see that no
the silt-basins,
trees with waterare
lovingpropensities
permittedto obstruct the drain
with
their roots.
JUNCTIONS.
Great
other
branch
current
the
not
will enter
curved.
the
In
at
of
the truth
of the
apparent. No.
the
above
1 is
a
or
if
a
so
made
about
30"
branch
with
tile should
remarks
section
that
greater angle is
sections of
shown
are
be
angle of
an
it flows ;
mouth
20
fig.
should
Junctions
into which
one
necessary,
more
be used.
branch
which
in
with
making junctions
drains,that the jointsbe good, and that the
drains alwaysdischarge
in the direction of the
of the main drain.
Right-angledjunctiontiles
should
the
should be taken
care
of
be
junctionsby
may
be
made
right-angled
currents
meeting
a
junction. Suppose that the two
ties
at a be represented
by the lines ab and ad; the velocibeing equal,the lines are made of equallength.
of forces,
Completingwhat is termed the parallelogram
abed,and drawing the resultant ac, we have the direc-
70
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
resultingfrom the union of the
it will be seen, flows strongly
This resultant,
two.
rent
checkingthe curagainstthe oppositeside of the tile,
tle
by the friction thus caused,and also creatinga liteddy in which earthymaterial washed out by the
is greater in
drain may be deposited.If the velocity
find the resultant
the branch, as is often the case, we
in the same
way, by making the lengthof the lines
of the currents
to the velocity
have to
we
proportional
represent. Supposing the velocityof the current in
tion
of the
current
Fig: 20
the branch
-
Junctions
to be twice that
in the main.
The
ant
result-
ance
ae, in No. 1,shows that there is stillgreaterresistoffered than in the first case
The best
assumed.
form
for
junctionwhich joinsa branch
nearlyrightangles,is shown in No. 2.
the current
graduallyas it enters the
unitingit with the main current in a way
a
to
a
This
main
the
resultant
of the two
at
curves
stream,
ates
that acceler-
it rather than retards it at the time the two
No. 3 shows
main
currents
unite.
when
theyunite at an angle of 30",which is the preferable
will show the necessity
angle. A study of these figures
of careful attention to this subject.
Many mistakes have been, and are stillbeing made
PRACTICAL
by
DETAILS
farmers
western
them
we
This
is
flat.
The
large
and
small
in the
difficultyalways
a
deep
for
open
their
they
tiles
We
in
be
must
its
have
We
discuss
not
simply
the
method
of
to
one
every
in
his
fear
in
who
asserting
agricultural
them.
it
and
and
that
will
of
purposes
it, and
important
upon
the
service.
methods
have
upon
be
of
and
result
add
will
value
it will
improvement
that
to
be
can
to
profit
almost
those
with
in the
have
we
surprise
tered
en-
use
the
which
well,
lation
calcu-
been
experience
done
to
give
to
of
not
may
some
be
is done
purposes.
practical
a
by consulting
had
that
a
subject,or
drainage
matters
are
so
in
of
practices,but
which
cost
the
size
same
the
The
out.
have
whatever
farmers,
most
The
grade
the
the
too
given
agricultural
exhaust
to
satisfyhimself
can
If
for
extent
an
from
vicinity
work.
to
farmer.
derived
be
do
by drainage engineers
into, only
careful
land
them
tiles
subject of drainage simply
opinions
carrying
of
If the
to
is
construct
sizes
decreased,
order
in
the
to
of
is
land
tile-drains
use
enough.
laid
and
which
The
principles underlying
used
the
work.
outlets.
the
unite
the
Second,
attempted
variety
a
into
increased,
application
where
ditches,
considered
have
insufficient
to
small
be
to
are
71
WORK.
present
subsequent
are
and
farmers
freely.
previous chapter
which
is for
remedy
THE
practice of drainage. Among
notice, first, faulty
discharge
may
OF
our
no
ern
west-
prairie farms
for
considered
the
be
made
upon
72
FARM
PRACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
CHAPTER
DITCHING
DifficultiesInvolved
The
There
has
"
MACHINES.
Principles
"
Blickensderfer
been
VI.
Tile
Johnson
The
Drain
considerable
"
Ditcher.
effort,
during the
of ditching
for
years, to lessen the expense
drains by the invention and use
few
Tile Ditcher
of
machines.
last
tileThe
and it is
thus far attained is very encouraging,
the machine
will very largely
be hoped that soon
success
to
There are many difficulties
ditching.
incident to the diggingof farm drains.
The
soil is often soft and sticky
; at other times it is hard,
localities contains graveland stone ; deep
and in some
be made ; springs
be drained ;
sometimes
must
cuts must
the difficulties to be overcome
in short,
by the inventor
machine
of a tile ditching
can
hardlybe appreciated
with practical
by any one unacquainted
ditching.
There
different principles
two
are
essentially
upon
which the machine
problem is being worked out. One
is made
is the repeating
process, by which the machine
forth over
the ditch,
each time adding
to pass back and
other comto its depth until it is completed.The
pletes
the ditch as the machine
advances,requiring
only one passage over the ground.
The
followingcut representsa repeatingmachine,
Tile Ditcher,manufactured
called the Johnson
by King,
supplementhand-
Hamilton
drawn
wheel
work
in
Co., Ottawa, Illinois. The
by eight horses,four abreast. A
"
containingsmall spadesloosens
machine
is
revolving
the earth and
it
74
PEACTICAL
FAEM
DRAINAGE.
DITCHING
The
75
MACHINES.
74,representsthe Blickensderfer Tile
Drain
ensderfer,
DitchingMachine, manufactured
by U. Blickwhich consists of a large
Decatur,Illinois,*
buckets
mounted
or
revolvingwheel of excavators
cut
on
page
four wheels.
upon
shapeof
The
buckets
construction
are
of
a
new
and
peculiar
largerinside
they grow
from their mouth
or
cuttingedges back,and as the
clayis scoopedup and passedin,not being compressed,
ets,
but gettinginto larger
space in the back of the buckit readily
drops out when revolved to the top of
the wheel,the earth beingthrown on an inclined apron
teeth or picksof
side of the ditch. Curved
to one
steel,
projecting
beyond the buckets,loosen hard-pan
claysand protectthe buckets from stones, which they
of the
also liftand work out by a simplemanipulation
revolvingwheel,the forward motion of the machine
beingreadilychecked or backed duringthe operation
without stoppingthe horse.
The
manufacturer
;
of this machine
claims that it will
deep in one passage over the
ground,and at the same time give any desired grade
the gradebeing as perfect
as a
uneven
surface,
over
an
cate
of a row
of stakes set to indiperson can sightthe top
the desired grade.
consists of a singlehorse,used upon a
The
power
cut
a
ditch
over
four feet
revolves the buckets
sweep around the machine, which
the machine
time moves
ahead,requirand at the same
ing
and a boy to attend it. It will cut
only one man
rods of ditch per
hundred
from seventy-five
to one
for the tile. The bottom
it accurately
day,finishing
of the ditch is shaped so that a largeor small tile will
fitit and not roll or get misplaced.
These,as well as other machines for diggingditches,
*Formerly
Erie, Pa.
76
of
worthy
are
If
will
they
it
respect,
waste
of
lands
and
tile
which
be
the
will
done
of
by
ordinary
old
be
to
in
true
of
true
the
good
hand
work
at
work.
least
in
our
farms
which
impetus
giving
to
of
history
it
less
cost
is
a
ing,
drain-
machine
ditching
that
this
succeeds
"Nothing
the
them
cultivated
is
the
people
of
at
the
adage
every
reclaiming
of
machinery
proven
also
doing
for
consider
ditch
in
all
or
ers.
drain-
tile
hand-ditching,
outlook
we
The
shows
once
way
and
one
improvement
when
has
success"
and
The
of
part
satisfactory
that
of
place
work.
progressive
already
yet
soil.
promising
successful
the
the
the
on
probable
quite
kinds
DRAINAGE.
attention
not
take
very
like
close
are
is
soon
many
is
FARM
PRACTICAL
in
success
than
it
can
COST
AND
CHAPTER
COST
Cost of
Drainage
AND
COST
The
first cost
VII.
PROFIT.
Cost of Mains
"
OF
77
PROFIT.
"
Profits of
Drainage.
DRAINING.
of
drainingis what frightens
manyfarmers when
the subject
is brought to their notice.
Drainingshould be regardedas an investment of capital.
The farmer's land,his necessary stock and implements,
and his yearly
labor are regardedas his capital.
All that he can
make
by the management of these is
the profit
of his business.
But to drain,cash capital
is required.If the farmer does not possess this,
and
he can
not
can
get it at a reasonable rate of interest,
If he has been prosperous, and,as a result,
not drain.
little cash capital,
he does
he has in his possession
a
hesitate to use it in adding to his facilitiesfor increasing
not
his profits.Nor does he hesitate long to pay
a
reasonable
add
to
of interest for money
his working force if he can
see
rate
fair
prospect of making
rate
of interest he is
Without
cents, let
naming
us
a
much
with
which
to
that there is
than
largerprofit
a
the
obligedto
a
take this
pay.
definite number
of dollars and
generalstatement,which
mitted
is ad-
by all who have drained to any extent,that on
ordinaryfarm land that will produce but one-fourth
to one-half a crop, the total cost of drainingwill be
met
by the additional crop that will be produced
during the next two years after draining. The cost of
drained
land is less than for wet land,as
cultivating
78
tried
have
all who
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
will admit.
both
By
this investment
for what work
he
will get fair wages
his land,his money
will be in his pocket
the farmer
does
upon
again at the
and ready to
Many
years.
does
not
end
his money
return
them
pay
every
cultivate land
farmers
a
his land
years, and
of two
drained
succeedingtwo
which, in reality,
in the
fair remuneration
crop
from land which
come
they get from it. Their profits
is in good condition
and
will produce good crops.
to wholly discard
Very often they would make more
the wet
land and give more
labor to that which will
return
for it.
give some
dollars per acre, it will
land is worth fifty
Where
It is true that
land.
to drain wet
pay a largereturn
much
western
farming is done on cheap land where it
is the custom
is
to cultivate a part of the farm, which
and use the rest for grazing
surface-drained,
naturally
Draining under such conditions will not
purposes.
has not the facilitiesfor using
pay, because the farmer
the good land he alreadyhas in his possession. Such
vanced
adfarming,however, is fast coming under the more
system in which
"
more
work
and
less land
"
is
the motto.
The
dertaken
undraining,like any other enterprise
upon the farm,will always vary with the price
of labor, yet farm
products usually bear a price
with farm
commensurate
labor,so that the relation
of the
cost
of
two
will be
thingswhich
about
the
the expense
the relation between
will vary
There
same.
of
are
two
ever
drainingwhatbe
farm
productsand
may
farm
labor.
These
main
are
: the
drains,which will
gree
necessarily
vary in size,lengthand depth,and the deof thoroughness
with which drainingis done.
AND
COST
COST
It will
be
large
be
may
mains
There
the
that
and
laid
the
some
stream
then
necessary
outlet
foot
long
at
ditchers
different
expense
per
Cost
depths
one
to
be
had
and
Main
large
reached.
expense.
of considerable
in order
ditches
dig
As
with
hundred
of Five-inch
easily
It
give
to
field.
feet.
can
required
some
drain
deep
may
laterals.
minimum
a
a
per
One
lay tile
would
$1.50
For
as
Hundred
a
per
main
Feet.
say
day,
drain,
different
follows
be
will
basis,we
tile of
feet is
and
unit
for
$2.00 per day.
at
near
convenient
more
a
the
is
main
laid
the
to
ordinary diggers
good
a
and
hundred
one
field is
to
farm
or
will be
which
of ditchers
custom
rod, though
or
the
where
cases
field
a
discharge
reduced
be
be
that
to
that
size must
the
which
reason
often
It is the
by
or
will
are
MAINS.
little expense
very
into
for the
Draining
the
that
ditch,
open
OF
easilyunderstood
situated
so
for
be
79
PROFIT.
:
sizes,
80
PKACTICAL
DRAINAGE.
FARM
Cost ofSix-inch Main
per
One
Hundred
Feet.
Cost ofSeven-inch Main
per One
Hundred
Feet.
inch Main
Cost of Eight-
per One
Hundred
Feet.
give a pretty close estimate of the cost
dollars per
when
of mains
two
in general,
are
wages
day for good ditchers. To this should be added the
while they are at work, and
cost of boardingthe men
These
tables
82
the
ditch.
$1.32
Add
PRACTICAL
FARM
Three-inch
and
$2.00
to
four-inch tile cost
hurdred
one
per
DRAINAGE.
feet
from
respectively.
while engaged
boarding the men
of hauling the tile to the
in the work, and
ground, and we have a close approximationof the
feet. There are
hundred
cost of drainingper one
a
few incidental matters, such as protecting
the outlet
silt basins,
if any are needed,and surveying,
which
tile,
this the
to
should
be taken
of
cost
into account.
The
actual cost per acre will depend upon how many
A field having
rods of drain are laid upon an acre.
placesand always troublesome to cultivate
in the spring,
to say nothing of the loss incurred,
can
often be drained out in good shape at a cost of about
several wet
five dollars
per
field
acre
for the whole
field. The
cost
of
by placingthe laterals from sixtyfeet
hundred feet apart,making a fair allowance for
to one
lars
the extra cost of mains, is from fifteen to twenty doling
as
theyexist at the presentwritper acre, at prices
(1882).
draininga
PROFITS
OF
DRAINING.
in the foregoing
Enough has been said incidentally,
of draining,to satisfy
pages, concerningthe profits
of wet farming lands,that it is better to reclaim
owners
such lands than to invest capital
by buying new
After having arrived at the probablecost of
farms.
the work, it will be easy to estimate the increase of
with one
crops by comparing the field to be drained
which is naturally
drained,and whose productive
powers
have
a
been well ascertained.
ing,
producenothingwithout drainentire crop, after deductingthe cost of producing,
that an unwill be profit.We will suppose
field will producetwenty bushels of corn
per
condition that it will
the
drained
If the land is in such
COST
If
acre.
well
drained,
cultivating will
Here
is
forty
as
bushel,
profit.
The
labor,
eight dollars,
results
farmer
The
will
investigates
the
or
shape
We
of
that
give
the
author
that
the
be
and
assured
well
from
best
they
in
results
if the
done.
thorough
way.
work
him
the
expected
this
at
go
if he
estimate
work
Count
right.
fairly, and
then
writer
to
may
work
be
is
to
it
regards
of
farmers.
to
adapted
almost
to
in
The
the
fiftyper
almost
every
The
drain
obtained.
as
:
regarding
statements
in
tell how
profit,viz
cent,
found
interest
of
subject
twenty-fiveper
be
evidence
condensed
individual
can
the
been
this
The
publish
has
who
all
increase
the
upon
investment.
published
to
and
farmers
Let
it is
dollars.
way,
in his
one
say
produces
same
it with
any
sentence
a
pays
subject, as
the
in
farmers
to
and
acre
per
case
by
year
at
accordingly.
can
on
advise
which,
twenty
the
in
compare
expected
course
superfluous
this
and
the
of
brings
acre.
per
dollars
himself.
others
draining
cent,
for
corn
first
in
expense
acre,
confidence
because,
your
scores
the
figured
more
not
and
cost
in
every
figures
do
We
blindly,
the
and
carefully
cost
gain.
have
of
per
economical
an
and
twelve
second
realized
in
be
which
the
are
drained
have
bushels
will
easily be
can
crops
such
in
labor
same
fiftybushels
thirty
per
cents
Other
of
83
PKOFIT.
the
produce
gain
a
AND
per
pa-
aim
such
a
of
way
profitswill
case
in
hand
84
DRAINAGE.
FARM
PRACTICAL
CHAPTER
ROAD
DRAINAGE.
Roads"
of
Improvement
Effect of Tile Drains
Surface
upon
ROAD
While
the
VIII.
drainageof
Drainage
"
Under
-Drainage
"
Care of Drained
Roads"
Roads.
DRAINAGE.
farm
lands is of
tance
greatimpor-
productionof largecrops, the
drainageand other improvement of our publicroads
since the
as
meritingequalattention,
may be regarded
his profarmer must
have an opportunity
to market
ducts,
which is commensurate
with their quantity.
Western, roads are often impassablefor loads during
of the mud.
several months
of the year by reason
as
There
aid
an
in the
are, of course,
in which
parts of the West
the
or are
by nature good nearlyall the
graveled,
To improve our
roads,as we have them now, is
year.
an
important problem. The arguments for gravel
land have very littleforce considering
roads on prairie
the great distance from which
gravel and stone must,
and the consequent expense.
in most cases, be brought,
the gravelat hand, it could not be used for the
Were
roads
are
construction
of roads until
preparedfor
it
Let
us
take
been
firm foundation
by drainage.
the roads as theyare
by using the means
usuallybeen done
has
a
to
within
our
and
reach.
All
roads in the way
of
make
sloughs,ponds
and
passable. An embankment
these placesby scrapingthe
has
been
earth from
been
improve them
our
to
had
made
that has
ment
improveswamps
through
either side to-
ROAD
wards
the middle
85
DRAINAGE.
of the
road,leavingditches
about
feet
two or three
deep,and making an embankment
feet high. Plank culverts are
used in the sloughsto
allow the water to pass throughthe embankment.
The
two
side ditches
often made
are
with
little reference to the
dischargeof the water which they collect from the
road
and
these
adjacentfields. As a consequence
ditches remain full of water during a largepart of the
the bottom
the embankment
until
or
spring,
saturating
it is in a soft and plastic
condition.
The
surface of
the road becomes
broken
up by the frost as it comes
of the ground,the spring rains penetrateit until
out
the saturated
have
a
surface meets
of mud
mass
contrast
by
that of the
as
impassable
to
travelers the
the smooth
a
bottom, and
road,and
and
road
firm
before.
summer
As
a
we
couraging
disjoyed
en-
the water
slowlydrains off through the soil,the
road begins to dry and
in process of time becomes
firm but rough,the track full of ruts, which will hold
while the
at every rain-fall,
water to their full capacity
and perhaps hollow
in the
embankment
is flattened,
the
middle.
The road is annuallyrepaired
by raising
little with newly dug earth,and the
embankment
a
evaporates,or
from
on
process goes
year to year.
OF
IMPROVEMENT
As
before
are, and
our
we
stated,
make
reach.
roads
them
upon
have
may
show
to be,and
system which
need.
particular
ideas
our
what
means
of what
has
been
in other localities; but
roads will remain
some
roads
our
by usingthe
better
their attainment
own
wish to take
"We
ought
ROADS.
as
bad
will
as
ever
apply to
until
our
as
they
within
perfect
done
wards
to-
yet our
we
hit
soil and
86
PRACTICAL
to the
Owing
water, there
readiness
will be
the frost is
when
surface
FARM
DRAINAGE.
with
time
a
coming
will be soft and
which
soil absorbs
our
in the
spring of the year
the ground, that the
of
out
fit to travel
not
do
upon,
what
will ; but the
length of the time during which this
is the case
be greatlyshortened
by a proper sysmay
tem
of drainage. As roads are now
worked, they are
unfit for heavy travel for two
months
in the
or
more
be decreased
at
spring. If drained,this time can
least one-half,
the road be much
better for the remainder
we
of the year, and
to
the expense
SURFACE
The
most
soil is
hard
a
depth
a
DRAINAGE.
essential feature
and
smooth
prairieloam
upon
is
of
a
of about
in
value
of the
intact.
The
meadow.
keeping
raised
road
this
The
crust
The
foot road
road
crust
incline
from
the
should
embanked, the
drained roads, will
of
until it is
side
ditches
and
spoiled,
are
heavy rains,and
for them.
a
valuable
suitable
as
new
in
be
an
on
must
If the
off
flow
be
road
is
naturally
the
road
be made.
collectingthe
outlets should
be
ened.
badly softeighteen-
slope in
one
upon
line towards
If the
even
that
should
will
in
and
as
rain-fall.
will not
the
loose
bed
rain
that
hard
a
the center
middle
down
track
depends
road
storm-water,
run
is
road
six inches.
be about
not
The
soil is
from
slopedsufficiently
the ditches,to carry off the
bed is not deeply rutted,the
the
road
will be found
and
rapidlythat
track
the
prairie
on
a
there
inches
ten
road
When
examined, it
below,
a
good
surface.
compact crust, while
so
reduced
repairsbe
minimum.
a
for
for
water
provided
ROAD
87
DRAINAGE.
UNDER-DRAINAGE.
road
a
objectof under-draining
The
keep the
of the
bottom
embankment
The
open ditches
year.
of storm
water, but
of the
excess
it remains
for the tile-drains
to
what
remove
a
dry road
to
crust.
In
a
tain
level
to
and
further
let at
off the
"
outlet for
the
find
below
the
not make
"
any
arrangements
Do
"
fall
pro-
posed outlet,before
made.
carry
der-draining
un-
be
may
If there is any
needed.
doubt upon this point,use
above
should
drains
whatever
the
firm at all times
give
road,firstob-
good, free
a
simply to
the ditches
and
off,
failto carry
ic
are
the out-
"
littleditch which
some
fillup, but be sure
that all the water
that will
will
soon
ever
be
drains
"
from
discharged
can
flow away
the
f
out
with-
It may
be that the outlet must
be
backingup."
obtained
througha
the road.
cases
and
the
owner
the road
farm adjoining
In such
of the farm
authorities should
unite in
some
ble
equita-
way.
ground,
Supposing that the road is in flat,
swampy
layout a drain lengthwiseof the road on each side of
and close to its base,as shown in the
the embankment
88
PRACTICAL
plan (fig.
23) and
for layinga drain
of
:
at each
one
drain
The
(fig.
24).
cross-section
side of the
in the middle
one
If
DRAINAGE.
FARM
or
side,are
is laid in the middle
through
road,
it must
enters
side
the
from
pass
lows
fol-
as
of the
which
all water
ditches
base of the
the
In times of
*"
will
I The
be, for
a
idea that
^ middle
1 upon
1
bankment.
em-
high
not
quickly
the base
enough,consequently
carry the water
.
will
drain
the
water
stead
in-
embankment,
one
on
reasons
will
away
time,saturated.
the water
remove
the road
in the
drain
a
bed
is
errone-
ous, for at such times the mud
"5. is
puddledand
|
water
%
to
|
the
will
to pass from
drain.
the
One
permitno
the surface
drain
at
side of the embankment,
'.though excellent,
is often ino"
give good
sufficient to
^
age.
drains
Two
laid in the
indicated in the
way
will prevent all water
the
saturating
even
times.
The
as
in the
drain-
figures
base of the
as
bankment,
em-
in the wettest
drains should
far
from
the
tinue
con-
ground
is
spring.
If there are ponds near
by, which, in times of heavy
rains,overflow and dischargeinto the road,side drains
should
in figure23.
be extended
to them, as shown
Should there be a small hollow along the line of the
wet
to any
extent
90
FARM
PRACTICAL
EFFECT
The
TILE
DRAINS
UPON
ROAD.
THE
firm by preventkeep the embankment
ing
from
penetratingit from the bottom and
whole of the road is kept dry,except the
,""crust at the top,which,
I if traveled upon when
drains
water
sides.
OF
DRAINAGE.
The
"" wet, becomes
puddled
and will allow
~
"" to
water
no
This
through.
go
a
part of the road
1
must
f
the fall and
"
whole
be
bed
made
dry by
| surface drainage and
2 evaporation.During
the
winter
road
embank-
,c
*
thor-
becomes
ment
'"goughlydrained,so
| there is only a
frost to
J
soften the surface of the
"
road
in the
could
we
e
s
I high,
f
^
sider
%
this,we
lines
than
water
a
an
b in
this,for
spring. If
make
cm-
or
five feet
should
we
roads
our
our
con-
well
Instead
drained.
withdraw
of
the
depthof four
the surface of the road,which
gives
ted
by the dotembankment, as shown
better
fig.2". Draining does even
"
it the effect of
and
along
four
roads
out
come
\ bankments
five feet from
little
|
|"
or
that
in the
case
often stands in the
water
of the
to
a
raised
largeditches
embankment
at the
side;but
ROAD
when
the
stands
under-drains
higherthan
It should
not
time
at any
water
road to
does
under-draining
the surface and allowing
penetrating
in mind
prevent rain from
only the
laid,no
are
the drains.
be borne
the
91
DRAINAGE.
be cut
water
should
for
into ruts ; but
this affects
comparativelyshort time.
A tile-drain may be used in many
placesto intercept
which
water
percolatesthrough banks lying higher
than the roadway. One line of tile,
laid between
the
bank and road,as shown
in fig.
25, will often cut off
the water at such a depth as to render a road firm
which
soft. Springs of water
has previously
been
of
often make
muddy spots in a road. The sources
such
surface and
that
a
be hunted
up, and drains laid where
from the road.
they will convey the water
The onlyhope we have for good roads on our prairie
soil is to keep them
dry by removing the water as
quicklyas possiblefrom the surface,and preventing
the substratum
from becoming saturated.
CARE
the road
After
OF
bed
A
DRAINED
has
once
ROAD.
been
put into proper
shape,and well drained,nothing should be done
smooth
to keep the surface in shape and
as
possible.The old crust is better than any new,
All
should
be preservedwith the utmost
care.
of the
in time"
out
and
over
which
should
it
some
there
are
machine
several.
made
smoothed
for the
If the drains
outlet attended
as
and
provement
im-
the "stitch
be upon
rutted
road becomes
the
principle.When
beginsto dry,it should be
the
constructed,
a
surface
cept
ex-
to, as
the road
given on farm drainage,
small outlayfor improvements each
by
ing
draw-
purpose,
are
of
properly
in the instructions
will
year.
requirebut
92
PRACTICAL
Road
have
securing
this
It
work.
good
storm-
sub-stratum
is
water
except
can
until
they
will
be
pass
kept
experimented
proved.
hard
are
and
drained
by
work
of
the
drains.
of
that
from
thorough
the
ing
drain-
Nothing
of
will
expensive
such
such
in
its
difficulty
sometimes
expected
quickly
firm
the
until
upon
The
because
for
be
never
DRAINAGE.
limited
outlets
proper
obviate
fully
been
roads
many
been
has
drainage
benefits
be
FARM
roads
a
surface,
way
and
under-drainage.
will
that
the
SHORT-TITLE
CATALOGUE
OF
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PUBLICATIONS
OP
JOHN
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YORK,
CHAPMAN
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ARRANGED
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