1. health and fitness
2. therapy

Extracorporeal shock-wave therapy for treating chronic
pelvic pain syndrome: a feasibility study and the first
clinical results
Departments of Urology, Elisabethinen Hospital, Linz, †Public Hospital, Kufstein, Austria, *Medical
School, University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania, and ‡University Hospital, University of
Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany
Accepted for publication 8 February 2008
Study Type € Therapy (case series)
Level of Evidence 4
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the feasibility and clinical
outcome of extracorporeal shock-wave
therapy (ESWT) for patients suffering from
chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS).
PATIENTS AND METHODS
The study included 34 patients who had
had CPPS for ‚ 3 months, who were
investigated in two subsequent studies.
ESWT was administered using a perineal
approach with two different standard
INTRODUCTION
Prostatitis is one of the most frequent
outpatient urological diagnoses [1,2] and
results in • 2 million visits to doctors in the
USA annually [3]. Most men have the
abacterial form of chronic prostatitis, or
chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS)
[4,5]. The quality of life of affected men
can be greatly impaired, in particular by
pain, and the restrictions are comparable
to those after a heart attack, angina
pectoris and Crohn‚s disease [6].
The former classifications of prostatitis
according to Drach et al. [7] were replaced
internationally by the classification of the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) [8],
which distinguishes the various bacterially
induced forms from the non inflammatory
CPPS. Symptoms of CPPS are urinary
and erectile dysfunction, pain focused in
the prostate region, as well as perineal,
inguinal, scrotal and suprapubic pain. The
pathophysiology of CPPS has not yet
been clarified. A psychiatric component
might possibly play a role alongside
somatic factors, and it has not been
possible to detect signs of active infection
or bacterial pathogens [9,10]. Locally,
ESWT devices with and without an
ultrasonographic positioning system. The
follow-up was at 1, 4 and 12 weeks after
ESWT, to evaluate the effects on pain,
quality of life and voiding. Imaging studies
and changes in prostate-specific antigen
(PSA) were used to investigate the safety
and side-effects of ESWT.
RESULTS
basis. Side-effects could be excluded
clinically, by imaging studies and by
changes in PSA level.
CONCLUSION
Perineal ESWT must be considered as a
promising new therapy for CPPS, in
particular as it is easy to apply and causes
no side-effects.
All patients completed the treatments and
follow-up; there were statistically
significant improvements in pain and
quality of life after ESWT. Voiding
conditions were temporarily improved but
with no statistical significance. Perineal
ESWT was easy and safe to administer
with no anaesthesia on an outpatient
KEYWORDS
discussions have concerned former
infections, changes to the chemical
environment, hypertension of the pelvic
floor muscles, changes in blood flow and
neurobiological factors [11,12].
Systemically, obviously prolonged and
insufficiently treated acute pain, as a
negative learning process, could cause
neuroplastic changes in the CNS, with an
associated fixation of incurable chronic
pain status [13,14].
already been used as therapies for CPPS
[18,19].
In the final analysis, once other diseases
have been excluded, the diagnosis of
CPPS can only be clinically established on
the basis of the typical pattern of
complaint and progression. Previously
there have been no causal or
standardized therapeutic approaches.
Analgesics, anti inflammatory agents,
antibiotics, ƒ-receptor blockers and 5ƒreductase inhibitors are used alone and in
various combinations [15, 17], without
sufficient clarification of the evidence and
effectiveness of each of these treatments.
Therefore, non-drug treatment options
have become increasingly important.
Physiotherapy, „trigger point‚ massage
and electromagnetic treatment have
chronic pelvic pain syndrome, chronic
abacterial prostatitis, shock waves
Low-energy shock waves (extracorporeal
shock wave therapy, ESWT) are
successfully used for treating orthopaedic
pain syndromes, fracture and wound
healing disorders. In patients with upper
arm contractures caused by a stroke,
ESWT succeeded in reducing passive
muscle tone, with a resulting marked
improvement in the range of movement
[20]. Most recently, ESWT of ischaemia
induced myocardial dysfunction has
achieved a significant increase in
perfusion in the regions with reduced
blood flow [21,22].
The possible influence of pain, local
perfusion and muscle tone means that the
applicability and effectiveness of perineal
ESWT should be investigated in patients
with CPPS.
€ 2008 DIE AUTOREN
ERSTELLUNG DES BJU € 2008 BJU INTERNATIONAL • doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07742.x
1
ZIMMER MANN ET AL.
FIG.1. The changes in PSA level during ESWT
PATIENTS AND METHODS
RESULTS
In the feasibility study (study 1), patients
with prostatitis IIIb lasting‚ 3 months, and
no evidence of bacteria in urinary and
seminal culture tests, were eligible.
Prostate cancer was excluded clinically
and serologically. Before and after each
ESWT a Doppler TRUS was used (7.5
MHz transrectal probe). The first 10
consecu-tive patients were assessed by
MRI (Magnetom 1.5 T, Siemens,
Germany) of the minor pelvis with an
endorectal array.
In study 1, 14 patients (mean age 49.7
years, range 36€62) were treated as
outpatients; the treatment was well
tolerated, and anaesthesia was not
required. The duration of ESWT was 12
min each. There were no apparent sideeffects and all patients completed the
treatment course and the follow-up. Of the
14 patients, 11 had less pain and a lower
rate of CPPS-specific complaints at 12
weeks after ESWT. The overall pain
reduction rate was 44% (7.0 to 3.9) The
NIH-CPSI improved by 22.5% (from 10.0
to 7.3) and the IPSS was reduced in 10 of
the 14 patients.
Routine blood variables and PSA levels
were determined before and after each
ESWT. The patients received six
ultrasonographically controlled ESWT
treatments (each 2000 impulses, positive
2
energy flow density of 0.11 mJ/mm ,
frequency 3 Hz) within 2 weeks using a
perineal approach while supine,and using
a standard ESWT device with integrated
US system (Minilith SL1, Storz Medical,
T…gerwilen, Switzerland). The SW focus
was placed intraprostatically under realtime US guidance and moved to scan
virtually the whole gland.
The follow-up was at 1, 4 and 12 weeks
after ESWT. For the duration of the study
additional drug intake was excluded. The
grade of pain was evaluated using a visual
analogue scale (VAS, 0€10). The CPPSrelated complaints were investigated by
validated questionnaires (voiding with the
IPSS; specific complaints with the NIH
chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index, CPSI)
with the main focus on sideeffects and
applicability.
In study 2, after the positive outcome of
the study 1, some of the tests were
omitted and the treatment schedule was
optimized. The inclusion criteria were
similar to study 1. Other treatments or
drug intake were excluded during the
study period. The patients received one
perineally applied ESWT treatment weekly
(each 3000 impulses, total energy flow
2
density 0.25 mJ/m , 3 Hz) for 4 weeks.
The device used for the study was a
standard electromagnetic SW device with
a focused SW source (Duolith SD1, Storz
Medical). The focal zone penetration
depth was 30€50 mm. Therefore, and
according to the experience based on the
use of real-time inline US, the SW focus
could be placed in the prostate from the
perineum with no US positioning system.
The Duolith, with the smaller SW
transducer, was used to achieve further
simplification of ESWT. The follow-up
schema was similar to that in study 1.
Paired t-tests were used for the statistical
analysis.
FIG.2. The perineal SW approach (intraprostatic
focus).
The MR images before ESWT in all
patients were inconspicuous, except for
isolated and minimal inflammatory
changes; in particular it was possible to
exclude more significant changes as the
cause of the symptoms. The follow-up
MRI was at a median (range) of 69.3 (48,
19€193) days after the first ESWT, and
thus at a mean of 48 days after
completing ESWT. No intraprostatic or
periprostatic changes were diagnosed in
any of the patients after ESWT.
Immediately before and after each
treatment, TRUS of the prostate were
done, including colour Doppler TRUS; the
echogenicity of the prostate tissue and the
perfusion were determined. There were no
apparent changes to the echo pattern of
the prostate after ESWT. Immediately
after ESWT the colour Doppler image
showed a significant increase in perfusion,
with a rise in peak flow of up to 100%,
which had returned to normal values 2
days later. No sustained perfusion
changes were detected on Doppler TRUS.
The PSA level before the start of
treatment were all in the age-correlated
normal range (0.5€2.7 ng/mL). Neither the
level on the day of ESWT nor those 2
days later showed any significant change.
Almost 40% of any increases were within
a fluctuation range of † 10%, and † 17%
showed a transient PSA increase of
• 10%. The other patients had no
increases in PSA level, or indeed
reductions, after ESWT (Fig. 1). The PSA
profiles did not correlate with the clinical
results and relevant tissue changes were
excluded
In study 2, 20 patients (mean age 42.2
years, range 21€59) were included (May
to August 2006). All patients completed
the follow-up. The mean (range) duration
of CPPS was 7.7 (3€24) months. The
ESWT (duration17 min) was well tolerated
as an outpatient session, with no
anaesthesia, and no sideeffects were
apparent.
The positioning of the SW transducer was
simple and secure, due to the anatomical
conditions and a suitable focal penetration
depth (Fig. 2). The use of an additional
positioning system to ensure the correct
transducer placement was unnecessary.
All patients had a response on the pain
VAS and the NIH-CPSI; both reductions
were statistically significant (P† 0.001).
The change in IPSS was not statistically
significant (P‡ 0.669; Table 1).
TABLE 1
Sample time, weeks
IPSS
NIH-CPSI
VAS
Before ESWT
10,5
19,9
5,3
1
6,4
11,3
2,9
4
6,7
11,0
2,5
12
10,5
14,4
3,3
P
>0,05
<0,001
<0,001
TABLE 1
The results of study 2
€ 2008 THE AUTHORS
2
JOURNAL COMPILATION € 2008 BJU INTERNATIONAL
ESW T FOR TR EATING CHR ONIC PELVIC PAIN SYNDR O ME
DISCUSSION
To date there are only hypothetical
models for the pathogenesis of CPPS,
and thus both patients and doctors must
find their own ways to treat this illness.
The drug-based CPPS treatment
regimens used to date have only minimal
if any treatment effect. Offering drugbased therapy over a long period,
particularly to the large proportion of
young patients with CPPS, is not
desirable, irrespective of the drug
involved.
CPPS is probably manifested as a
myofascial pain syndrome with an
abnormal tone of the periprostatic
musculature, and a neurological
component has become increasingly
apparent, associated with dysfunctional
effects [23,24]. Many of the complaints are
closely connected to the autonomous
nervous system, and the interplay
between smooth and cross-striated
muscles. Acute and chronic inflammations
occurring via the sympathetic endplate
might be involved, leading to the
endogenous generation of pain via
nociceptive nerve endings and receptors.
Furthermore, certain kinds of
psychological stress can lead to abnormal
electromyographic activity and to
myofascial pain syndromes [25].
It therefore appears possible to treat many
of the disorders associated with CPPS
using myofascial trigger points, cognitive
behavioural therapy, and biofeedback and
relaxation training [26].
ESWT-associated pain alleviation based
on hyperstimulation of nociceptors was
intended to interrupt the flow of nerve
impulses [27,28]. This mechanism does
not explain the longer-term effect of the
SWs, because the local changes
preventing pain sensations from being
created are only relatively transient and
there is no enduring modulation in the
sensitivity of the treatment area.
Furthermore, ESWT-induced
revascularization processes can alleviate
pain and help to heal tissue [29]. There
are reductions in muscle tone and
spasticity [20] and a stimulation of
microvascularization after applying SWs.
SW possibly influence the neuroplasticity
of the ‘pain memory’. According to this
concept, the lack of effective therapy over
a significant period of sustaining pain
results in a development of a ‘pain
memory’ as a mis-derived learning
process due to the reinforcement of
negative impulses in the brain and their
long-term fixation. ESWT, by minimal pain
impulses, could be disrupting the former
pain memory and achieving a
‘reprogramming’. This approach might
explain, for example, why it is possible to
influence an area of pain located some
distance from the treatment locus.
The periprostatic pelvic floor muscles are
also influenced by the therapy, therefore
local muscle relaxation could be causing
the disorder, improving as the result of a
reduction in functional muscle shortening.
The intensity of pain associated with
CPPS was reduced in the present study
by about half; the maximum alleviation
was at 4 weeks after the end of treatment,
and the pain increased again by 12 weeks
after ESWT, although a significant effect
from the treatment remained apparent. As
was to be expected, the alleviation of pain
resulted in an improvement in the patients’
specific quality of life. Based on
comparable studies, the duration of followup was restricted to 12 weeks.
The pain reduction by SWs remains
effective over a period of several weeks.
Therefore it can be presumed that the
underlying effective mechanisms are not
just local alterations, but associated with
many factors, and that it is currently not
possible to precisely define or ascribe
individual degrees of importance to the
underlying mechanisms.
The lack of side-effects specific to the
therapy and the absolute lack of problems
in applying the therapy mean that, in
theory, it would be possible to repeat the
ESWT cycle at any time. The treatment
regimen, defined by empirical means so
far, can be adapted in the light of the
results at any time, should this approach
appear to offer prospects for success. In
future, it might be possible to significantly
extend the intervals between treatments
possibly to achieve a longer-lasting
treatment effect.
Interestingly, there was a temporary and
considerable (although not statistically
significant) improvement in subjective
urination conditions in most patients in
both studies. The subjectively perceived
urination quality is only indirectly related to
the other variables assessed, and
therefore this was an unexpected finding.
It is possible that the aforementioned local
changes also had an effect on urination
behaviour. In the future therefore, a group
of patients should have a urodynamic
evaluation before and after ESWT, to
obtain data which could be used for
deriving objective results about this,
because evaluating the IPSS alone is
insufficient and, above all, is not objective
enough. Possibly, these results could
mean that ESWT might be used for
treating illnesses primarily associated with
urinary disorders.
The interpretation of these results is
limited to the extent that the patients
studied in the present study did not
primarily have a urinary disorder.
Numerous studies in orthopaedics,
urology and, most recently, cardiology
have shown ESWT to have an extremely
low spectrum of side-effects. This
experience was confirmed again in the
present study. TRUS after each ESWT
made it possible to reliably exclude shortterm changes, while MRI of the minor
pelvis also allowed subsequent changes
to be excluded. As a result, it is possible
to assume that perineal ESWT can be
applied with no risks.
The increased intraprostatic perfusion
detected by Doppler TRUS immediately
after ESWT, but no longer detectable 2
days later, is possibly due to short-term
vasodilatation after exposure to SWs,
attributable to a stimulation of local nitric
oxide production. The difficulty involved in
defining completely identical areas before
and after ESWT means that the
reproducibility of this method is low. In
view of the perfusion measurement of very
small intraprostatic blood vessels, it is only
possible to obtain limited additional
information using Doppler TRUS.
The PSA level after ESWT was measured
to seek possible changes resulting from
the treatment. The PSA levels showed a
nonspecific profile, with only slight or
completely absent fluctuations, both
several minutes after and 48 h after
ESWT. In addition to the clinical
procedure, and Doppler TRUS, PSA was
a further indicator that there is no reason
to expect any relevant tissue damage, and
that perineal ESWT can be regarded as a
safe treatment. The results of the pilot
study meant that no check on PSA levels
associated with treatment was
subsequently required.
The positioning of the SW focal zone
within the prostate as the primary target
organ was assessed in the first study by
real-time inline US integrated in the
therapy head. Due to the unambiguous
anatomy in the lithotomy position, placing
the therapy head on the perineum made it
possible to reach the target structures of
the prostate and the pelvic floor with a
largely identical setting of the focal
penetration depth, reliably and with no
problems. Possible mis-positioning and
resulting treatment to the wrong structures
were excluded. The use of a US-based
location system, as used initially, is
therefore unnecessary for treating CPPS.
Thus it was possible to use a significantly
smaller device (Duolith SD1 vs Minilith)
that is faster and easier to operate, with
no US unit, in the follow-up study.
€ 2008 DIE AUTOREN
ERSTELLUNG DES BJU € 2008 BJU INTERNATIONAL
3
ZIMMER MANN ET AL.
The selection of the number of treatments,
the treatment distance and the number of
pulses per session was made after
preliminary clinical studies of other
applications, and could only be defined
empirically at first. The energy floe density
2
of 0.11 mJ/mm made it possible to
assume that the probability of tissue
damage could be practically excluded,
and that the probability of a possible
therapeutic effect would be sufficiently
high.
The treatment regimen of the pilot study
was adjusted to match reports of
successful treatment from comparable
orthopaedic studies; the total number of
applied pulses remained unchanged (12
000) although the application period was
doubled (from 2 to 4 weeks). This was
intended to increase the effect on the
tissue. The effectiveness of different
treatment intervals and frequencies must
be investigated further to define optimum
treatment regimens for the desired local
ESWT effects.
This also represents one of the limiting
factors in our study. There are no
reference factors for the treatment from
comparable clinical studies. It is not
possible to define treatment parameters
and target criteria from the animal model,
for example. Therefore, it was essential
for the study to be orientated to the clinical
procedure, and we think that all the control
mechanisms required for this new
indication for ESWT were implemented.
Few patients have been treated to date,
but it was possible to achieve a
statistically significant difference in the
variables of pain alleviation and specific
quality of life. The study had no control
group, which represents a limitation. An
initial control factor in this case was that
comparably good results could be
achieved in two study centres with totally
different general conditions and study
personnel. However, objective conditions
and results are required for verification of
the study. As some target variables
tended to show a return to baseline levels,
although only to a minor extent, a longer
follow-up should be selected in future to
assess the durability of the results.
Patients with an initially good response
could be treated as often as required if
there was a subsequent recurrence of the
disorder.
In conclusion, ESWT could be important
for treating CPPS as it is easy and
straightforward to apply and with
practically no side-effects. With ESWT it
was possible for the first time to establish
a rapid and therefore financially appealing
outpatient therapeutic option for CPPS,
using a standard unit, with a treatment
that can be repeated as often as required,
and which requires little time or personnel
costs.
10 Schaeffer AJ. Editorial: emerging
concepts in the management of
prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome. J
Urol 2003; 169 : 597–8
A double-blind placebo-controlled study,
including a sham treatment in the control
group, for the further evaluation of this
method, including an extended follow-up,
has been completed in the meantime.
Until the results of that trial are available
the new technology should be applied only
under investigational conditions.
11 Hetrick DC, Ciiol MA, Rothman I,
Turner JA, Frest M, Berger RE.
Musculoskeletal dysfunction in men with
chronic pelvic pain syndrome type III: a
case-control study. J Urol 2003; 170 :
828–31
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
None declared.
12 Cho IR, Keener TS, Nghiem HV,
Winter T, Krieger JN. Prostate blood flow
characteristics in the chronic prostatitis/
pelvic pain syndrome. J Urol 2000; 163 :
1130–3
REFERENCES
13 Doggweiler-Wiygul R. Chronic pelvic
pain. World J Urol 2001; 19 : 155–6
1 McNaughton-Collins M, MacDonald R,
Wilt TJ. Diagnosis and treatment of
chronic abacterial prostatitis: a systematic
review. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133 : 367–
81
2 Collins MM, Stafford RS, O’Leary MP,
Barry MJ. How common is prostatitis? A
national survey of physicians visits. J Urol
1998; 159 : 1224–8
3 Schaeffer AJ. Etiology and
management of chronic pelvic pain
syndrome in men. Urology 2004; 63
(Suppl.3A): 75–84
4 Nickel JC. Classification and diagnosis
of prostatitis: a gold standard? Andrologia
2003; 35 : 160–7
5 Krieger JN, Egan KJ, Ross SO,
Jacobs R, Berger RE. Chronic pelvic
pain represents the most prominent
urogenital symptoms of ‘chronic
prostatitis’. Urology 1996; 48 : 715–21
6 McNaughton Collins M, Pontari MA,
O’Leary MP et al. Quality of life is
impaired in men with chronic prostatitis:
the Chronic Prostatitis Collaborative
Research Network. J Gen Intern Med
2001; 16 : 656–62
7 Drach GW, Fair WR, Meares EM,
Stamey TA. Classification of benign
diseases associated with prostatic pain:
prostatitis or prostatodynia? J Urol 1978;
120 : 266
8 Krieger JN, Nyberg LJ, Nickel JC. NIH
consensus definition and classification of
prostatitis. JAMA 1999; 282 : 236–7
9 Pontari MA, Ruggieri MR. Mechanisms
in prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome.
J Urol 2004; 172 : 839–45
14 Arnstein PM. The neuroplastic
phenomenon: a physiologic link between
chronic pain and learning. J Neurosci Nurs
1997; 29 : 179–86
15 Porpert KJ, Alexander RB, Nickel CJ
et al. The Chronic Prostatitis Collaborative
Research Network. Design of a
multicenter randomized clinical trial for
chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain
syndrome. Urology 2002; 59 : 870–6
16 Nickel JC, Downey J, Pontari MA,
Shoskes DA, Zeitlin SI. A randomized
placebo-controlled multicentre study to
evaluate the safety and afficiacy of
finasteride for male chronic pelvic pain
syndrome (category IIIA chronic
nonbacterial prostatitis). BJU Int 2004; 93
: 991–5
17 Nickel JC, Downey J, Ardern D,
Clarke J, Nickel K. Failure of
monotherapy strategy for difficult chronic
prostatitis/ chronic pelvic pain syndrome. J
Urol 2004; 172 : 551–4
18 Anderson RU, Wise D, Sawyer T,
Chan C. Integration of myofascial trigger
point release and paradoxical relaxation
training treatment of chronic pelvic pain in
men. J Urol 2005; 174 : 155–60
19 Smith C, Elkabir J, Laverick L, Patel
A, Witherow R. A prospective,
randomized, placebo-controlled, doubleblinded study of electromagnetic therapy
in the treatment of chronic pelvic pain
syndrome. Abstract presented at the
BAUS Annual meeting. Birmingham,
England, June 19–23, 2000
20 Manganotti P, Amelio E. Long term
effect of shock wave therapy on upper
limb hypertonia in patients affected by
stroke. Stroke 2005; 36 : 1967–71
€ 2008 THE AUTHORS
4
JOURNAL COMPILATION € 2008 BJU INTERNATIONAL
ESW T FOR TR EATING CHR ONIC PELVIC PAIN SYNDR O ME
21 Fukumoto Y, Ito A, Uwatoku T et al.
Extracorporeal cardiac shock wave
therapy ameliorates myocardial ischemia
in patients with severe coronary artery
disease. Coron Artery Dis 2006; 17 : 63–
70
22 Nishida T, Shimokawa H, Oi K et al.
Extracorporeal cardiac shock wave
therapy markedly ameliorates
ischemiainduced myocardial dysfunction
in pigs in vivo. Circulation 2004; 110 :
3055–61
23 Zermann DH, Ishigooka M,
Doggweiler R, Schmidt RA.
Neurourological insights into the etiology
of genitourinary pain in men. J Urol 1999;
161: 903–8
24 Clemens JQ, Nadler RB, Schaeffer
AJ, Belani J, Albaugh J, Bushman W.
Biofeedback, pelvic floor re-education,
and bladder training for male chronic
pelvic pain syndrome. Urology 2000; 56:
951–5
25 Simons DG. Review of enigmatic
MTrPs as a common cause of enigmatic
musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction. J
Electromyogr Kinesiol 2004; 14: 95–107
26 McCracken LM, Turk DC. Behavioral
and cognitive-behavioral treatment for
chronic pain: outcome, predictors of
outcome, and treatment process. Spine
2002; 27: 2564–73
27 Rompe JD, Kullmer K, Vogel J et al.
Extracorporeal shock-wave therapy.
Experimental basis, clinical application.
Orthopade 1997; 26: 215–28
28 Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain
mechanisms: a new theory. Science 1965;
150: 971–9
29 WangCJ, Wang FS, Yang KD et al.
Shock wave therapy induces
neovascularization at the tendon-bone
junction. A study in rabbits. J Orthop Res
2003; 21: 984–9
Correspondence: Reinhold Zimmermann,
Department of Urology, Elisabethinen
Hospital, Fadinger Str. 1, 4010 Linz,
Austria. e-mail:
[email protected]
Abbreviations: CPPS, chronic pelvic pain
syndrome; ESWT, extracorporeal shockwave therapy; NIH-CPSI, National
Institutes of Health – Chronic Pain
Symptom Index; VAS, visual analogue
scale
€ 2008 DIE AUTOREN
ERSTELLUNG DES BJU € 2008 BJU INTERNATIONAL
5