Benign Thyroid Disease:
What Is the Role of Nuclear Medicine?
Salil D. Sarkar, MD, FACP
Nuclear medicine is directly involved in both the diagnosis and treatment of benign thyroid
disease, which requires an understanding of the pathophysiology and management of
thyroid disorders in addition to expertise in nuclear methodology. Thyroid uptake and
imaging, the principal nuclear tests in thyroid disease, may be used as follows: (1)
Differential diagnosis of hyperthyroidism: A very low thyroid uptake suggests destructive
(“subacute”) thyroiditis, a self-limited disorder, whereas a normal or elevated uptake is
consistent with toxic nodular goiter and Graves’ disease. Scintigraphic characteristics also
help differentiate between nodular and Graves’ disease. (2) Function of thyroid nodules:
Fine-needle aspiration biopsy with cytological examination (FNAB) is used routinely to
assess for malignancy in thyroid nodules. Scintigraphy may be of assistance before FNAB.
“Hot” nodules are generally benign and do not require FNAB, while “cold” nodules may be
malignant. (3) Differential diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism: Scintigraphy combined
with ultrasound examination may be used to identify such conditions as thyroid agenesis,
dyshormonogenesis, and incomplete thyroid descent. Treatment of Graves’ disease and
toxic nodular disease with 131I may require greater clinical involvement and decision
analysis compared with thyroid uptake and imaging. The following aspects of treatment are
particularly important: (1) Risk: Radioiodine treatment may occasionally aggravate hyperthyroidism, Graves’ ophthalmopathy, and airway obstruction caused by large, nodular
goiters. Alternative treatments, including the temporary use of antithyroid drugs, and
surgery for nodular goiters, may be considered. (2) Radioiodine dose: Cure of hyperthyroidism with a single 131I treatment is desirable, though not always possible. Such factors
as a large goiter, severe hyperthyroidism, and prior propylthiouracil therapy, may contribute to treatment failure. (3) Informed consent: A detailed discussion with the patient
regarding the clinical risks, outcomes, and side effects of 131I is a critical component of
successful management.
Semin Nucl Med 36:185-193 © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
N
uclear thyroidology dates back to the 1930s when Saul
Hertz, Arthur Roberts, Robley Evans, and Howard
Means in Boston and Joseph Hamilton and Mayo Soley in
Berkeley began studies of radioiodine physiology, paving the
way for the first radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment of hyperthyroidism by Hertz and Roberts in 1941.1 Today, thyroid
applications are a major component of nuclear medicine,
requiring a significant contribution from nuclear medicine
professionals for both diagnosis and treatment. There are,
however, substantial differences in the thyroid training of
Nuclear Medicine, Jacobi Medical Center, North Bronx Health Network,
Bronx, NY.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, NY.
Address reprint requests to Salil D. Sarkar, MD, FACP, Jacobi Medical Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine, BN-13, Pelham Pkwy and Eastchester Road, Bronx, NY 10461. E-mail: [email protected]
0001-2998/06/$-see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2006.03.006
nuclear medicine physicians and, consequently, the extent of
their involvement in thyroid disease. Although a few physicians are capable of providing total patient care on their own,
most assume varying responsibilities in conjunction with a
referring endocrinologist. In recent years, there has been an
unfortunate trend toward greater dependence on the referring endocrinologist. At its extreme, nuclear medicine may
take little responsibility for many important clinical functions, including evaluation of the appropriateness of RAI
therapy, estimation of the therapeutic 131I dose, and discussion with patients of the side effects of therapy. There is a
failure to recognize that endocrinologists are not necessarily
thyroidologists. A significant number may devote most of
their time to nonthyroid specialties and have only limited
clinical expertise in thyroid disease, let alone nuclear medicine procedures. Nuclear medicine professionals must also
bear in mind that they are at least partially responsible for the
185
S.D. Sarkar
186
Table 1 Causes of Hyperthyroidism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Destructive (“subacute”) thyroiditis
Graves’ disease
Toxic nodular disease
Jodbasedow (iodine-induced hyperthyroidism)
Iatrogenic
Gestational transient thyrotoxicosis (elevated hCG)
Pituitary adenoma (elevated TSH)
Metastases from differentiated thyroid cancer
Struma ovarii
Factitious
diagnostic and therapeutic use of radionuclides and, therefore, should be familiar with the pathophysiology and management of common thyroid disorders.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroid patients generally comprise the majority of
thyroid referrals to nuclear medicine. At the initial encounter,
the nuclear medicine physician should address the following
questions: (1) Are recent thyroid function tests available? (2)
What is the cause of hyperthyroidism? (3) Is an alternative to
131I treatment indicated? (4) How long should antithyroid
drug treatment be stopped before 131I therapy? (5) How
much 131I should be administered? (6) What instructions
should be given to the patient regarding the outcome and
side effects of 131I therapy? These questions are considered in
detail in the following sections.
Table 3 Usual Range of 24-Hour Radioiodine Uptakes
Thyroid Condition
Uptake
Destructive thyroiditis
Graves’ disease
Toxic nodular disease
Jodbasedow
<2%
50-80%
20-40%
<2%, N, or H
N, normal; H, high.
What is the Cause of Hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism may be related to a wide variety of causes,
of which destructive thyroiditis, Graves’ disease, and toxic
nodular disease are the most common (Table 1). Thyroid
uptake and imaging using radioiodine or technetium pertechnetate (Table 2) may assist in identifying the cause. The
scintigraphic techniques and patient preparation are discussed in the section “Thyroid Nodule.” The uptake is normal or elevated in Graves’/nodular disease but very low (generally 2% or less) in destructive (“subacute”) thyroiditis
(Table 3).6,7 The image characteristics are also helpful in differentiating Graves’ disease from toxic nodular disease. The
clinical and scintigraphic features of these common hyperthyroid conditions are discussed below.
A recent set of thyroid function tests is required for 2 reasons.
First, in hyperthyroidism related to a destructive thyroiditis,
thyroid hormone levels normalize spontaneously, and 131I
therapy is not needed.2-4 Second, in those with Graves’ hyperthyroidism, the decision to proceed with therapy as well
as the 131I dose may depend on the severity of the disease as
judged by recent thyroid function tests. Patients who require
prompt control of hyperthyroidism, including those with severe hyperthyroidism or serious coexisting medical conditions, may be treated initially with an antithyroid drug to
lower thyroid hormone levels more rapidly. 131I treatment
may be administered after the patient has been stabilized.
Severe hyperthyroidism tends to be resistant to RAI treatment and generally requires larger 131I doses.5 These concepts are elaborated in later sections on RAI treatment.
Destructive (Subacute) Thyroiditis
Destructive thyroiditis is caused frequently by viral infection
and autoimmune thyroid disease (Table 4).2-4,8-11 Hyperthyroidism results from disruption of thyroid follicles and release of excessive amounts of thyroid hormone, without a
concomitant increase in hormone synthesis. The disorder is
self-limited, typically with restoration of euthyroidism in 3 to
12 months. Treatment consists of ␤-adrenergic blockers and
analgesics. Glucocorticoids may be used in painful and protracted thyroiditis. Antithyroid drugs (methimazole, PTU)
and RAI are not needed.
What are the diagnostic characteristics of viral and autoimmune thyroiditis? Viral thyroiditis generally is associated
with a painful goiter, flu-like symptoms, and increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein levels. Permanent hypothyroidism is infrequent after viral thyroiditis.
Autoimmune thyroiditis typically is associated with a painless goiter, increased thyroid peroxidase antibody levels, and
a high incidence of permanent hypothyroidism at long-term
follow-up. It occurs most commonly in postpartum women
because of immune rebound following pregnancy, and frequently reoccurs after a subsequent pregnancy. Usually, thy
roid peroxidase antibodies are also elevated during pregnancy.12 Hyperthyroidism caused by thyroiditis may be dis-
Table 2 Radiotracers for Thyroid Uptake and Imaging
Table 4 Causes of Destructive (Subacute) Thyroiditis
Are Recent Thyroid
Function Tests Available?
Radiotracer
Iodine-123
Iodine-131
99mTc-pertechnetate
Administered Activity
200-400 ␮Ci (7.4-14.8 MBq)
5 ␮Ci (0.19 MBq)*
5-10 mCi (185-370 MBq)
*Iodine-131 is used only for uptake measurement. Higher activity
needed for imaging is associated with a high thyroidal absorbed
radiation dose.
1. Viral infection
2. Autoimmune
Postpartum, sporadic
Interferon-alpha
Interleukin-2
Lithium
3. Amiodarone
Benign thyroid disease
187
Figure 1 (A) Graves’ disease; (B) solitary toxic right lobe nodule; (C) toxic multinodular goiter; (D) subacute thyroiditis
(salivary glands at top of image)
tinguished from Graves’ disease with the help of a thyroid
uptake and scan.6,7 The thyroid uptake of RAI and 99mTcpertechnetate is very low in thyroiditis, but high in Graves’
disease (Table 3, Fig. 1).
Treatment with amiodarone, a drug used for cardiac arrhythmia, is another cause of destructive thyroiditis.13,14 This
type of thyroiditis is similar to viral and autoimmune thyroiditis in scintigraphic appearance but tends to last longer because of the long biologic half-life of amiodarone and its
metabolite. Amiodarone may cause hyperthyroidism by another mechanism. It has a high iodine content, which may
induce increased synthesis of thyroid hormone. This phenomenon, known as jodbasedow, tends to occur in nodular
thyroid glands and is more common in endemic goiter areas.15 Scintigraphic distinction of jodbasedow from thyroiditis is difficult because a very low uptake frequently is seen in
both (Table 3), and the 2 conditions may occasionally coexist. However, an uptake that is low normal or higher is suggestive of jodbasedow. Jodbasedow is treated with drugs that
decrease hormone synthesis, namely propylthiouracil (PTU)
or methimazole, which may be combined with potassium
perchlorate to decrease thyroidal iodine content.13 Resistant
cases may be treated with 131I if the thyroid uptake is adequate. If the cause of amiodarone-induced hyperthyroidism
is uncertain, antithyroid drugs may be combined with glucocorticoid treatment for thyroiditis.
Graves’ Disease and Toxic Nodular Disease
Graves’ disease is an autoimmune thyroid disorder characterized by elevated levels of stimulating thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)-receptor antibodies (also known as thyroidstimulating antibodies or thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins), with increased thyroid uptake of iodine, and increased
hormone synthesis and release.16,17 The cardiovascular manifestations are most pronounced, and some patients may have
a characteristic ophthalmopathy.18-20 The diagnosis is based
on the clinical presentation, thyroid uptake and scan and, in
equivocal cases, the thyroid-stimulating antibody levels. The
S.D. Sarkar
188
thyroid scan typically shows uniform uptake in a diffusely
enlarged thyroid gland, and the 24-hour uptake is elevated
(Table 3, Fig. 1). Atypical thyroid images may result when
Graves’ disease is superimposed on a nodular thyroid gland.
Nodular disease is believed to result from the rapid proliferation of cells with a growth advantage.21 Growth in the
early stages is aided by (intermittent) TSH stimulation, which
results from decreased hormone synthesis due to iodine deficiency, occasionally in combination with a goitrogen.21,22
Also important in the pathogenesis are “gain-of-function”
mutations, usually of the TSH receptor, that have the same
effect as chronic TSH stimulation.21 At thyroid scintigraphy
(Fig. 1), toxic multinodular disease shows heterogeneous distribution of radiotracer with or without discrete “hot” nodules, and single toxic nodules are frequently associated with
decreased uptake in the remainder of the gland. On images
showing solitary or multiple hot foci, the areas of decreased
uptake may consist of suppressed normal tissue and/or autonomous micro- and macro-nodules with relatively less
function than the dominant toxic nodule.22 The 24-hour thyroid uptake in toxic nodular disease is often normal or only
mildly elevated in contrast to Graves’ disease, where the uptake is generally high (Table 3).
Differentiating Graves’ Disease
From Toxic Multinodular Disease
An attempt should be made to distinguish Graves’ disease
from nodular disease because of important differences in
management: (1) Graves’ disease usually is treated with RAI,
but a few patients may go into a remission after long-term
treatment with methimazole or PTU.23 The remission is probably related in part to the immunosuppressive effect of antithyroid drugs. Nodular disease does not go into remission
with antithyroid drug treatment. (2) Surgery is an alternative
to RAI for treating a solitary hyperfunctioning nodule and is
an option in low-risk patients with multinodular goiter, in
whom a subtotal thyroidectomy generally accomplishes the
required reduction in goiter volume (see the section “Is Radioactive Iodine Treatment Appropriate?”). Surgical cure of
Graves’ disease, however, requires a total thyroidectomy,
which may be associated with significant complications, and
is rarely done today. (3) On average, Graves’ disease requires
a lower 131I dose than does multinodular goiter. (4) Most
patients with Graves’ disease develop early hypothyroidism,
usually within 4 to 6 months of RAI treatment. Hypothyroidism is less frequent in nodular disease and, on average, takes
much longer to develop (see later).
Is RAI Treatment Appropriate?
Determining the appropriateness of RAI treatment is the responsibility of both the referring and nuclear medicine physicians. Not all patients referred to nuclear medicine are ideally suited for RAI treatment, which may be associated with
increased risk or decreased efficacy in the following situations: (1) Treatment with RAI does not afford prompt relief of
hyperthyroidism. Moreover, radioiodine-induced thyroiditis
occasionally may increase circulating thyroid hormone levels, which has the potential to exacerbate hyperthyroidism,
or complicate coexisting illnesses such as cardiovascular disease.24 Severely hyperthyroid patients and those with serious
medical conditions, therefore, may need stabilization with
methimazole or PTU before radioiodine treatment. (3) Moderate-to-marked Graves’ ophthalmopathy may be aggravated
by RAI treatment and may require glucocorticoid prophylaxis.20,25,26 Alternatively, treatment with RAI may be delayed
until the eyes have improved. (4) Treatment with RAI may
not be very effective in reducing the volume of large, nodular
goiters because of heterogeneous distribution of activity and
low 24-hour uptake (see “How Much 131I Is Appropriate?”).
Surgery may be an alternative, particularly if the operative
risk is low. (5) Treatment with RAI is usually successful in
curing hyperthyroidism associated with a solitary toxic nodule. However, the nodule itself may not be entirely eliminated, which may have cosmetic implications for some patients, and surgical resection may be offered as an alternative.
How Long Should Antithyroid
Drugs Be Stopped Before RAI Treatment?
As noted previously, patients with severe hyperthyroidism or
serious coexisting illnesses may be pretreated with methimazole or PTU. These drugs are routinely stopped before RAI
treatment, usually for 4 to 6 days, and they may be restarted
afterward. Patients with uncontrolled hyperthyroidism in
particular should be closely monitored after stopping the
antithyroid drug because of the potential for a sharp increase
in thyroid hormone levels.27,28 If needed, the withdrawal period may be shortened. Although not widely used, lithium
treatment has been proposed as a means of preventing a rapid
increase in hormone levels following antithyroid drug withdrawal.29
How Much 131I Is
Appropriate for Treatment?
The administered 131I activity for Graves’ disease continues to
vary over a wide range, albeit with an upward trend because
of a change in the perceived goal of 131I therapy.5,30-33 The
traditional use of small radioiodine doses to obtain a euthyroid state currently is out of favor for a number of reasons.
Euthyroidism after radioiodine treatment is usually temporary, progressing subsequently to hypothyroidism, or in
some instances to recurrent hyperthyroidism. A rare patient
may remain euthyroid for an extended period of time, but
this outcome can be neither engineered nor predicted. Moreover, small doses tend to prolong the hyperthyroid state at
increased expense and morbidity. Longstanding hyperthyroidism, both overt and subclinical, may have potential
health risks.18,19,34-37
After RAI treatment of Graves’ disease, the development of
overt hypothyroidism, which is then treated with thyroid
hormone, may well be the best outcome. It simplifies management, decreases cost, and as noted earlier, reduces potential health risks of persistent hyperthyroidism. Some patients
may develop subclinical hypothyroidism, which may not be
an ideal outcome. Because of uncertainty regarding the subsequent course of the disease, patients are often monitored
Benign thyroid disease
189
without treatment for long periods of time. Although the risk
of prolonged subclinical hypothyroidism is debatable, detrimental cardiovascular effects have been reported.18,37-40 A
recent study of hyperthyroid patients treated with RAI
showed a lower mortality among those who became overtly
hypothyroid and were placed on thyroid hormone supplements.41
The incidence of hypothyroidism after RAI treatment of
nodular disease was believed to be low because of selective
uptake of 131I in the dominant nodule(s). However, recent
data suggests that up to 60% may develop hypothyroidism at
long-term follow-up.42 This is not surprising because dominant nodules often are associated with autonomous micronodules and small macronodules, which also accumulate
RAI but may not be readily visible on the thyroid image.22
How much radioiodine is needed to cure Graves’ disease?
Numerous publications have addressed this issue, and although a detailed discussion of the literature is beyond the
scope of this review, a number of observations are worth
noting: 1. There is no significant difference in outcome using
activities determined empirically or by calculations. 2. In
general, high cure rates may be achieved using administered
activities of at least 15 mCi (555 MBq), retained activities (in
the thyroid) of at least 8 mCi (296 MBq) or 150 to 200 ␮Ci
(5.5-7.4 MBq) per gram, or an absorbed thyroid radiation
dose of 25,000 rads (250 Gy).5,30-33 3. Larger than average
doses are needed in conditions increasing radio-resistance,
including large goiter, severe hyperthyroidism, and prior
PTU therapy.5,43,44 Larger doses are also preferable in patients
with coexisting illnesses that may be aggravated by persistent
hyperthyroidism.
How much radioiodine is needed to treat nodular goiter? A
solitary toxic nodule may be treated empirically with 15 to 30
mCi (555-1110 MBq) of 131I, or delivered amounts of 200
␮Ci (7.4 MBq)/g or more. Multinodular goiters require the
administration of relatively high activities because the thyroid is large and RAI distribution is heterogeneous.45,46 For
example, a retained dose of 150 ␮Ci (5.55 MBq)/g for a 120g
gland with a 30% uptake requires the administration of 60
mCi (2220 MBq) of 131I. Many goiters weigh more than 150 g
and require even higher activities. Despite the use of large
doses, however, the reduction in volume of large multinodular goiters may be inadequate. This is a major limitation of
RAI treatment. Recent studies with recombinant human
TSH-assisted therapy appear encouraging.47,48 Recombinant
TSH increases RAI uptake throughout the thyroid gland and
may permit greater volume reduction.
Instructions to Patients Before
131I
Therapy
All patients are routinely tested for pregnancy and nursing
mothers are asked to stop breast-feeding.49 Discussions with
the patient should not be limited to concerns about environmental contamination and radiation exposure to others.
Clinical information about the nature of the disease, possible
outcomes and side effects of RAI treatment (Table 5), and
alternative therapies if applicable should be discussed.
Table 5 Side Effects of Radioactive Iodine Treatment
Graves’ Disease
Hypothyroidism
Thyroiditis
Exacerbation of
ophthalmopathy
Exacerbation of
hyperthyroidism
Toxic Nodular Disease
Hypothyroidism
Thyroiditis
Upper airway obstruction
Exacerbation of hyperthyroidism
Development of Graves’ disease
Instructions Pertaining to Clinical
Outcome and Side Effects of RAI Treatment
In Graves’ disease, patients should be aware that the goal of
treatment is to cure hyperthyroidism, preferably within
months, and that a cure generally leads to the development of
hypothyroidism (see the section “How Much 131I Is Appropriate for Treatment?”). An older practice of offering patients
the option of a “low” or “high” 131I dose based on concerns
about hypothyroidism is not appropriate. Many instructions
are specific to each patient. For example, a patient with a
large goiter and/or previous treatment with PTU should be
informed of the possibility of a second RAI treatment.5,43,44
Significant Graves’ eye disease may occasionally worsen after
therapy, and adherence to follow-up appointments with the
ophthalmologist should be stressed.20,25 Patients should also
be aware that cigarette smoking has an adverse effect on
ophthalmopathy. Because of the potential for increased thyroid hormone release after RAI treatment, patients at risk of
thyroid storm, and those with significant cardiovascular disease are urged to stay in touch with the (referring or nuclear
medicine) physician.
In toxic nodular disease, patients should be informed of
the possibility of hypothyroidism after RAI therapy, with particular emphasis on late hypothyroidism occurring after several years.42 Patients with large nodular goiters should be
aware that radioiodine-induced thyroid swelling occasionally
exacerbates airway obstruction. They should also be aware
that a residual mass may be left after RAI treatment of a
solitary toxic nodule, and that surgery may be an alternative
(see “Is RAI Treatment Appropriate?”). Finally, a rare side
effect to keep in mind is the development of Graves’ disease
following RAI treatment of nodular goiter.50 Release of thyroid antigens with the development of thyroid antibodies is
the presumed mechanism.
Instructions Pertaining to Radiation Exposure
Many patients fear that radioiodine therapy may have the
potential to cause thyroid cancer, leukemia, and infertility.
They need assurance that such complications have not been
found after 50 years of experience with RAI treatment of
hyperthyroidism.32 Patients are routinely advised to limit exposure to family members and close contacts. However, such
advice can do more harm than good if it is very stringent, not
given in the overall context of ALARA, and not supplemented
by a discussion of what RAI treatment can and cannot do, as
outlined in earlier sections. Many patients provided with insufficient information simply assume the worst not only for
S.D. Sarkar
190
Figure 2 (A) Hypofunctioning (“cold”) nodule of the left lobe; (B)
corresponding ultrasound image. (Images provided by Simin Dadparvar, MD, and John Hochhold, MD, from the Society of Nuclear
Medicine Lifelong Learning & Self-Assessment Program. Reproduced from Sarkar.52)
themselves but also for their families, and choose to delay RAI
therapy, sometimes for years.
Thyroid Nodule
Introduction
The management of thyroid nodules not associated with hyperthyroidism is a highly controversial topic.51-53 Nodules
are routinely evaluated by fine needle aspiration biopsy
(FNAB) and cytological examination to evaluate for malignancy. Scintigraphic imaging of nodular function is frequently requested before FNAB. Imaging is based on the
premise that functioning (“hot”) nodules are unlikely to be
malignant, whereas nonfunctioning (“cold”) nodules (Fig. 2).
may harbor cancer in a small proportion (⬍10%) of patients.7
In the past, only palpable nodules were considered signif-
icant and selected for further diagnostic workup. However,
in recent years, the use of high-resolution ultrasound and
computed tomography has increasingly led to the discovery
of incidental, nonpalpable thyroid nodules. Investigating all
“incidentalomas” is clearly not cost-effective, and there is
ongoing debate as to their optimal management. At the
present time, the most important criterion for FNAB is nodule size.52,53 Nodules ⬍1.0 to 1.5 cm generally are not subjected to FNAB because cancers of this size, termed “microcarcinomas,” are associated with a good prognosis.54,55
However, small nodules may merit additional evaluation if
they are associated with factors that increase the risk of thyroid cancer. The likelihood of thyroid cancer is higher in
persons who have had childhood exposure to radioactive
iodine after the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident, or to
therapeutic external head and neck radiation.56 The presence
of cervical lymph node metastases, family history of thyroid
cancer, and focal thyroid uptake of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose
(FDG) (see later) also are associated with increased cancer
risk. Various ultrasound and color flow Doppler characteristics of malignant nodules are being studied to help select
smaller nodules for FNAB.57,58
Focal thyroid uptake of FDG occasionally is an incidental
finding during positron emission tomography (PET) for nonthyroid conditions. Although FDG uptake may occur in benign nodules and focal thyroiditis, it may be related to thyroid cancer in a significant number of patients. Incidental
focal thyroid uptake of FDG, therefore, may be another indication for FNAB.59 Is there a role for PET in evaluating thyroid nodules? Although not cost-effective for routine use before FNAB, PET could be of value in selected patients. A
sizeable number of patients undergoing FNAB have nondiagnostic cytology. These patients may be subjected to a
2-stage surgery—partial thyroid resection for a histological
diagnosis, and completion thyroidectomy if cancer is found.
FDG-PET of patients with nondiagnostic FNAB may help to
decrease the number of unnecessary thyroid surgeries.60
What is the role of the nuclear medicine practitioner in
evaluating thyroid nodules? First, he or she should determine
whether scintigraphic imaging is indicated or likely to be
productive. Second, the history should be checked for exposure to iodinated products or thyroid hormone, which decrease thyroid uptake of radioiodine and technetium pertechnetate. Third, the nodule should be palpated and imaged
using appropriate techniques.
Is Scintigraphy Indicated?
The size of the thyroid nodule is a key factor when considering scintigraphic evaluation. As noted previously, nodules
⬍1.0 to 1.5 cm generally may not be worth pursuing aggressively.51-55 Nodules of this size are also less likely to be visualized at scintigraphy. Most palpable nodules are large
enough to be imaged. Many nodules found incidentally at
ultrasound examination are ⱖ1.5 to 2.0 cm and could benefit
from scintigraphy.
Benign thyroid disease
191
Was Patient Recently Exposed
to Stable Iodine or Thyroid Hormone?
Exposure to exogenous iodine or thyroid hormone is a common cause of decreased thyroid uptake. Iodinated radiographic contrast used with computed tomography is a frequent cause of a lower thyroid uptake. For the evaluation of
nodular function, a 2-week waiting period generally is adequate, especially if 5 to 10 mCi (185-370 MBq) of 99mTcpertechnetate is used.7,52
Thyroid hormone treatment should be discontinued for 4
weeks or longer before thyroid scintigraphy. However, the
physiological impact of hormone withdrawal can be significant and may well be unnecessary in some circumstances.
Many individuals are chronically treated with thyroid hormone supplements to reduce goiter volume, which easily can
be monitored by periodic ultrasound examinations.
Is The Nodule Palpable?
Palpating the thyroid gland and locating the thyroid nodule(s) is the next step. Thyroid palpation is an area of
widely varying expertise, and little has been done to standardize the technique. Although experience in palpating
thyroids is the key, even the best practitioners may miss
relatively large nodules because of such factors as obesity,
spinal deformity, and a low-lying (partly substernal) thyroid gland.
Is The Scintigraphic Technique Optimal?
The scintigraphic technique is perhaps more important today
because of the increasing number of patients referred for
relatively small and frequently nonpalpable thyroid incidentalomas. Small “hot” nodules are readily visualized, but small
“cold” nodules, which comprise the majority of thyroid nodules, require optimal imaging methodology. The availability
of a pinhole collimator is a plus. Anterior images are supplemented by oblique or lateral images if needed. Because of an
inherently lower sensitivity, pinhole imaging requires the administration of sufficient amounts of radiotracer. Count rates
with the standard 200 to 400 ␮Ci (7.4-14.8 MBq) of 123I may
be inadequate if the thyroid uptake is low. If needed, imaging
may be repeated with 5 to 10 mCi of 99mTc-pertechnetate.
Thyroid glands that are predominantly mediastinal ideally
should be imaged using approximately 600 ␮Ci (22.2 MBq)
of 123I.
Finally, the location of the palpable nodule should be
marked as accurately as possible on the thyroid image. Errors
in localization may lead to mischaracterization of nodular
function, particularly if radiotracer distribution in the thyroid is heterogeneous. A “hot” marker, usually consisting of a
“Q-tip” with 99mTc-pertechnetate, may be used for this purpose.
The common causes of error in the marking of nodules are
worth remembering. (1) The marker may have too much
activity. (2) The thyroid may be difficult to palpate during
supine imaging because of an inconvenient location of the
imaging table, or because the neck is underextended or overextended. A “thyroid chair” with a head-holder may be an
Figure 3 Partially descended thyroid gland in upper cervical region
(suprasternal notch is marked at bottom of image). Note characteristic absence of lateral lobes. (Adapted from Sarkar,22 with permission from Springer Science and Business Media.)
advantage in this regard. (3) Anatomic factors, such as kyphosis, retrosternal extension of the thyroid, and obesity,
may pose additional difficulties.
Congenital Abnormalities
Neonatal Hypothyroidism
Newborns are routinely screened for hypothyroidism, generally with measurements of serum T4 with or without TSH.61
Hypothyroidism requires prompt treatment since adequate
thyroid hormone levels are needed in the newborn for normal intellectual-psychological development, and there is no
longer a protective effect of maternal hormone. Because of the
need for immediate treatment, most newborns with hypothyroidism are not referred to nuclear medicine. However, nuclear imaging can be useful, and it is feasible even after initiation of thyroid hormone treatment because TSH levels are
not lowered immediately.62 Imaging with 99mTc-pertchnetate
may be convenient, but 123I may also be used. If the cause of
hypothyroidism is unclear at birth, a complete investigation
is usually done after stopping the thyroid hormone supplement when the infant is older.
Hypothyroidism in the newborn may be temporary or permanent. Temporary hypothyroidism may be caused by treatment of the pregnant mother with excessive amounts of PTU
or methimazole63; maternal autoimmune thyroid disease and
the transplacental passage of TSH-receptor blocking antibodies64; exposure of the newborn to large amounts of iodine in
antiseptic solutions, which initiates the Wolff-Chaikoff effect,15 and decreases thyroid hormone synthesis; mild dyshormonogenesis; and maternal hyperthyroidism, which increases circulating fetal hormone levels and suppresses the
S.D. Sarkar
192
hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis.65 Permanent hypothyroidism may be associated with agenesis, severe dyshormonogenesis, and a lingual thyroid gland.61,62
Some causes of neonatal hypothyroidism may be anticipated from the maternal thyroid status and clinical history,
and confirmed by imaging. In hypothyroidism due to TSHreceptor blocking antibodies, a thyroid gland is identified by
ultrasound examination, but is not visible by scintigraphy.
Severe dyshormonogenesis is associated with a similar finding. In thyroid agenesis, thyroid tissue is not identified by
either ultrasound or scintigraphy.
Older children often are referred to nuclear medicine for
the evaluation of an ectopic thyroid gland or a defect in
organic iodination. An ectopic gland is usually sublingual or
partially descended and characteristically lacks the lateral
lobes (Fig. 3). Anterior and lateral images are routinely obtained, with appropriate markers to identify the location of
the gland.
The Perchlorate discharge test is used to evaluate for an
organification defect. Such defects result in increased
amounts of unbound iodine in the thyroid gland, which can
be discharged by potassium perchlorate. The test involves
baseline and postperchlorate measurements of thyroid uptake of 131I. A decrease in uptake after perchlorate administration confirms an organification defect. The diagnostic sensitivity may be increased by the addition of stable iodine.66
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Neonatal Hyperthyroidism
Transient hyperthyroidism in the newborn is caused by the
passage of maternal TSH-receptor stimulating antibodies into
the fetal circulation.63 It may occur if Graves’ disease in the
mother is inadequately treated with PTU/methimazole,
which lower these antibodies. Because the condition usually
is anticipated and diagnosed clinically, there is little need for
assistance from nuclear medicine.
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