(*)Keith T. Borg, MD, PhD, FACEP

(*)KeithT.Borg,MD,PhD,FACEP
DivisionChiefofPediatricEmergencyMedicine;
AssociateProfessorofPediatricsandMedicine,
MedicalUniversityofSouthCarolina,Charleston,
SouthCarolina
AdvancedPracticeProvider
Academy
April14‐18
SanDiego,CA
CommonInfectionsintheED
Infectiousdiseasesarecommonlyseenintheemergency
department.Thespeakerwilldiscusshowtoaccurately
diagnoseandappropriatelytreatanumberofthese
disordersincludingpharyngitis,URIs,influenza,
pneumoniaUTIsandskinandsofttissueinfections.
Objectives:
 Discussthecommonsourcesoffeverandinfectionin
EDpatients.
 Explainhowtodifferentiatethevarietyofetiologies
ininfectiousagentsfromviralbacterialandfungal.
 Discusswhichpatientswithuncomplicatedsystemic
infectionscanbemanagedasanoutpatient.
 DiscussCMSguidelinesformanagementof
pneumonia.
Date:4/17/2014
Time:9:00AM‐9:30AM
CourseNumber:TH‐49
(*)ConsultingFees:EventMedicalConverage,SMTMedical
Solutions
4/24/2014
Common Infections in the
Emergency Department
Keith Borg MD, PhD
MUSC Pediatric and Adult Emergency Medicine
Darrel J. Morrison, MSN, RN, FNP-BC, CEN
Common Infections in the ED
• Discuss the common sources of fever and infection in ED
patients
• Explain how to differentiate the variety of etiologies in
infections agents from viral, bacterial, and fungal
• Discuss which patients with uncomplicated systemic
infections can be managed as an outpatient
• Discuss guidelines for management of pneumonia
1
4/24/2014
Common Infections in the ED
• Pharyngitis
• Upper respiratory infections (URI)
• Influenza
• Pneumonia
• Urinary tract infections (UTI)
• Skin and soft tissue infections (STI)
Pharyngitis
•
•
•
•
•
•
Epidemiology
• Etiology
One of the most common • Multiple pathogen
conditions in ambulatory
causes
care
• Bacterial
12 million visits per year
• Viral
Group A Strep accounts
for 5-15 % of these visits
60% of patients are given
antibiotics
Systematic approach is
much needed
2
4/24/2014
Etiology
•Bacterial (<20%)
• Group A streptococcus
(GAS)
• Group C streptococcus
• Group G streptococcus
• Chlamydiophia pneumoniae
• Mycoplasms pneumonia
• Corynebacterium
diphtheriae
• Neisseria gonorrheae
• Treponema pallidum
• Francisella tularensis
• Viral (50%)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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•
•
•
•
Rhinovirus
Adenovirus
Influenza A and B
Parainfluenza
Coxsackieviurs
Coronavirus
Echovirus
Herpes simplex virus
Epstein barr virus
HIV
Cytomegalovirus
Respiratory syncytial virus
Group A streptococcus
•Most important treatable cause •Centor Criteria
• Exudate
•~ 5 to 15% of sore throats are
• Tender anterior cervical
positive for GAS
adenopathy
• Fever history
•Clinical features:
• Absence of cough
• Sore throat
• Age
•
3-14 years
• Tonsillar exudate
•
15-44 years
•
45 years or older
• Tender cervial adenitis
• Fever
•Testing
• Cough and significant
• Rapid antigen detection test
rhinorrhea are generally
• Throat culture
absent
3
4/24/2014
Group A streptococcus
•
•
•
•
Treatment goals
Reduce duration and severity of symptoms
Reduce incidence of suppurative complications
Reduce incidence of nonsuppurative
complications
• Reduce transmission to close contacts
Group A streptococcus
•
Treatment
•
Adults and kids (> 27 kg)
Penicillin V 500mg bid or tid X 10d (drug of choice)
Bicillin C-R 2.4 M units
Bicillin L-A 1.2 M units
Amoxicillin 875 mg bid or 500mg tid X 10d
Cephalexin 500 mg bid X 10d
• Kids (< 27 kg)
• Penicillin V 250 mg bid or tid X 10d
• Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg per day divided X 10d
• Cephalexin 25 to 50 mg/kg per day divided bid X 10d
•
•
•
•
•
4
4/24/2014
Group A streptococcus
•
For patient with severe allergies to beta-lactam antibiotics
Azithromycin
• Adults Z-pack
• Kids 12 mg/kg daily X 5d
• Clarithromycin
• Adults 250 mg bid X 10d
• Kids 7.5 mg/kg/dose bid X 10d
• Clindamycin
• Adults28 to 70 kg: 20 mg/kg/day orally divided tid X 10d
> 70 kg: 450 to 600 mg orally tid X 10d
• Kids 20 mg/kg per day orally divided tid X 10d
•
Pharyngitis
• Symptomatic treatment
• Topical/Local therapies
• Magic Mouthwash
• Lozenges
• Sucrets
• Cepacol
• Chloraseptic
• Throat sprays
• Analgesics
• IDSA recommends ASA or NSAIDs
• Glucocorticoids
• IDSA recommends against the use of glucocorticoids
in patients with strep pharyngitis
• Document no PTA, Ludwigs or other abscess
5
4/24/2014
Upper Respiratory Infections
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•
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•
Definition
Infections involving the nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, and bronchi
Common cold
Pharyngitis
• > 7 million visits/yr
Sinusitis
• ~20 million visits/yr
Tracheobronchitis
• ~12 million visits/yr
Epidemiology
Occur mostly during winter months
Close contacts
Person to person contact/droplet
Upper Respiratory Infections
•
Etiology
•
Viruses
Rhinovirus
Parainfluenza virus
Coronavirus
Adenovirus
Respiratory syncytial virus
Coxsackie virus
Influenza
• Bacteria
• Pharyngitis- previously discussed
• Rhinosinusitis- S. pneumoniae, H. Influenzae, M.
Catarrhalis
• Tracheobronchitis- B. pertussis, B. parapertussis, M.
Pneumoniae, C. Pneumoniae
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
6
4/24/2014
Upper Respiratory Infections
• Clinical features
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Coryza
Nasal congestion
Sneezing
Sore throat
Low grade fever
Inflamed nasal mucosa
Cough
•
•
•
Productive
Color is not reliable!
Non-Productive
Upper Respiratory Infections
• Testing
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diagnostic testing have very limited utility with URIs
Exceptions
Pharyngitis
Influenza
RSV (infants)
Epiglottitis
Pharyngeal abscess
Mastoiditis
Pneumonia
7
4/24/2014
Upper Respiratory Infections
• Symptomatic treatment • Complications
•
•
•
•
Push fluids
Antipyretics/Analgesics
Avoid systemic steroids
Intranasal steroids have
virtually no immediate effect
• Antibiotics generally not
needed
• Antitussive
• Codeine not shown to be
significantly effective
• Antihistamines
• Decongestants
•
•
•
•
•
Acute rhinosinusitis
Lower respiratory tract
disease
Acute otitis media
Acute bacterial
tracheobronchitis
Asthma exacerbation
Influenza
• Introduction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acute respiratory illness
Influenza A or B virus
Occurs in outbreaks and epidemics worldwide
Mainly during winter months
Associated with increased morbidity and mortality
CDC tracks influenza virus throughout the world
• http://www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/summary.htm
8
4/24/2014
Influenza
• Clinical features of uncomplicated influenza
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abrupt onset of fever
Headache
Myalgias
Malaise
Weakness
Sneezing
Nonproductive cough
Symptoms gradually improve after 2-5 days with
residual symptoms lasting up to 1-2 weeks
Influenza
•
Testing
•
Rapid antigen tests
•
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
•
Who to test?
• Test only patients if the result will influence
management decisions
9
4/24/2014
Influenza
• Groups at high risk of influenza complications
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•
Children < 2 years
Adults > 65 years of age
COPD / Asthma
CVD
CKD
CLD
SCD
DM
Immunosuppresion
Pregnant women
Morbidly obese
Residents of LTCF
Children < 19 on ASA therapy
Native Americans and Alaskan Natives
Influenza
•
Treatment
•
Neuraminidase inhibitors
• Active against influenza A & B
• Zanamivir (inhaled)
• Oseltamivir (oral)
•
Adamantanes
• Active against influenza A
• Amantadine
• Rimantadine
10
4/24/2014
Influenza
•
Benefits of therapy
•
Shorten the duration of influenza symptoms
• 1 to 3 days
• Benefit is greatest when given earlier in course of
illness
• Decreased severity and incidence of complications
of influenza
• Decreased the duration of hospitalization in patient
with severe influenza
• Decreased influenza associated mortality
Influenza
•
Whom to treat with antiviral therapy?
•
Groups at high risk as previously stated
•
Illness requiring hospitalization
•
Progressive, severe, or complicated illness
11
4/24/2014
Pneumonia
• Epidemiology
• CDC combines PNA with influenza for
morbidity & mortality data
• PNA & influenza = 8th leading causes of death
in the US (2005)
• Age-adjusted death rate = 21.8 per 100,000
• Mortality rate: 7.3% out-Pt, 12% In-Pt, 40% ICU
• Death rates increase with comorbidity and age
Risk Factors
•
Aspiration risk
• Swallowing and
esophageal motility
disorders
• Stroke
• Nasogastric tube
• Intubation
• Sz and syncope
•
Bacteremia risk
• Indwelling vascular lines
• Intrathoracic devices
•
Debilitation
•
•
•
•
Alcoholism
Extremes of age
Neoplasia
Immunosuppresion
•
Chronic diseases
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diabetes
Renal failure
Liver failure
Valvular heart disease
Congestive heart failure
Pulmonary disorders
• COPD
• Chest wall disorders
• Skeletal muscle
disorders
• Bronchial obstruction
• Bronchoscopy
• Viral lung infections
12
4/24/2014
Pneumonia
• Clinical features
• Cough
• Fever
• Sputum production
• Pleuritic chest pain
• Rales
• Bronchial breath sounds
• Hemoptysis
• GI symptoms
• Dyspnea
• Older patients may have atypical symptoms
Pneumonia
Labs
•CBC
•CMP
•Blood cultures
•Sputum culture
•Legionella UAT
•Pneumococcal UAT
Radiology
•CXR
• Gold standard
•CT scan
13
4/24/2014
Pneumonia
• Outpatient vs Admission
• Scoring criteria to assess for severity of disease can
be used to identify patients with CAP, who may be
candidates for outpt managemtent
• CURB-65 criteria (confusion, uremia, RR, low
BP, age 65 yrs or greater)
• Pneumonia Severity Index
Pneumonia
•Outpatient Treatment
• Previously healthy and no use
of antimicrobials within the
previous 3 months
• Macrolide
• Doxycycline
• Presence of comorbidities or
use of antimicrobials in the past 3
months
• Respiratory fluoroquinolone
•
• Organisms
•
•
•
•
Strep pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae
Chlamydophilia pneumonia
Moxi-, levo-, gemi-
• Beta lactam plus macrolide
• Areas with high macrolide
resistant Strep pneumoniae
• Respiratory fluoroquinolone
14
4/24/2014
Pneumonia
• Inpatient (non-ICU)
Treatment
•
•
Respiratory
fluoroquinolone
• Moxi-, levo-, gemi-
• Organisms
•
•
•
•
•
•
Strep pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Chlamydophia pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae
Legionella species
Aspiration
Beta lactam plus
macrolide
Pneumonia
• Inpatient (ICU) Treatment
•
•
•
IV Beta lactam plus either
IV macrolide or IV respiratory fluoroquinolone
Risk of pseudomonas
• An antipneumococcal, antipseudomonal b-lactam
(piperacillin- tazobactam, cefepime, imipenem, or meropenem)
plus either ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin (750 mg)
• Or The above b-lactam plus an aminoglycoside and
azithromycin
• Or The above b-lactam plus an aminoglycoside and an
antipneumococcal fluoroquinolone (for penicillin-allergic
patients, substitute aztreonam for above b-lactam)
15
4/24/2014
Pneumonia in Children
• Clinical features:
• Infants: non-specific manifestations
• Fever, poor feeding, irritability, vomiting,
diarrhea, URI Sx, cough, respiratory distress
• Older children: more specific
• Fever, cough, chest pain, tachypnea, tachycardia,
grunting, nasal flaring, retracting. Cyanosis
usually very late.
• Signs/Physical exam
• RR > 60 for all ages
• Hypoxia
• Rales, wheezes, crackles, coarse breath sounds
Pneumonia in Children
• Organisms:
• 0-4 wks: GBS, GN enterics, Listeria
• 4-12 wks: C. trachomatis, GBS, GN enterics,
Listeria, viral (RSV/parainfluenza), B. pertussis
• 3 mos-4 yrs: Viral, S. pneumo, H. influenza, M.
catarrhalis, Grp A Strep, Mycoplasma
• > 5yrs: Mycoplasma (5-15yrs), C. pneumo, S.
pneumo, viral
16
4/24/2014
Pneumonia in the Elderly
•
•
•
•
Prevention important
Presentation can be subtle
Antibiotic choice in CAP is same as other adults
Healthcare associated pneumonia
• Consider S. aureus (skin wounds) and GN bacteria
(aspiration)
Pneumonia in
Immunocompromised Pts
•
•
•
Smokers, alcoholics, bedridden, immunocompromised, elderly
Common still common
• S. pneumo
• Mycoplasma
Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia
• P. jirovecii
• Fever, dyspnea, non-prod cough (triad 50%),
insidious onset in AIDS, acute in other
immunocompromised Pts
• CXR: bilateral interstitial infiltrates
• Steroids for hypoxia
• TMP-SMZ still first line
17
4/24/2014
Urinary Tract Infection
• Lower
• Urethritis
• Cystitis
• Upper
• Pyelonephritis
• Intrarenal and perinephric abscess
Etiology
•Gram neg. bacteria
• E. coli = 80% of uncomp.
acute UTI
• Proteus – assoc. with
stones
• Klebsiella – assoc. with
stones
• Enterobacter
• Serratia
• Pseudomonas
•Gram pos. cocci
• Staphylococcus
saprophyticus 10-15 %
acute sx UTI in young
females
• Enterococci – occas. in
acute uncomp. cystitis
• Staphylococcus aureus –
assoc. with renal stones,
instrumentation, increased
susp. of bacteremic kidney
infection
18
4/24/2014
Etiology
• Urethritis from chlamydia, gonorrhea, HSV –
acute sx female with sterile pyuria
• Ureaplasma urealyticum
• Candida or other fungal species – commonly
assoc. with cath. or DM
• Mycobacteria
Pathogenesis
• Usually ascent of bacteria from urethra to bladder
to kidney
• Vaginal introitus, distal urethra colonized by
normal flora
• Gram negative bacilli from bowel may colonize at
introitus, periurethra
19
4/24/2014
Predisposing conditions to UTI
• Female
• Short urethra, proximity to anus, termination beneath
labia
• Sexual activity
• Pregnancy
• 2-3% have UTI in preg, 20-30% with asx bacteriuria 
may lead to pyelo
• Increased risk of pyelo = decreased ureteral tone,
decreased ureteral peristalsis, temp. incomp of
vesicoureteral valves
Predisposing conditions to UTI
• Neurogenic bladder dysfunction or bladder
diverticulum (incomplete emptying)
• Age - Postmenopausal women with uterine or
bladder prolapse (incomplete emptying), lack of
estrogen, decreased normal flora, concomitant
medical conditions such as DM
• Vesicoureteral reflux
• Bacterial virulence
• Genetics
• Change in urine nutrients, DM, gout
20
4/24/2014
Urethritis
• Acute dysuria, frequency
• Often need to suspect sexually transmitted
pathogens esp. if sx more than 2 days, no
hematuria, no suprapubic pain, new sexual
partner, cervicitis
Cystitis
•
•
•
•
•
Sx: frequency, dysuria, urgency, suprapubic pain
Cloudy, malodorous urine (nonspec.)
Leukocyte esterase positive = pyuria
Nitrite positive (but not always)
WBC (2-5 with sx) and bacteria on urine
microscopy
21
4/24/2014
Pyelonephritis
• Fever
• Chills, N/V, diarrhea, tachycardia, myalgias
• CVAT or tenderness with deep abdominal
tenderness
• Possibly signs of Gram neg. sepsis
Pyelonephritis
• Leukocytosis
• Pyuria with leukocyte casts, and bacteria and
hematuria on microscopy
• Complications: sepsis, papillary necrosis,
ureteral obstruction, abscess, decreased renal
function if scarring from chronic infection, in
pregnancy – may increase incidence of preterm
labor
22
4/24/2014
Catheter-Associated
Urinary Tract Infections
• 10-15% of hosp. patients with indwelling catheter
develop bacteriuria
• Risk of infection is 3-5% per day of
catheterization
• UTI after one-time bladder cath approx. 2%
• Gram neg. bacteremia most significant
complication of cath-induced UTI
• Greater antimicrobial resistance
Diagnosis of UTI
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
History
Physical exam
Lab
Urinalysis with micro
• Leuk. Esterase pos. = pyuria
• Nitrite positive
• from urea producing bacteria (but not always)
• Micro – WBC (even 2-5 in patient with sx)
• Micro – Bacteria
Urine culture when needed
Sensitivities of culture for tailored antibiotic therapy
May dx acute uncomp. cystitis based on hx, PE, and UA
alone, no need for culture to treat
23
4/24/2014
Diagnosis
• Urine culture
• Once 105 colonies per mL considered standard
for dx but misses up to 50%
• Now, 102 to 104 accepted as significant if patient
symptomatic
• Needed in upper UTI, comp. UTI, and in failed
treatment or reinfection
• Sensitivities for better tailoring of tx
Treatment
• Uncomplicated cystitis in pregnant patient
• Requires longer duration of treatment
• 7-14 days
• Cephalosporin, nitrofurantoin, augmentin,
24
4/24/2014
Pyelonephritis
• Outpatient treatment
• Uncomplicated, nonpregnant
• Primary
• Fluoroquinolone x 7 days
• Alternate
• Augmentin, TMP/SMX, or oral cephalosporin x 14
days
Pyelonephritis
• Inpatient treatment
• Treat IV until patient is afebrile 24-48 hours.
Then, complete 2 week course with PO meds
• Use FQ or amp/gent or ceftriaxone or piperacillin
• If no improvement on IV, consider imaging
studies to look for abscess or obstruction
• All pregnant patients with pyelo get inpatient tx,
appropriate IV antibiotics immediately
25
4/24/2014
Treatment of Complicated UTI
• Catheter related
• Amp/gent or Zosyn or ticaricillin/clav or imipenem
or meropenem x 2-3 weeks
• Switch to PO FQ or TMP/SMX when possible
• Rule out obstruction
• Watch out for enterococci and pseudomonas
UTIs in Children
• Most infants >2 months can be managed outpt
with close follow-up
• Indications for hospitalization
• Age < 2 months
• Clinical urosepsis or potential bacteremia
• Immunocompromised pt
• Vomiting or inability to tolerate PO meds
• Lack of adequate outpt follow-up
• Failure to respond to outpt therapy
26
4/24/2014
UTIs in Children
• Outpatient Imaging (RUS and VCUG)
• Girls < 3 years with first UTI
• Boys of an age with first UTI
• Children of any age with febrile UTI
• Children with recurrent UTI (if they have not
been imaged previously)
• First UTI in a child of any age with family hx of
renal dx, abnormal voiding pattern, poor
growth, htn, or abnormalities of urinary tract
UTIs in Children
• Treatment
• Cefixime (Suprax)
• 16 mg/kg per day PO in 2 div doses on day 1;
then 8mg/kg PO qd
• Cefdinir
• 14 mg/kg per day PO div in 2 doses
• Augmentin (resistance)
• Keflex (resistance)
• Bactrim (resistance)
27
4/24/2014
UTIs in Children
• Duration of Therapy
• < 2 yrs & febrile or recurrent UTIs
• 10 days
• >2 yrs & afebrile & without abnormalities of
urinary tract & without hx of UTIs
• 5 days
UTIs in Men
• Less common than in women
• Considered complicated
• Risk factors
• Anal intercourse
• Lack of circumcision
•
Clinical features
• Dysuria
• Frequency
• Urgency
• Suprapubic pain
• Hematuria
28
4/24/2014
UTIs in Men
• Testing
• UA
• Pyuria
• Urine cx if UA positive
• Differential diagnoses
• Cystitis
• Prostatitis
• Pyelonephritis
• Urethritis
UTIs in Men
• Treatment
• Cystitis
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole X 7 to 14 d
•
Avoid if resistance rates > 20% or if taken
within the preceding 3 months
• Fluoroquinolone X 7 to 14 d
• Nitrofurantoin and beta-lactams should not be
used in men
29
4/24/2014
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
• Impetigo
• Erysipelas
• Cellulitis
• Abscess
Impetigo
• Bacteria
• Beta hemolytic streptococci
• S. aureus
• Clinical manifestations:
• Begins painless, occasionally pruritis
• Yellow / honey colored lesions (crusted)
• Exposed ares of the body
•
Face
•
Extremities
•
Bullous or non bullous
30
4/24/2014
Erysipelas
• Clinical features
• Involves the upper dermis and superficial lymphatics
• Erythematous lesions raised above the level of
surrounding skin
• Clear line of demarcation between involved and
uninvolved tissue
• Fever
• Chills
• Warmth
• Most commonly on lower extremities
Cellulitis
•
•
•
•
Acute spreading infection of skin
Extending more deeply than erysipelas
Involving subcutaneous tissues
Clinical features
• Skin erythema
• Edema
• Warmth
• With or without discharge
• Fever, chills
31
4/24/2014
Abscess
•Clinical features
• Collection of pus
within the dermis and
deeper skin tissues
• Painful
• Tender
• Fluctuant
• Erythematous
• Swelling
• Warmth
• Fever
• Treatment
•
•
Incision & Drainage
Appropriate antibiotics
according to clinical
presentation
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
• Differential diagnosis
• Necrotizing fasciitis
• Gas gangrene
• Toxic shock syndrome
• Bursitis
• Osteomyelitis
• Herpez zoster
• Erythema migrans
• Impetigo
• Abscess
• Insect bite
• Gout
• Dermatitis
32
4/24/2014
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
• Diagnosis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Clinical manifestations
Lab testing
Generally not needed
Only if systemic toxicity, extensive skin
involvement, underlying comorbidities,
recurrent/persistent cellulitis
Radiology
Generally not needed
Can assist in assessing for occult abscesses,
distinguishing cellulitis from osteomyelitis, or
assessing for the presence of gas.
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
• Disposition
•
Outpatient
•
No systemic signs of infection
•
Good outpatient follow up
•
Able to take oral medications
•
Inpatient
•
Systemic signs of infection
•
Failed previous outpatient therapy
•
Significant co-morbid conditions
33
4/24/2014
References
Baddour, L.M. (2013). Cellulitis and erysipelas. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Baddour, L.M. (2014). Skin abscesses, furuncles, and carbuncles. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Bradley, J. S., Byington, C. L., Shah, S. S., Alverson, B., Carter, E. R., Harrison, C., . . . Swanson, J. T. (2011). The Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Infants and
Children Older Than 3 Months of Age: Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical
Infectious Diseases, 53(7), e25-e76. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir531
Chow, A. W., Benninger, M. S., Brook, I., Brozek, J. L., Goldstein, E. J. C., Hicks, L. A., . . . File, T. M. (2012a). IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in
Children and Adults. Clinical Infectious Diseases. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir1043
Chow, A.W. and Doron, S. (2014). Evaluation of acute pharyngitis in adults. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Dennis L. Stevens, Alan L. Bisno, Henry F. Chambers, E. Dale Everett, Patchen Dellinger, Ellie J. C. Goldstein, Sherwood L. Gorbach, Jan V. Hirschmann, Edward L. Kaplan, Jose
G. Montoya, and James C. Wade Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Skin and Soft-Tissue Infections Clin Infect Dis. (2005) 41 (10): 1373-1406.
Dolin, R. (2014). Clinical manifestations of seasonal influenza in adults. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Hooton, T. M. (2014). Acute uncomplicated cystitis, pyelonephritis, and asymptomatic bacteriuria in men. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Hooton, T.M. and Gupta, K. (2014). Acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
Hooton, T.M. and Gupta, K. (2013). Urinary tract infections and asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. UpToDate. Retrieved from http://www.uptodate.com
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