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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
ASIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-chief
Dr. Asma Ahmad Shariff
Center for Foundation Studies in Science, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Managing Editor
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ASA University Bamgladesh, Bangladesh (Statistics)
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Quaid-e-Azam University, Pakistan (Health Systems & Policy)
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The Editorial Board assumes no responsibility for the content of the published articles.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering
Blind Peer-Reviewed Journal
Volume 3, Number 2/2014 (Sixth Issue)
Contents
1.
Adsorption of Crude Oil using Meshed Corncobs
Olufemi, B. A., L. A. Jimoda, & N. F. Agbodike
07-19
2.
An Investigation on Fire Safety of Air-conditioned Shopping Centers at Dhaka City
Saniya Tabassum, Sabbir Ahmed, & Taqir Mahmood Romeo
20-32
3.
Electric Properties of Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA)- Polyol and Prepared Sulfonated Phenolformaldehyde Resin (SPF) Bulk Samples Composite
Thamir Salman Bachari
33-42
4.
Studies on the Performanceof ITER90H-P Fusion Reactor Considering the D-T and D3He Fuelin the Steady-state
S. N. Hosseinimotlagh, S. Kianafraz
43-65
5.
An Evaluation of Water Resources Planning Organization, an Apex Planning
Organization in Water Sector Bangladesh
Md. Masud Alam
66-81
6.
Situation Analysis and Perspectives of Transboundary Wastewater Management Along
Israel/palestine borders
Eyad Y. Yaqob, Rashed Al-Sa`ed, George Sorial, & Makram Sudian
82-95
7.
Linear Active Control Algorithm to Synchronize a Nonlinear HIV/AIDS Dynamical
System
Said Al Hadhrami, Azizan Bin Saaban, Adyda Binti Ibrahim, Mohammad
Shahzad, & Israr Ahmad
96-113
8.
Thermal Characterization of Nematic Liquid Crystal Elastomer
Rita A. Gharde, Santosh A. Mani
114-118
9.
Float Trays as an Alternative to Methyl Bromide in Tobacco Production in Hurungwe 119-128
District, Zimbabwe
Rumbidzai Debra Katsaruware, & Justin Gwembire
10.
An Investigation of National Water Resources Database, Bangladesh
Md. Masud Alam, Md. Ataur Rahman, & Md. Shahabul Alam
129-144
Call for Papers - Volume 3, Number 3/2014 (Seventh Issue)
Asian Business Consortium
145-146
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
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Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
Page 6
Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Adsorption of Crude Oil using Meshed
Corncobs
Olufemi, B. A.1, L. A. Jimoda2, & N. F. Agbodike3
1
Senior Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Lagos, Nigeria
Senior Lecturer, Chemical Engineering Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria
3
M. Sc. Graduate, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Lagos, Nigeria
2
ABSTRACT
The potential of using corncobs a typical agro-based waste as an adsorbent
for removal of oil contaminated water was investigated in this work.
Gradually, the awareness of the impact of spilled crude oil and products
from it on human health and environment is on the increase. Corncobs
wastes generated in local maize flour processing plants, road-side corn
vendors and individuals, were converted into an adsorbent. The corncobs
were treated and meshed to adsorb crude oil from water at various
experimental conditions. Investigations carried out include the effects of
parametric variations of different adsorbate and adsorbent masses, time,
temperature, particle size and mixing speed on the adsorption of crude oil.
Meshed corncobs, especially the 80 micrometer particle size exhibited high
affinity for crude oil adsorption. The maximum adsorption was observed
at 15 °C for the temperature range considered. The results demonstrated
that a crude oil adsorption with this readily available and biodegradable
waste material is feasible. Due to its high affinity for oil and low water pick
up, meshed corncobs adsorbent is convincingly oleophilic or hydrophobic.
Keywords: Corncobs, adsorbent, adsorbate, crude oil, isotherm.
INTRODUCTION
I
nvestigation into the adsorption capability of various materials as good adsorbents is an
interesting and continuously expanding field of study. The use of adsorbents seems to have
been identified as an effective control measure in many oil spill scenarios.
Uzoije et al. (2011) have studied crude oil sorption onto activated groundnut shell carbon
(AGSC) with the conclusion that AGSC is a good mop-up and low-cost alternative
medium for oil spilled surfaces. Adsorption of crude oil by ordinary and modified
bentonites recorded about 410 % particle volume increase after adsorption (Gitipour et al.,
2010). As a further advancement in this field, Jadhav et al. (2011) had reported that
separation of oil from water by human hair as an adsorbing medium is found to be very
efficient at laboratory scale, in addition, compared to existing methods, they claimed that
their oil recovery process was low cost, effective, and user friendly. Also, the adsorption of
crude oil from aqueous solution by hydrogel of chitosan based polyacrylamide prepared
by radiation induced graft polymerization was carried out by Sokker et al. (2011).
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Freundlich and Langmuir models fitted their experimental data properly, while the
adsorption of oil onto the hydrogel behaves as a pseudo-second-order kinetic models
rather than the pseudo-first-order kinetic model according to them.
Adsorption of crude oil using meshed groundnut husk was also investigated by
Nwokoma and Anene (2010), and they pointed out that the optimum adsorption
temperature was between 25 – 45 °C. Over the years, adsorption of crude oil on the arctic
terrain had been investigated by Moore and Phillips (1975), where the arctic terrain was
divided into three layers, moss, detritus and clay, and each layer was contacted with
Norman wells crude oil. The outcome of their study showed that the chromatographic
analysis of the crude oil extracts of the terrain layers signified that the adsorption capacity
of the terrain increased with increasing organic content. Sorption studies of crude oil on
acetylated rice husks had been reported, with the conclusion that the adsorption was
monolayer (Thompson et al., 2010). The equilibrium isotherm of Langmuir, Freundlich,
Tempkin and the three parameter Redlich-Peterson isotherms had been correlated for the
equilibrium sorption of crude oil by expanded perlite using different adsorption isotherms
at 298.15 K (Alihosseini et al., 2010). Their results showed that the Redlich-Peterson model
better represented the equilibrium isotherm data for the crude oil on the expanded perlite.
To further portray the developed interest of researchers in this field of study, adsorption of
crude oil on surfaces using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) under
flow conditions revealed that the size of adsorbed aggregates decreased with n-alkane
carbon number (Abudu and Goual, 2010). It is interesting to know further, that adsorption
of spilled oil from seawater by waste plastic had been subjected to investigation by AboulGheit et al., (2006) and they stated that polyethylene powder and sheets as well as
polypropylene powder absorb more strongly heavier crude oils than lighter ones;
however, polypropylene sheets adsorb more light oil than heavier oil.
Adsorbents from the pyrolysis of rice husk had been shown to have very good buoyancy
characteristics, high oil sorption capacity and high hydrophobicity (Angelova et al., 2011).
The Langmuir model was found to better describe the adsorption process over the
concentration range considered in the kinetics of methylene blue adsorption KOHactivated carbon using corn cobs (Diya'uddeen et al., 2011). Modified oil palm leaves
adsorbent with enhanced hydrophobicity for crude oil removal had been investigated. The
authors observed that the isotherms studied revealed that the experimental data agreed
with the Freundlich isotherm model (Sidik et al., 2012). It had been reported that
temperature variation study showed that malachite green adsorption was endothermic
and spontaneous with increased randomness at the solid solution interface for activated
carbon prepared from Borassus bark, a low-cost source, by sulphuric acid activation, for
its ability to remove malachite green in aqueous solution (Arivoli et al., 2009). Two sets of
adsorbents were prepared from locally available raw materials, characterized and tested,
with the observation that the activated carbonaceous materials developed porous
structures which form defective graphitic sheet ensembles that serve as additional
adsorption sites (Sueyoshi et al., 2012).
Activated carbon prepared using solid waste called Terminalia Catappa Linn shell was
investigated to explore the adsorption copper ion from aqueous solution had been studied,
with the outcome that the adsorbent was found to be effective and economically viable
(Arivoli et al., 2009). Conversion of some waste products into adsorbents had been found
to remove various organic pollutants ranging from 80 to 99.9% (Ali et al., 2012).
Adsorption of organic gases / vapors: carbon tetrachloride, methane, and ammonia, on
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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the surface of activated charcoal has been studied manometrically, with the conclusion
that ammonia is a better adsorbate on the surface of activated charcoal as compared to
carbon tetrachloride and methane (Khan et al., 2003).
On another exploratory platform of investigation in similar fields of adsorption studies,
this work is set forth to investigate the possibility of using meshed corncobs to adsorb
crude oil as well as report on various relevant process parameters as they influence the
adsorption process with regard for some theoretical background knowledge of the subject.
The outcome of the research is expected to propose corncobs as a possible useful material
for environmental control of crude oil spillage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
APPARATUS AND REAGENTS:
The following materials and apparatus were utilised for the experimental work: Meshing
Machine (Magimix Cuisine System 5000), Mesh Sieve (B.S. 410/43), Orbital Shaker (HY-2
model, NYC), Thermometer, Graduated Bottles and Beakers (Pyrex, England),Weighing
Balance (AL Mettler Toledo GmbH 2004) and Boat, Whatman Filter Paper, Oven
(Gallenkamp, England), Corncobs, Jenway 6405 Model Ultraviolet (UV)
Spectrophotometer, Crude Oil Bonny Export Blend sample from Okoro Well, Akwa Ibom
Waters by Afren Energy Facility, De-ionized Water, Analytical Grade Potassium
Carbonate.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
A small oil spill of 0.025 g/l initial concentration (Co) was simulated by pouring 25 g of
crude oil into 1000 ml of water in a beaker. A 200 ml of the simulated spill oil of
concentration of 0.025 g/l was measured into a 500 ml beaker. Batch adsorption
equilibrium constant were performed for different parameters; adsorbent loading,
adsorbate loading, temperature, time, rotational speed, particle size. A constant room
temperature of 25 oC was used throughout the experiments. The absorbance for various
concentrations of oil was determined through a blank run before the experimental runs.
About 2.0 g Corncobs (CC) was introduced into the beaker oil / water solution. The
contents of the beaker were agitated for 1 hour which is necessary for equilibrium to be
attained in the adsorption system. The corncob (CC) was filtered out of the solution using
a Whatman No. 1 filter paper to drain them completely. The equilibrium concentration of
crude oil in water for each measured sample was determined using UV spectrophotometer
at a wavelength of 380 nm. The weight (M) of the corncob (CC), volume (V) of simulated
oil spill and the corresponding equilibrium concentration (Ce) were recorded.
For each batch run, the quantity of crude oil adsorbed per unit weight of Corncob (CC)
denoted as qe was determined as expressed by Uzoije et al. (2011) as:
q e  C o  C e V / M
(1)
The Langmuir isotherm was given as:
qe 
qm K L Ce
1  K L Ce
(2)
while the linear form was expressed as:
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
1
1
1


qe qm K L Ce qm
ISSN 2305-915X
(3)
The Freundlich isotherm was also given as:
qe  K f  Ce1 n
(4)
with the linear form given as:
ln qe  ln K f 
1
ln Ce
n
(5)
The variation of ln qe with ln Ce expected to be a linear plot according to the Freundlich
isotherm was done from where the Freundlich constants (Kf, n) were determined.
Variation of 1/qe with 1/Ce was plotted also which was expected to give linear plots
according to the Langmuir isotherm from where the constants (KL, qm) were obtained.
Batch adsorption experiments were carried out with 0.025 g/l initial concentration (Co) of
oil. Water and oil do not mix but form emulsion. Water was added to determine the
affinity of the adsorbent for oil and water. A mass of 2.0 g of 80 μm Corncob adsorbent
was added to this mixture. The 500 ml beaker was placed on an orbital shaker, and then
shaken at 200 rpm at a constant room temperature of 25 oC for 1 hour. The wetted
adsorbent was then removed from the beaker; oil and water were filtered through a
Whatman No 1 filter paper. The amount of oil remaining was measured using an UV
spectrophotometer. From the data obtained, the equilibrium concentration (C e) was
obtained. Experimental procedures of various process parameters investigated are:
Different adsorbent loading: About 0.025 g/l initial concentration oil sample was added
to mixtures of 1.0 g, 2.0 g, 3.0 g, 4.0 g and 5.0 g of 80 μm corncobs adsorbent respectively in
a 500ml beaker. The beaker was placed on an orbital stirrer, and then stirred at 200 rpm at
room temperature for an hour each. The absorbance values were recorded carefully during
the experiments.
Different contact time: A 0.025 g/l initial concentration oil sample was added to a mixture
of 2.0 g of 80 μm corncobs adsorbent in a 500 ml beaker. The beaker was placed on an
orbital stirrer, and then stirred at 200 rpm at a constant room temperature of 25 oC for a
specified period of contact time: 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 min. After stirring, the samples were
withdrawn at the specified time intervals, filtered through a Whatman No 1filter paper
and the filtrate measured using a UV machine. The absorbance values were then recorded
carefully.
Different Temperature: Batch adsorption experiments were carried out at different
temperatures of 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 and 60 oC. About 2.0 g of meshed adsorbent was shaken
with 0.025 g/l initial concentration oil sample in a 500 ml beaker at 200 rev/min for 60
minutes to permit adequate equilibrium adsorption at various temperatures. The wetted
adsorbent was then removed from the beaker, while the oil and water were filtered
through a Whatman No 1 filter paper and the filtrate measured using a UV machine. The
absorbance values were obtained and recorded carefully.
Different mesh sizes: The adsorbent was meshed and sieved into different particle sizes
of 80, 150, 300, 425 and 600 μm. Batch adsorption experiments were carried out for the
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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various particle sizes of the adsorbent by shaking 2.0 g of the meshed adsorbent with 0.025
g/l initial concentration oil sample in a 500 ml beaker at 200 rev/min using room
temperature for 60 min. The wetted adsorbent was then removed from the beaker, while
the oil and water were filtered through a Whatman No 1filter paper and the filtrate
measured using a UV machine. The absorbance values were then recorded appropriately.
Different rotational speeds: The adsorption dynamics in terms of contact time was
studied experimentally by adding 0.025 g/l initial concentration oil sample to a 2.0 g 80
μm corncobs adsorbent in a 500 ml beaker. The beaker was placed on an orbital stirrer, and
then stirred at room temperature for a specified revolution per minute for 60 min. Various
rotational speeds of 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 rev/min were used. After stirring, the
samples were withdrawn at the specified time intervals, filtered through a Whatman No. 1
filter paper and the filtrate measured using a UV machine. The absorbance values were
then recorded as required.
Different adsorbate loading: Batch adsorption experiments were carried out at different
adsorbate loading, whereby 2.0 g of meshed adsorbent was shaken with 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 g
crude oil sample per 200 ml water mix in a 500 ml beaker to give varying oil
concentrations at 200 rev / min for 60 min using constant ambient temperature. The
wetted adsorbent was then removed from the beaker, while the oil and water were filtered
through a Whatman No. 1 filter paper and the filtrate measured using a UV machine. The
absorbance values were then taken correctly.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results and adsorption isotherm study of the experiments carried out under varying
temperature, time, adsorbent dosage, adsorbate dosage, particle sizes and rotational speed
are presented below:
Table I: Crude oil adsorption by corncobs with varying adsorbate concentration at 25 oC and 200 rpm
Initial Conc. (g/l)
Ce (g/l)
0.01
0.00028
0.02
0.00472
0.03
0.01108
0.04
0.01946
0.05
0.03111
Table II: Corncobs adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil at varying mass of adsorbent at 25 oC and 200 rpm
Mass (g)
1
2
3
4
5
Ce (g/l)
0.01431 0.00817 0.00562 0.00338 0.00132
Table III: Corncobs adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil with varying time at 25 oC and 200 rpm
Time (min)
15
30
45
60
75
Ce (g/l)
0.01512 0.01102 0.00264 0.00257 0.00058
Table IV: Corncobs adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil with varying temperature and 200 rpm
Temp (oC)
15
25
35
45
60
Ce (g/l)
0.00057 0.00241 0.00799 0.00996 0.01431
Table V: Corncobs adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil with varying speed at 25 oC
Speed (rpm)
100
200
300
400
500
Ce (g/l)
0.0108 0.0053 0.0038 0.0028 0.0024
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Table VI: Corncobs adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil with varying meshed sizes at 25 oC and 200 rpm
Size (μm)
80
150
300
425
600
Ce (g/l)
0.0042 0.0052 0.0099 0.0103 0.0132
Several experimental runs to determine the adsorption isotherm and to study the kinetics
of oil adsorption onto meshed corncobs were conducted.
The result of adsorption of crude oil onto different adsorbate masses as shown in Table I
revealed that the adsorption of crude oil reduced with higher adsorbate doses. As the
crude oil dose increased from 0.01 g/l to 0.05 g/l with a constant weight of 2 g of corncob,
the amount of crude oil adsorbed reduced. This is because the same adsorption sites are
available for the varying concentration of sorbate (crude oil). In other words adsorbed oilwater ratio reduces with increase in oil added having less adsorption sites at higher
adsorbate doses.
In Table II, the result of adsorption of crude oil onto different adsorbent masses showed
that the adsorption of crude oil increased with adsorbent doses. As the adsorbent dose
increased from 1 g to 5 g the amount of crude oil adsorbed increased. This is because more
adsorption sites are available for the same concentration of adsorbate medium (crude oil).
In other words, adsorbed oil-water ratio decreased with increase in initial adsorbent mass.
Thus, for a given adsorbate value, at any time, adsorption capacity of sorbent and
adsorbed oil-water ratio reduces, while percentage oil removal increases with sorbent
mass, having more adsorption sites at higher adsorbent dose.
The result of the adsorption of crude at different contact time showed that the adsorption
of crude oil onto the adsorbents and the oil removal increased with time as presented in
Table III. For a temperature of 25 oC, as the time increased from 15 to 75 min, the
adsorption capacity and removal of crude oil from water increased. The result showed
that the rate of adsorption and oil removal was very high initially, especially between 15
and 45 min, subsequently; quasi-stationary states were witnessed within 60 and 75 min.
As depicted in Table IV, the result of batch adsorption experiments carried out for different
temperatures of adsorbent showed that adsorption capacity was higher at lower temperatures.
Adsorption was more pronounced at 15 °C for the temperature range considered. The results
further showed that the percentage removal of the crude oil decreased with increase in
temperature, indicating the dependence of adsorption on temperature.
The result of the adsorption of crude at different mixing speed in Table V showed that the
adsorption of crude oil onto the adsorbents and the oil removal increased with speed. Lin
and Liu (2000) reported that the mass transfer rate increases with the increase in stirring
speed. The increase in stirring speed resulted in a reduction in surface film resistance,
thereby allowing residual oil to reach the particle surface more easily. Surface film resistance
slowed down the rate of adsorption. The rate of oil adsorption increased with an increase in
mixing speed. For a temperature of 25 oC, as the mixing speed increased from 100 to 500 rev
/ min, the adsorption capacity and removal of crude oil from water increased. The result
showed that the rate of adsorption and oil removal gradually increased with speed and the
most remarkable adsorption occurred at about 500 rev/min (Table V).
The result of batch adsorption experiments carried out for different particle sizes showed
that smaller particles have relatively higher adsorption capacity, higher oil removal and
adsorbed oil-water ratio. It has been shown that the particle size distribution affects the
rate of adsorption and the sorption efficiency according to (Hjelmeland, et al., 1986). The
rate of adsorption increased with increase in surface area of the adsorbent, while sorption
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Absorbance
efficiency increases with holding capacity as depicted in Tables III and VI. This is because
smaller particle possess, not only larger surface areas and interstitial packing, but also the
tendency of faster rate of adsorption as shown in Table VI.
The calibration plot for determining the absorbance of various oil concentrations is
presented in Fig 1. In Figures 2 to 13, the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms for the
adsorption of crude oil using corncob (CC) at varying parameters of different adsorbate
concentration, adsorbent loading, time, temperature, particle size and mixing speed are
presented. The Langmuir equation assumes that there is no interaction between the
sorbate molecules and that the sorption is localized in a monolayer. It is then assumed that
once a crude oil molecule occupies a site, no further adsorption operation can take place at
that site. Theoretically, therefore, a saturation value is reached; beyond which no further
adsorption can take place. Compared to the Langmuir isotherm, the Freundlich model was
generally found to be better suited for characterizing multi-layer adsorption process.
The Langmuir parameters, qm and KL were computed from the slopes and intercepts of the
straight lines of plot of (1/ qe ) vs.1/ Ce (Figures 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12), while the values of
Freundlich constants, Kf and n were calculated from the plots of ln Ce against ln qe (Figures 3,
5, 7, 9, 11 and 13) for varying parameters of different adsorbate and adsorbent masses, time,
temperature, particle size and mixing speed respectively. Constants qm and KL are Langmuir
constants related to adsorption capacity and energy of adsorption, respectively, while Kf
indicates the adsorption capacity and l/n is indicative of the intensity of adsorption. The
experimental results were expressed in linear form on which regression analyses were
carried out representing Langmuir and Freundlich models. The plots as shown in Figures 2
to 13 were somewhat found to fit Freundlich isotherm better than the Langmuir isotherm
model based on the correlation coefficients (R2 values) that were found to be better which is
in line with the literature. Therefore the claim that Freundlich model is a better model for
adsorption from such liquids was justified from this work. The data obtained from the
isotherm constants for various adsorbates, adsorbents, different parameters of temperature,
time, mass, particle size and mixing speed are given in Table VII.
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
R² = 0.997
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
Concentration (g/l)
Fig. 1: Calibration plot of absorbance at varying concentration
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
1200
1000
R² = 0.937
1/qe
800
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig. 2: Langmuir plot for oil adsorption using CC at varying mass of adsorbate at 25 oC
and 200 rpm
ln Ce
-9
-8
-7
-6
-4
-5
-4
-3 -4.5 -2
-5.5
-6
R² = 0.960
ln qe
-5
-6.5
-7
-7.5
Fig. 3: Freundlich plot for oil adsorption using CC at varying mass of adsorbate at 25 oC
and 200 rpm
1200
R² = 0.755
1000
1/qe
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig. 4: Langmuir plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil at varying mass of CC adsorbent using
25 oC and 200 rpm
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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ln Ce
-4
-7
-6
-5
-4
-4.5 -3
-5
ln qe
-5.5
R² = 0.917
-6
-6.5
-7
-7.5
Fig. 5: Freundlich plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil at varying mass of CC adsorbent
using 25 oC and 200 rpm
1200
1000
1/qe
800
R² = 0.724
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig.6: Langmuir plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil with CC at varying time using 25 oC
and 200 rpm
ln Ce
-4
-7
-6
-5
-4
R² = 0.811
-3
-5
-6
-2
ln qe
-8
-7
-8
-9
Fig. 7: Freundlich plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil with CC at varying time using 25 oC
and 200 rpm
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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1000
800
R² = 0.762
1/qe
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
ln Ce
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
R² = 0.790
-3
-4
-4.5 -2
-5
-5.5
-6
-6.5
-7
-7.5
-8
ln qe
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig. 8: Langmuir plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil using CC at varying
temperature stirring at 200 rpm
Fig. 9: Freundlich plot for adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil using CC at varying
temperature stirring at 200 rpm
800
600
1/qe
R² = 0.761
400
200
50
150
250
350
450
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig. 10: Langmuir plot for the adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil with CC at varying speed
and 25 oC
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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ln Ce
-4
-6
-5.5
-5
-4.5
R² = 0.937
-5
-4
-6
ln qe
-6.5
-7
-8
-9
1/qe
Fig. 11: Freundlich plot for the adsorption of 0.025 g/l crude oil with CC at varying speed
and 25 oC
1000
800
600
400
200
R² = 0.848
50
100
150
200
250
1/Ce (l/g)
Fig. 12: Langmuir plot for the adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil using CC with varying meshed
CC sizes at 25 oC and 200 rpm
ln Ce
-5.5
-5
-4.5
-5 -4
-6
-7
R² = 0.958
ln qe
-6
-4
-8
-9
Fig. 13: Freundlich plot for the adsorption of 0.025 g/l oil using CC with varying meshed
CC sizes at 25 oC and 200 rpm
Table VII: Various adsorption isotherm constants for Corncobs (CC) using different
parameters
Parameter
Time (min)
Temperature (oC)
Size (μm)
Adsorbent mass (g)
Adsorbate mass (g)
Speed (rev / min)
Freundlich constants
Kf (l/g)1/n
N
R2
2.5 × 103
3.716
0.811
1.9 × 103
4.474
0.790
5.739
2.154
0.958
1.11 × 102
2.863
0.917
2.56 × 102
5.984
0.960
2.677 × 103
3.22
0.937
Langmuir constants
qm
KL (l/g)
8.142 × 10-4
5.3 × 103
1.722 × 10-3
7.39 × 102
1.135
4.64 × 102
1.872 × 10-3
7.33 × 102
1.947 × 10-3
3.669 × 10-3
1.135
5.26 × 102
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R2
0.724
0.762
0.848
0.755
0.937
0.761
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
CONCLUSION
The ability of corncob (an agro waste material) as a natural adsorbent to remove crude oil
from effluent water had been investigated in this work. The results demonstrated that
crude oil removal by adsorption onto biodegradable corncobs with good availability at
almost no cost, being a waste material is feasible. The adsorption and percentage removal
of crude oil from effluent water was found to be dependent on adsorbent dose, adsorbate
dose, contact time, temperature and particle size and also speed of agitation. The adsorbed
oil-water ratio of the corncob adsorbent was more than unity in all cases investigated,
which indicates higher adsorption selectivity for crude oil over water by the adsorbent.
The test adsorbents were evaluated for their initial and final capacities, with respect to oil
pickup and potential as observed.
Meshed corncobs (CC), especially 80μm, exhibit high affinity for oil adsorption, with time.
The adsorption is due to larger surface areas. The considered adsorption temperature
range lies between 15 - 60 oC, with the maximum adsorption observed at 15 oC. The
correlation coefficient indicated that the sorption process was dominated by the
adsorption process. Based on the high affinity for oil with low water pick up, meshed
corncobs used as an adsorbent could be expressly regarded as an oleophilic or
hydrophobic substance. The equilibrium adsorption isotherm analysis using Langmuir
and Freundlich, was carried out as presented. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models
fitted the equilibrium data reasonably well. In conclusion, the results from the Freundlich
isotherm model seems to be most significant than that of Langmuir as shown. This is
similar to the findings of Sidik et al., (2012), when modified oil palm leaves adsorbent with
enhanced hydrophobicity for crude oil removal was studied, where the authors observed
that the isotherms studied revealed that the experimental data agreed more with the
Freundlich isotherm model.
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Groundnut Husk, Chemical Product and Process Modeling, 5(1).
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H., (2012), Modified oil palm leaves adsorbent with enhanced hydrophobicity for crude
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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An Investigation on Fire Safety of Airconditioned Shopping Centers at Dhaka City
Saniya Tabassum1, Sabbir Ahmed2, & Taqir Mahmood Romeo3
1
Assistant Professor, Department of architecture, Stamford University Bangladesh, Bangladesh
Lecturer, Department of architecture, Stamford University Bangladesh, Bangladesh
2&3
ABSTRACT
Shopping is an important and essential routine of urban life. Day by day
the need for organized shopping centre is gaining importance in our
society. The current trend in Dhaka is to accommodate various functions
such as office, hotels, apartments etc. along with the shopping facilities
within the same structure. These have increased the potential danger of fire
hazard in these mixed uses, multi-storied and usually introvert building
type. At present a lot of high-rise Shopping Centers have sprung up all
over the city. Among them a big numbers of high-rise Shopping Centers
have a doubtful facility to fight with fire. The present study intends to
examine the deplorable conditions regarding fire safety and high risk
environment that exists in the high-rise shopping centers of Dhaka city.
This study is based on the literature review focusing on basic concept
about fire. Some shopping centers have been taken as a sample for survey
to enquiry whether they meet the requirements and regulations for fire
safety or not and what extent they are risky in question of fire.
Key Word: Fire Safety, Shopping Center
1 INTRODUCTION
T
he word „shopping centre‟ can be extended as the place where shops are placed
combined and where people can buy things. But in respect of culture, climate, socioeconomic condition of different nations and countries the shopping centre may be
called as Mall, Market, Bazaar [Bengali name of open market] etc. In our society, the
comparative advantages of location, administrative, economic and other functional factors
have contributed towards a substantial increase in shopping activities. As a result, in
recent years shopping centers and ribbon like retail developments in Dhaka city have
boomed often in the most unplanned and indiscreet manner along most of the roads of the
city. Thus, they are one of the key physical structures which contribute to give shape the
Dhaka city as an uncontrolled urbanization, as they are growing haphazardly with no
respect to urban theory, viability, climate and finally without legislation albeit meager.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The trend of haphazard growth of market places and shopping centers has transformed
the „Tilottoma City‟ into the „City of Shops‟. Shopping centre in Bangladesh has
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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experienced an unprecedented growth over the last decade and a half. Before a decade,
people are used to shopping on Chawk bazaar[ at old Dhaka], New Market and Gausia
market[shopping center at Mirpur Road] etc. But the uncontrolled development,
compelling changes in land-use, mostly precipitated by the rapid growth of population in
the capital city Dhaka, various industrial and economic activities, short supply of land etc.
have resulted in enhanced demand for compact planning of shopping centers. Now
shopping centers, along with the shopping facilities, simultaneously serves the civic,
cultural and social community needs, thus making significant contributions to the
enrichment of the society. This compact and usually introvert building type have
increased the use of electrical equipments. A growing number of shopping centers are
now air-conditioned along with escalator and elevator facilities. Moreover, the use of
decorative materials that are highly combustible has become more popular in the modern
shopping centers. These centers attempt to accommodate various functions at upper floors
of their multistoried structures but without any consideration for the separation of service
facilities and safety measures. Although adequate safety and security including fire
measures are prerequisites for enjoying a hazard free shopping environment; collectively
they remain the most neglected issue in the context of total urban development in Dhaka
city. Therefore, in the absence of safety awareness among users, any type of fire
prevention, precaution and control measures about fire are not adopted by the concerning
authority. All these contribute to the danger of fire hazards and accident in shopping
centers. Today no shopping centre in the developed world could be responsibly designed
or executed without any special regard to design for safety and security in all its aspects
[The Daily Star, 2006]. On the other hand, shopping centers of Bangladesh have failed to
incorporate the factor of fire safety in the overall design process.
Figure 01: Fire in Bashundhara City Shopping Mall
Bashundhara City Shopping Mall [Fig 01] is one of the largest shopping mall complexes in
Asia. Fire[13th of March 2009 ] totally burned down the top five floors of the 21-storey
office tower, which housed the corporate office of Bashundhara Group, one the biggest
conglomerates of the country [Shaif A., 2009]. The ten-storied shopping complex was not
touched by fire. Fire in the Bashundhara City shopping mall was not the first one in a
high-rise building of our country. In February 2007, a massive fire burnt down all the
offices in the 11-storey BSEC building, including the offices of private TV stations NTV
and RTV. A lot of questions were asked at that time, but somehow they were forgotten
over time. It can be doubted whether lessons were learned from that accident, as we saw a
repeat of that at Bashundhara City [Shaif A., 2009].
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Fire in this large shopping mall has raised many questions regarding safety precautions of
high-rise buildings that have sprung up all over the city and the ability of the fire-fighting
forces to cope up with the rapid vertical expansion of the capital city Dhaka.
1.2 SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The present study intends to examine the deplorable conditions regarding fire safety and a
high risk situation that exists in air-conditioned [Focus on shopping at mixed-used
multistoried building] shopping centers of Dhaka city studying some selected samples to
get an overview. Methodology of the Study is based on the data that has been collected
through field survey to get the live experience, photographic information, observational
study as well as questionnaire survey and architectural detail documents and secondary
data from the literature review. Interviews with the people were also a help to get
information on what has been going. All the secondary data has been collected through a
detail literature review and by interpreting the data.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CAUSES OF FIRE IN SHOPPING CENTERS
Most fires in multi-storey shopping centers are caused by the increased use of electrical
and mechanical equipment which cause:
 Ignition of combustible materials by heating equipment.
 Ignition of flammable liquids and gases from leaking pipes and ducts by electrical
energy etc.
 Defective or improperly installed and operated electrical and heating equipment and
services.
 Wiring faults, friction and static sparks.
The most common causes of fire in public buildings like shopping centers are Smoking materials and matches.
 Defective and improperly operated heating equipment.
 Careless disposal of ash and waste products.
 Repairs and alteration hazards.
 Exposure from other buildings from fire.
 Increased use of combustible materials for decoration in modern shops.
 Fire develops easily in enclosed air-conditioned area, etc.
Besides these Narrow staircases, lack of regular fire drills and security measures, improper
storage facilities, lack of sign and symbol, improper security systems, etc. are some of the
important causes of the recurring tragedy for panic and injury.
2.2 TYPES OF FIRE HAZARD
Fire hazards in shopping centers may be either-External or Internal. External hazard
means the risk of fires spreading to adjoining or nearby buildings. In the case of shopping
centers of Dhaka city, external hazard could be a risk of fire spreading adjoining or nearby
building as the shopping arcades do not provide the minimum setback from the adjoining
building. Therefore externally fire may spread through windows or openings.
Internal hazard includes -The fire load, the ease with which the combustible materials are
set on fire, the rate of burning, the ability of materials to emit noxious fumes when heated
and encourage the burning of other materials.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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2.3 SAFETY MEASURES
2.3.1 Fire prevention: Safe installation and routine checking of electrical systems, the
provision and maintenance of fire fighting equipments, Buildings, with noncombustible
construction and surface finishes, the dumping of flammable rubbish, etc. are important
issues for fire prevention.
2.3.2 Fire precaution: Objectives of fire pre-cautions:
o Measures should be taken so that the possibilities of fire occurring are lessened.
o The provision of adequate facilities to enables the occupants of the buildings to escape
safely and quickly in case of fire. Containment of fire within the buildings and to
reduce the chances of fire spreading to adjoining Buildings [Mahfuz, M., 2013].
2.3.3 Fire control: The measures for fire control have to be provided at the design phase
and during the time of building construction. The various measures are:
o Compartmentalization: It is a way of keeping a fire relatively small by dividing up a
building into fire-tight cells or units by means of fire resisting walls and floors. It is,
therefore, necessary for the multistory building so that the threat develops more
slowly. It is essential that the compartment shall survive a burn out of its combustible
contents without the collapse of the fire resisting separating elements
o Refugees: In multistory buildings it would be difficult to provide a place of safety at
the ground level. Moreover, it is impractical to evacuate completely the buildings like
shopping centers that house thousands of people of the time required, and in such
cases it is better to provide a place of safety within the building. Such “refuges” are
constructed so that they are free from smoke and fire.
o Fire alarm and Detection: In case of fire, the most primary necessity is to detect fire
and to raise the fire alarm. To reduce the loss of life and property it is obviously
important to detect the location of fire as early as possible, therefore the alarm should
be raised manually or automatically, to warn both the people and the fire fighters.
o Smoke vents and screens: Experts has pointed that, now a day‟s rather than flame is
the primary threat to life in case of a fire incident. Because smoke creates the panic [
and animal like stampeding that widely excited people crush each other to death]
situation among the fire effected people by obstructing visibility. Most of people by
fire in buildings have fears not to find an exit because of smoke, and have letter been
poisoned by carbon-monoxide gas or suffocated by oxygen deficiency. Therefore, if
the escape routes remain completely clear from smoke then the people would not be
panicked.
o Other fire extinguishers: Fire extinguishers should be chosen depending on the
severity of the fire. The common extinguishers can be both portable and fixed.
Portable fire extinguishers can be divided into five groups[Extinguisher service- GWF
Services] namely:
 water extinguisher
 carbon dioxide extinguisher
 vaporizing liquid extinguisher
 dry powder extinguisher
 foam extinguisher
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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2.4 MEANS OF ESCAPE
It is the first and chief need and the one with the most impact on building design.
When designing escape routes or accessing their efficiency the following factors should be
kept in mind:
o 2.5 minutes for evacuation time is recommended by the fire grading committee (UK).
o Sufficient numbers of exit with adequate capacity should be located with convenient
paths of access and adequate lighting of exits.
o During the length of fire hazard all the exits should be protected from fire and smoke.
o Escape routes are desirable to be direct, unobstructed, and clearly signed.
o The exits should be same width to that of the corridors. The possible discharge rate
should be the determining fact for the exit width rather than the total number to be
discharged.
o All doors in the escape route should open in the direction of escape and should not be
lockable [Fire Doors Bristol]. Final exit doors may be secured with panic bolts.
o The openness of the escape path affects the speed of movement and may be 12.5
meters per minute in corridors and 18 meter per minutes in unconfined spaces. This
permits travel distance of 30 meter and 45 meters respectively (that is speed x
evacuation time = travel distance). Travel distance is the actual distance traveled by a
person from any point within the floor area to the relevant exit that is protected
doorway and rather depending on a single plan dimension it must be directly related
to occupancy and the use of the floor area.
o Materials which might constitute a fire hazard should not be contained even
temporary in any part of a protected escape route.
o In multistoried shopping centers along with low rise structures, the alternative escape
is a must and that should be located in the opposite direction of the main route in case
the main exit is blocked by smoke or fire.
o It is not advisable to depend on fire brigade because modern traffic conditions and
congestion may well delay their arrival.
2.5 LEGISLATION RELATING TO SHOPPING CENTERS
In the face of all the existing potential dangers, the Rajdhani Unnayan Kartipakhaya
[RAJUK] has been unable to give the matter of fire safety due importance. RAJUK has very
meager rules for fire prevention, protection and control in buildings. For buildings above
six stories it requires owners:
 To install with instructions for fire extinguishers in open on each floor.
 To provide instructions for quick evacuation of the building with a fire alarm system.
With regard to the Emergency Escape Path RAJUK requires that:
 It should be within 25 meters from any place
 Its lobby should be separated from the lift lobby
 It should be connected to the ground floor.
Recent addition in RAJUK legislation‟s regarding Fire Safety in Shopping Centers:
 No shopping centre should be located within 200 m of a busy traffic node to avoid
congestion at the entry point.
 Setback rules: any shopping complex will have a setback of 1.25 m from the road front only.
 If the back and side walls of a building accommodate openings, then a maximum
setback will be 1.25 m.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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
If a shopping centre is located in residential area, then a minimum setback will be 1.5
m from the adjacent residence.
 If a shopping arcade has roads on more than one side, then a minimum setback will be
1.5 m from the secondary roads.
 The RAJUK has refereed for adequate fire alarm, garbage provision, loadingunloading, etc. but without specifying any standard for different building types.
 Fire Alarm should be installed in each floor of a building of more than six storey height.
 Shopping centers of 7-9 storeys should provide at least one lift and of 10-15 storeys at
least two lifts should be provided.
The capital‟s building authority has virtually no instrument to make even these
ridiculously paltry rules effective. Needless to say, the building owners and users violate
almost all the rules, making their buildings potential time-bombs for a fire disaster.
3 CASE STUDY
Table 01: List of Surveyed Shopping Center
3.1 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION FROM THE SURVEYED BUILDING:
3.1.1 Basement: The following situation are observed in almost all cases of surveyed
building:
 Careless disposal of waste products in the basement [Fig 02]that increase the risk of
ignition of fire
 Absence of daylight in the basement parking which will make fire-fighting difficult.
 In many cases People employed for the maintenance make their living are at
Basement.[Fig 03]
 At Navana Tower and Karnafuli Garden City, Generator and in all other cases
locations of A.H.U and maintenance room are at basement.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Fig 02: disposal of waste products [Eastern Plaza] Fig03: Used by the occupants [Twin Tower]
3.1.2 Lift and stair and Fire Escape: All the shopping centers are providing escalator and
elevator for beauty but these are not working in hazardous situation. They do not have
notices or signs placed near the entrance, advising passengers on the use of Escalator and
Elevator to avoid accidents in case of any danger. Escape route and position of stair and
lift are analyzed below [Table 02]
Karnafuli Garden city
Plan
Findings
 Stair 01 is used by the apartment and remained
locked at shopping levels. The staircase 02 for
market is not protected from fire and smoke as
it is not compartmented.[Fig 04]
 Lift lobby not separated from main lobby[Fig 05]
 Escape route is too long for evacuation.
Fig 04: Open Stair
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
Fig 05:open lift lobby
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
Twin Tower
Plan
ISSN 2305-915X
Findings
 The only stair also used as fire exit and at
ground floor exit space used as security
room [ Fig 06].
 Lift lobby not separated from main lobby
 Escape is too long for evacuation in time.
And it is not easy to find the stair as it is
at one corner of the building
Fig 06: stair and fire exit
Navana Tower
Plan
Findings
 One stair [01] remains closed all the time and another
one [02] act as fire exit but the door remained locked
at ground level.
 Lift lobby is not separated from main lobby and also
enclosed by shops and their display [Fig 07].
Fig 07:The lift and stair is enclosed by shops display
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Eastern Plaza
Plan
Findings
 Lift lobby is not separated from
main lobby and the stair 01 is not
compartmentalized.
 Stair 02 [Fig 08] reaches at ground
floor but it is at the end point of the
building.
 Staircases are not easily visible for
quick escape in case of emergencies
 The shopping centre is too deep for
external fire fighting.
Bashundhara City
Plan
Fig:08: Open stair will be a carrier of fire and smoke
Findings
At Bashundhara City all stairs lead to basement
parking and act as fire exit and these remained
under lock and key almost all the time, which
will causes hazard during the fire [Fig 09]. In all
cases
adjacent
lift
lobby
is
not
compartmentalized.
Fig 09: Fire exit controlled by security guardand
remain closed at Parking level
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
North Tower
Plan
ISSN 2305-915X
Findings
 There is only one stair for the whole building.
Its width is 3‟ and act as fire exit. It remains
lock all the time.[Fig 10]
 Outside of the fire exit [escape route] remains
occupied by wash and maintenance area.
Fig 10: Closed Fire exit and its out side
3.1.3 Drop Ceiling: Combustible gypsum boards used as a suspended ceiling material in
each shopping mall which increase the risk of fire [Fig 11].
Figure11: Gypsum Board
Figure 12: Use of Fire Safety Signs and Symbols
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
3.1.4. Safety signs and symbols: Most of the centers surveyed the "No Smoking“, Fire Exit
signs displayed; only 5% have not displayed the sign[Fig 12].
3.1.5. Fire Fighting Equipment: Almost all shopping centers are well equipped with a good
number of Fire extinguisher and hydrants systems [Table 03, 04]. Fire extinguishers kept in
front of elevator, escalator, stair, toilet, and other public gathering space. Smoke detector and
fire alarm provided almost 60% shopping centre most of them are ceiling mounted .Sand
bucket present only few of the shopping center. We observed the use of fire fighting system of
Bashundhara City is best but in case of fire we find that almost all are inactive, which raised a
questioned that what is the situation of maintenance of all other cases.
Figure 13: Fire Fighting Equipments
4 OVERALL FINDINGS
From the overall analysis, it is very clear that Risk of fire and fire fighting system is not
properly addressed in our country.So that means of escape is not properly work in almost all
cases.Besides this, fire fighting equipments found more or less in almost all building.But they
are not maintained properly. Bashundhara City shopping Mall, which is in the best position of
almost all shopping center of Dhaka City regarding resign and presence ofenough fire fighting
equipment is observed in this building. Fire-fighters took more than six hours to bring the fire
under control, even though the building was said to be equipped with the most modern firefighting equipment. However, Fire in this tower raised a lot of questions about the
maintenance of the building.Besides these, a lack of proper monitoring of safety precautions in
high-rise structures, as well as the fire-fighting capabilities of the Fire Brigade in our country is
also observed in this case. Lack of proper equipment and lack of exposure to latest training
methods of the Brigade are now being discussed at many quarters.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
RECOMMENDATIONS
Today the shopping centers in Dhaka city are facing the dire need for appropriate fire
safety measures, fulfillment of which may not be completely achieved at a time but
gradual application of solutions may be possible.In light of the tremendous progress and
advancement made in the UK and other developed countries with respect to fire
prevention and control in a shopping centre, the formulation of a design criteria for
Bangladesh may included the following aspects:
Escape Route:
 Generally the larger a building will be the more number of accesses should be
provided all around it, to ensure immediate escape and enable fire services to fight
fire within a dense surrounding.
 The routes should be sufficiently protected from fire and Check that escape routes are
not blocked by storing combustible materials.
 Check that escape routes are clearly indicated by exit signs.
 All escapes should have sufficient artificial and emergency lighting.
Stair and Lift Lobby: With regard to fire safety design of staircases following measures
should be consider:
 Stair should have a direct link with ground level and should not leads to basement.
 Basement should have at least two stairs, unless they are very small.
 Although artificial lighting is a necessity in shopping centers, daylight should be
ensured at least staircases.

Spiral stairs in shopping centers, where large mixed gathering are expected, should be avoided.

The staircase and the lift core, while considered as means of escape, should be
compartmentalized with fire resisting materials. and should be at clearly visible location.
 For multi-storey premises, staircases should not be more than 61 m apart and the
route to an alternative protected staircase and exit must not pass through the
enclosure of another.
 Stair should follow the standard (tread + riser = 17 in minimum).
 Landings should follow the standard (1.5 x stair width) practice.
 External staircases should not be suggested for escape, as they would become
hazardous, in the rainy season.
Fire Fighting Equipment:
 It is essential that fire detection and fire warning systems should be properly
designed, installed, and maintained.
 Routine checks of firefighting equipment should be carried out.
 The fire-warning signal should be distinct from other signals, which may be
accompanied by clear verbal instructions. It must be familiar with the shopkeeper.
 All the shopkeepers and security guards should be involved in regular fire drills at
least once a year, and they should be trained in the use of fire fighting appliances.
Other Consideration
 At the planning stage, sufficient foresight is needed regarding site selection.
 Within the shopping centers loading and unloading docks should be designed so as to
facilitate smooth running of the different operations
 Setback rules should be implemented and to implement it, effective legislation and
means to enforce them should be developed.

Regular supply of water is must, in public buildings, to facilitate early fire fighting activities.
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)



ISSN 2305-915X
Most of the incidents in shopping centers result from short-circuit and unsafe wiring.
Therefore, proper wiring as well as regular and continued supply of electricity should
be ensured in shopping centers.
Basically traffic congestion is a function of land use, so the mushroom growth of
shopping centers should be controlled under a comprehensive and integrated land
use transportation planning in the context of total environmental impact assessment.
Fire Brigade of our country should need the exposure of latest training methods and
should be well-equipped with proper equipment and facilities.
5 CONCLUSION
Now it is very urgent to make our people aware about fire hazard. To meet the current
challenge, it is high time that government officials and all the concerned authorities take
appropriate measures to ensure adequate safety for people at high-rise shopping center.
There is a need to develop consciousness among owners, architects, engineers and users
that, there is genuine because for concern about the prevailing situation in legislation
regarding fire prevention. Rules should be enacted to enforce design and administrative
actions for fire prevention, precaution and control in different building types, including
shopping centers. Our Building Codes should address the fire hazard in a more specified
form and it is necessary to integrate code requirements with other design strategies to
achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Ahmed, N., 1992, Industrial Architecture for Developing Countries. New Delhi: Vikash
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Amernic,J., 2008, Fire Safety Disaster, Canadian Health Care Facilities, vol 28(3), ed.
Ammie Silverdood.
Archive.the dailystar.net/new design
Butcher, E.G. and Purnell, A.C. 1983, Designing for Fire Safety. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Extinguisher Service-GWF Services, source: http://gesservices.com/extinguisher_
serv.htm[ accessed on 24.01.2014]
Fire Doors Bristol:Complete Fire Security. Source: http://firealarmsinbristol.com/firedoors/4560544036[ accessed on 24.01.2014]
Hossain, N., 1995, Establishment of Design Criteria for Fire Safe Shopping Centres in
Dhaka City. Unpublished M.Arch Dissertation.
Mahfuz,M., 2013, Safety Layout Plan of a Ready-made Garments Factory, Textile Learner, Dept
of
Textile
Engineering,
World
University,
source:
http://textile
learner.
blogspot.com/2013/07/safety-layout-plan-ready-made-garments[accessed on 25.01.2014]
Sharif,A., 2009, Fire on Bashundhara City:A crude Awakening, March 13, source:
http://www.demotrix.com/news/ fire- bashundhara-citycrude-awakening[ accessed
on 24.01.2014]
Sinnot, R., 1985, Safety and Security in Building Design. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company.
Asian Business Consortium is an independent research house committed to
publishing and delivering superior,
--- 0 ---Peer-reviewed standard research
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Electric Properties of Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA)Polyol and Prepared Sulfonated Phenolformaldehyde Resin (SPF) Bulk Samples Composite
Thamir Salman Bachari
Polymer Research Centre, Material Science Department, Basrah University, IRAQ
ABSTRACT
Poly vinyl acetate (PVA)/Polyol were blended by weight 3:1. This is mixed
with different percentages of prepared sulfonated-phenol formaldehyde
resin (SPF). The mixture was prepared on clean glass substrate as a bulk
films, at different thicknesses (0.1-0.18) cm. SPF was diagnosed by FTIR
spectrophotometer. The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the bulk
samples were measured at room temperature. These were investigated at
time of measurements. The electrical conductivity was investigated and
was calculated (10-7-10-5 to 0.239-1.623) S.cm-1.
Keywords: PVA, Polyol, SPF, Composite, FTIR spectroscopy, I-V
characteristics, Electrical conductivity.
INTRODUCTION
P
olymers materials in pure state are electrical insulators. However they are filled with
specific additives, such as metallic powders or metallic fibres, carbon black, ionic
conductive polymer And intrinsically conductive polymer powder[L. I. Soliman and
M. W. Sayad (2002)].
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is a thermoplastic polymer with chemical formula -( C4H6O2)-n. It
is normally manufactured by free radical polymerization of vinyl acetate.[Wikipedia
(2013)]. PVA is a synthetic resin polymer, which, due its non-polar nature, is insoluble in
water, oil, fats or gasoline. On the other hand, it is soluble in alcohols, ketones and
esters.[WISEGEEK, (2013)].
A polyol is alcohol containing multiple hydroxyl functional groups. This term means here
polymer chemistry, these are compounds available for organic reactions. A molecule with
two hydroxyl groups is a diol, one with three is triol and one with four is tetrol and so
on.[Wikipedia, (2013)].
Composite are engineering materials made from two or more constituents with
significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct
on macroscopic level with in the finished structure. One material (the matrix or binder)
surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibers or fragments of much stronger material
(the reinforcement). For the matrix many modern composites use thermosetting or
thermoplastic polymers.[Subita Bhagat, (2013)].
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Electric conductivity is one of the most delicate physical properties of polymer composites
due to the weakness of the current and size generally small of sample characterized. To a
clime a good accuracy measurements of current and voltage across the film, the surface
must be large compared with its thickness and high value of applied electric field, thus the
geometric shape of the sample almost feasibility of such process; specific preparation of
the sample with initial phase during which particular electrodes have to be used.[Bachir
Chikh-Bled, etal, (2012)]. Electrically conducting composites based on conducting particles
in non-conducting polymer matrix are now being in many practical applications. These
filled polymers have a number of advantages in term of absorbing the specific radiation,
improving thermal stability, enhancing electrical conductivities and reducing the cost and
easy processability to achieve conductivity.[V. S. sangawar, etal, (2006)]. These materials
are typically disorder structures consisting of randomly arranged conducting fillers
dispersed in polymer medium. Some of the earliest conducting composites were
formulated using carbon black or graphite as a filler.[Jamila. Vilcakova, etal, (2000)].
The type of the electric conductivity measurement reported in the literature usually
involves simple measurements of current as a function of time, temperature, ambient
atmosphere and potential. Attempts are then made to relate the conductivity to physical
processes thought to be occurring in the polymer. It is found that electrical conductivity
varies exponentially with temperature, is a function of time and may vary with electric
field.[M. Serin, etal, (2003)]. Polymeric materials either organic or inorganic are well
known insulating materials suitable for many industrial applications such as coating
adhesion, coverage, fiber etc. in spite of conflicts and difficulties associated with study of
the conduction mechanisms in polymeric materials, some fair results still describe gently
the charge carriers migration and its variation with temperature and voltage. Sometimes,
it is difficult to prove or disprove the expected conduction mechanism by direct analytical
measurements because of low currents implied. Hence, different measurement techniques
such as surface conductivity, dc conductivity, thermally stimulated dc current have been
employed for studying the relationship between their electrical properties and chemical
structure for several purposes such as the high temperature applications because of its
thermal and oxidative resistance and high glass transition temperature[Bachir Chikh-Bled,
etal, (2012)]. The potential of PVA/polyol blend and SPF mixtures as reinforced fillers
rather reflects a significant improvement by reinforcing filler. These significant properties
are expected to impart major enhancements in the electric properties of polymer
composites. The measured electrical properties gave a motivated considerable interest in
the development of polymer composite materials make now this field even more
competitive.[Lilian Bokobza (2012)].
Electrically conductive polymers are of great interest as a new class of materials in the
field of technology during last two decades, the effect of polymer blending on the
electrical conductivity of polymer composite films was investigated such as
polypyrrole/copolyester composite films and have studied intensively to improve
environmental stability and mechanical properties.[Doo Hyun, etal, (1998)]. Interaction
between SPF and PVA/polyol implies a strong interfacial bonding, while functional
properties of the composite greatly depend on the conductive structure of SPF.[You zeng,
etal, (2010)]. Sulfonated phenol-formaldehyde resin is prepared by the method which was
described in experiment. The preparation of PVA/Polyol and SPF polymer composite as
conductive polymer sample. Fundamental research‟s and potential applications in field of
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
conducting polymer composites, since the electrical conductivity of conjugated polymers
can be increased by many orders of magnitude.[Yun-Ze Long, etal, (2010)].
EXPERIMENT
1. PREPARATION OF SULFONATED PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN
42.5 moles of phenol was put in clean tri-neck round Flask 500 ml. in capacity, which was
emplaced in Isomental heater sort LabHeat BAECO, Germany. The side neck (B19) (mm.
inner diameter) of the round flask was closed by stop-fit thermometer and the other side
(B19) (mm. inner diameter) was closed by a condenser which is connected to water pump
emplaced in ice path, while a stirrer sort Heidolph, Germany is inserted in the middle
neck (B24) (mm. inner diameter), the system was run and the phenol was heated to
appropriate temperature to dissolve any solid bodies. The system was stopped and 4
moles of sulfuric acid 97% in concentration Thomas Baker India, was added slowly from
one side neck by using pipettes. The round flask was closed again as above and the system
was operated, while the stirrer was adjusted to appropriate speed and the temperature is
raised, which is maintained between 100-120 oC for two hours. The system was stopped
and the temperature was cooled slowly, then the round was emplaced in ice path, 12
moles of Formaldehyde Thomas Baker, India. Was added by using pipettes, a fizzing and
bubbling have occurred, the temperature is raised and stirring by hand was done using
glass rod and the temperature was cooled to 35 oC then below 22 oC. a stirring was
continued until a viscose solid mass is obtained. The product was left over night. The PH
was examined by using indicator paper which is colored red low PH. NaOH solution was
prepared in a separate flask and drops were added until over saturation is reached high
PH, a few drops were add of H2SO4 for equilibrium until PH=7 was reached. The solution
was removed in flask and the precipitate resin was put in a glass plate to be dried at room
temperature and the product was collected in plastic container. Fig.(1)., shows the setup of
instruments used.
Fig.(1). The setup of instruments used.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
2. FTIR TEST
Sample of sulfonated phenol-formaldehyde resin, was examined with KBR disc by Fourier
transform Infrared Instrument (FTIR) as in Fig.(2). The peaks at 1128.39 cm-1and 1175cm1correspounding to C-C-O asymmetric stretch and C-H in plane formulation respectively
while the 1000 cm-1 and 748.8 cm-1 peaks belonged to the C-H out of plane vibration. The
peak at 1506.37 cm-1 corresponded to the C=C aromatic ring vibration. The above
mentioned peaks diminished with increasing reaction time while the absorbance band of
hydroxyl groups have increased.[Ida Pojansek and Matgaz Krajnc (2005)].
Fig.(2). The FTIR spectroscopy of SPF
3. PREPARATION OF SAMPLES
Glass substrates were cleaned by rinse with distilled water then by acetone, again with
distilled water and dried in oven under vacuum for one hour. PVA-Polyol blend were
prepared by weight 3:1(high molecular weight and low molecular weight) using sensitive
electric balance sort Sartorius, Germany and was blended on the clean glass substrates by
hand using spatula. Percentages by weight of sulfonated phenol-formaldehyde resin (SPF)
were crushed using Pyrex mortar, were added and mixed by hand using spatula until the
required mixtures were obtained and to ensure uniform thicknesses. Two copper wires
were connected at both ends of bulk films. This is left to dry overnight. The thicknesses
and diameter of the electrode were measured using Capilar Certificate Vernier made in
China, and micrometer Starret, U.K. respectively, as in Table-1. The samples then
undergoing electrical measurements.
4. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
Measurements of current-voltage characteristics of the prepared samples were carried out
using the set up in Fig.(1)., consists of DC power supply sort, Lybold and Heros, U.K.
Amplifier, sort PHYWE, Germany which is connected to a pointer ammeter for low
current measurements, sort PHYWE, Germany. Digital voltmeter was used to measure
the voltage of the bulk samples. The electrical contact of the wires was made as electrode
configuration to reduce any effect of leakage current. The samples were put in side front
slide glass of wood box to prevent the effect of the environment. The schematic diagram of
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
the circuit is used for measurements as in Fig.(3). The current-voltage was measured at
applied electric field 13 volt DC. Table-2. Shows the I-V characteristics of the samples. The
equation which, was used for calculating the electrical conductivity from Table-2,.[Wikipedia (2013)]:
RA
ρ=
L
1
L
ρ
RΑ
𝜎= =
, where:
L: is the length of the bulk sample.
R: is the resistance of the sample.
A: is the effective area of the electrode of the sample A= п D2/4 as in Table-1-.
Fig.(3). The electrical measurements circuit
Table (1). Sample preparations of PVA-Polyol and SPF.
PVA/
Polyol gm.
0.533
0.533
0.533
0.533
0.533
0.533
percents
of SPF
5%
10%
15%
20%
30%
40%
thickness
cm.
0.13
0.10
0.17
0.10
0.17
0.18
Length
cm.
3.44
3.35
3.2
3.81
3.39
3.9
Width
cm.
1.83
1.84
1.59
1.69
1.85
1.24
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
effective
area cm2
0.237
0.184
0.270
0.169
0.314
0.223
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Tasble-2-. I-V characteristics of the prepared samples.
5% SPF
Vmv
42
41.8
43
44
44.9
44.9
44.9
46
46.6
45
45
45
46
45.6
45
44
44
44
44.1
44
44
44
InA
1.8
2
5.5
7
21
18
21
80
240
190
290
5000
9000
5000
4000
6900
7000
23000
15000
60000
50000
60000
10% SPF
Vmv
5.76
0.7
1.1
1.0
1.2
4.5
0.841
8
1.3
9.5
9.5
9.8
InA
0.09
0.45
0.8
0.5
0.8
6.5
50
8000
6000
6000
15000
40000
15% SPF
Vmv
150
69
57.1
102
68.5
82
66.1
60.2
68
81
71
73
67.7
60
61.6
55.5
60.8
146
22.4
29.4
30.4
18.9
31.4
31.2
InA
0.2
0.6
0.8
3
6
2
10
10
21
90
280
290
240
600
2000
1800
2500
8000
28000
29000
26000
30000
80000
90000
20% SPF
Vmv
7.1
5
5.9
6.69
6.1
6.2
5.9
4.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.1
6
6.5
6.7
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.2
6.5
6.9
5.9
5.9
5.8
6.3
7.1
6.8
7.1
7.5
6.0
6.2
7.6
7.8
7.7
7.6
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
InA
0.8
0.7
0.89
1.35
1.35
1.35
7
6
33
23
27
32
38
60
100
220
340
400
800
1000
2400
1400
30000
2800
2000
3000
8000
4000
13000
24000
30000
12000
50000
40000
80000
30% SPF
Vmv
1.1
0.6
0.1
0.3
3.5
0.1
1.2
0.7
3.8
10.2
10.2
5.6
1.2
4.3
3.6
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.4
3.2
0.2
0.2
1.1
0.4
1.1
0.2
2.7
1.9
1.7
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.2
InA
0.8
8
9
10
40
90
30
80
40
290
400
500
400
1100
900
2400
2900
2200
2900
8900
4700
4900
6900
10900
5900
4300
11500
12700
8900
11900
5300
23300
29300
25300
29300
30300
40% SPF
Vmv
0.2
0.1
0.1
51.1
34.8
60
50
48.4
48.5
48.4
48.5
48.6
48.6
48.7
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.3
48.3
48.2
48.1
48
47.9
InA
0.9
0.7
2.9
6
8
91
50
185
190
220
250
300
900
800
2800
2900
3000
12000
13000
13000
30000
100000
100000
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The shapes of plots obtained from Table-2-. The I-V characteristics depends on applied
field the linearity of the graph obtained in which some of the points were shifted from the
straight line for the bulk sample of PVA-polyol with 5% SPF in time of measurements 58
min. as shown in Fig.(4). There is sudden increase in current at voltage 44 mv. Conduction
is predominantly achieved through the sample with 5% SPF and was controlled. Because
of the instability of low current passes through the sample by the resistance of film against
the current which passes through under certain applied field. [Jamila Vilcakova, etal
(2000)] work on polyester resin filled with different contents of carbon fibres (0-10wt%) for
measurement of DC conductivity depend strongly on filler content. As SPF increased to
10%, the linearity of the graph was rather instable but shows points become more close to
the straight line obtained between the current and voltage as shown in Fig.(5)., the system
needs to overcome the resistance so that increase the transferred electron and the current
is low even with high electric voltage. With SPF 15%, the current passes through the
sample was affected by weak Van der Waals interaction so there is no decrease in stability
in the composite.[J. N. Coleman (1998], The electrical conduction depends on the shape
geometry and structure of the composite which reflects the graph linearity of current
density dependent on the electric field.[D. D. Chung, (2001)], At the beginning of the
measurements and the current increased rapidly with time after 42 minutes, the
experiment controlled by the source measurement unit allowing the measurement of the
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
currents in nA to µA range as in shown Fig.(6). In agreement with work of [Jamila
Vilcakova, etal, (2000)]. The current passes through the sample become rather instable at
20% SPF and increased with time of measurements 55 min. in the range indicated from
which a straight line was obtained with voltage across the sample as shown in Fig.(7). In
the investigation of carbon nanotubes asa dopant material. A semiconjugated, organic
polymer was mixed with carbon nanotubes to form a wholly organic composite. This
behavior is indicative of percolative character in composite systems. Percolation theory
deals with the effect of varying, in random system, the interconnections in this case are the
highly conductive polymer composite.[J. N. Coleman (1998)].
Increased current with time of measurement 47 min. with SPF 30% by weight of sample
and thickness of the bulk film was 0.17 cm. gave a significant dependant of linear graph
obtained on film thickness. At critical concentration of SPF, beyond which the polymer
composite becomes conductive is referred to as the percolation threshold at this point the
conductive network is formed through composite constituents. This permits the
movement of charge carriers in the SPF through the polymer composite constituents, and
so the composite achieves a certain degree of electrical conductivity as shown in Fig.(8).
The investigation of composite formation from low to high nanotubes concentration
increases the conductivity dramatically by ten orders of magnitude indicative of
percolative threshold [J. N. Coleman, (1998)].
Electric measurements of polymeric composites, these materials are typically disordered
structures consisting randomly arranged filler dispersed in polymer medium.[Jamila
Vilcakova, etal, (2000)]. Fig.(9). Shows that the prepared SPF was increased to 40% by weight,
which is more convenient of current and voltage measurements across the bulk sample. The
current was increased with increasing voltage at time 72 min. The thickness of the sample was
increased to 0.18 cm. also reflects linear dependencies of the graph.[Torbio f. Otero and Joes G.
Mrtines, (2010)] they have shown in their work on oxidation rates of polypyrrole films on clean
platinum electrodes, electron transfer decrease very fast for increasing film thicknesses.
Due to the effects SPF on PVA-Polyol molecular structures on their electrical conductivity,
this is increased with increasing SPF. In the work on nanotube filled elastomers, the
processing conditions have strongly effect on composite properties especially on electrical
properties. The use of nanoscale conducting filler such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has
proven to be effective reducing the filler content required to achieve the electrical
percolation threshold. [Lilian Bokobza, (2012)]. Above certain amount of conductive
particle, called the percolation threshold, an interconnecting filler network formed. This is
result in the sharp drop of the electrical resistance of the composites.
According to shape geometry of the bulk samples, the current density passes through the samples
were plotted as a function of applied field strength. Polymer composite are intensively studied for
the new properties which are given by the combination of the properties of both polymer matrix
(SPF) and binds together a cluster or fragments of a much stronger material (the reinforcement)
respectively. When the concentration of the binds in the composite reaches the percolation value,
the continues bulk network structure is formed. If (SPF) binder becomes electrically conductive
the composite properties can change from insulator to conductive ones. The investigation on
PVC-NI system has showed the dependence of electric conductivity on filler content. Electrical
conductivity can change in the magnitude of the several orders. [Ye. P. Mamunya, etal, (2002)].
From Table-2-, the calculated electrical conductivities from the reciprocal of the resistivity were
increased by many orders of magnitude from 10-7-10-5 to 0.239-1.623 S.cm-1. Values have been
given of electrical conductivity of conjugated polymers can be increased by many orders of
magnitude from 10-10-10-5 to 103-105 S/cm upon doping, such as carbon nanotubes, inorganic
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
semi-conducting nanotubes/wires, and conjugated polymer nanotubes/wires.[Yun-Ze Long etal
(2010)]. The dependence of conductivity on (SPF) shows sharp rise (percolation threshold).[Subita
Bhagat, (2013), Jan Lptack, etal (2010)]. The electrical conductivity is a sensitive probe of
composite, the percolation behavior in the electrical conductivity of composite at relatively
loading percentages of SPF (5 and 10)wt%. in the work on carbon nanotubes (CNTs)-polymer
composite. The high aspects ratio is known to be advantageous in making a percolation net work
at relatively small loading percentages (of order 1wt%).[E. S. Choi, etal, (2003)].
CONCLUSIONS
The investigation was carried out in order to evaluate the electrical properties of PVA-polyol
with SPF mixtures. On the basis of obtained results the following conclusions were drawn:
 The effect of SPF on polymer blending PVA-Polyol was investigated. Improved
electrical conductivity approached with increasing SPF% by weight. There is jump in
current rather than electron transfer.
 Dry SPF can influence the resulting structure in the composite by the effect of the
polymer and the SPF network formation is van der Waals interaction between SPF
surrounds and binds.
 Thicknesses of bulk samples were given a significant dependant of linear graphs
obtained on samples thicknesses rather than the voltage across the sample.
 Effect of external field-electrical, when applied SPF particles agglomerations preferred
in the direction of the electric field force lines results to the SPF chains.
 Conductive polymers have many advantages over metallic conductors; they can be
easily shaped with low cost technologies: they have light weight; they provide
corrosion resistance and they can offer wide range of electrical conductivities.
 At critical concentration of SPF, conductivity around percolation threshold is formed
through the polymer composite.
 The increase of SPF wt% will alter the dependencies of current passing through the
bulk samples on the voltage, due its effect on PVA-Polyol molecular structures on
their electrical conductivity.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Bachir Chikh-Bled, Boumediene Benyoucef And Michel Aillerie, (2012), Experimental
Measurements of Electric Conductivity and Activation Energy in Congruent Lithium
Niobate Crystal. Journal of Active and Passive Electronics Devices, 7, pp 261-270.
D. D. Chung, (2001),Thermal analysis by Electrical Resistivity Measurements. Journal of
Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Vol. 65, pp. 155-165.
Doo Hyun Baik, Gil Lae Kim, Yun Heum Park, Youngkwan Lee and Youngkeun Son,
(1998), Effect of Polymer Blending on the Electrical Conductivity of
Polypyrrole/Copolyeste Composite Films. Polymer Bulletin 41, pp. 713-719.
E. S. Choi, J. S. Brook, D. L. Eaton, M. S. Al-Haik, M. Y. Hussaini, H. Garmestani, D. LI
and K. Dahmen, (2003), Enhancement of Thermal and Electrical properties of Carbon
Nanotube Polymer Composite by Magnetic Field Processing. Journal of Applied Physics,
Volume 94, Number 9, pp.6034-6039.
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from Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. (2013), Sheet Resistance.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
[8]
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Ida Poljansek and Matjaz Krajnc, (2005), Characterization of Phenol-Formaldehyde
Prepolymer Resins by Line FT-IR Spectroscopy. Acta ChimSlov, 52, pp. 238-244.
Jamila Vilcakova, Petr Saha, Vojtech Kresalek, and Otakar Quadrat, (2000), Preexponential factor and Activation Energy of Electrical Conductivity in Polyester
resin/carbon fibre c omposites. Synthetic Metals 113, pp. 83-87.
Jan Liptak, Josef Sedlacek, Ivana Pilarcikova and Vaclav Bouda, (2010), Electrical
Properties of Polymer-Carbon Black Composites Prepared From Solution. Nanocon.
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J. N. Coleman, S. Curran, A. B. Dalton, A. P. Davey, B. McCarthy, W. Blau and R. C.
Barklie. (1998), Percolation-Dominated Conductivity in a Conjugated-Polymer-CarbonNanotube Composite. Physical Review B. Volume 58, Number 12. R74932-R7495.
L. I. Soliman and W. M. Sayed, (2002), Some Physical properties of Vinylpyridine
Carbon-Black Composites. Egypt. J. Sol., Vol. (25), No. (1), pp103-113.
Liliane Bokobza (2012), Enhance Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Multiwall
Carbon Nanotubes Rubber Composites. Polymer Advanced Technologies. Published
Online in Wiley online Library.
M. Serin, O. Cankurtaran and F. Yilmaz, (2003), Electric Conductivity Measurements in
The Range of temperature Induced Conformational Transitions In Undoped and Doped
Glassy Poly(Phenl Sulfone). Journal of Optoelectronics and Advanced Matrials Vol. 5,
No. 3. P.569-573.
Subita Bhagat, (2013), Analysis of Thermal Behavior of Graphite Flakes Filled Epoxy
Composites, Indian Journal of Applied Research, Volume: 3, Issue: 2, pp.350-351.
Toribio F. Otero. And Joes G. Martinez, (2010), Activation energy for Polypyrrol
Oxidation: Film Thickness Influence.
V. S. Sangawar, P. S. Chikhalikar, R.J. Dhokne, A. U. Ubale and S. D. Meshram (2006),
Thermally Stimulated Discharge Conductivity in Polymer Composite Thin Films, Bull.
Mater. Sci., Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 413-416.
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conductivity of Polymers Filled with Metal Powders, Elsevier Science Ltd. European
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Cheng, (2010). Increasing the Electrical Conductivity of carbon Nanotube/polymer
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Liu and Simon P. Ringer, (2010), A Review on Electronic Transport Properties of
Individual Conducting Polymer Nanotubes and Nanowires. Source: Nanowires and
Technology, Book edited By Nicoleta Lupu, pp. 402.
AJASE? www.ajase.weebly.com
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Publish Online and Print Version Both
High quality editorial board
Rigorous and rapid peer review
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Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
Studies on the Performanceof ITER90H-P
Fusion Reactor Considering the D-T and D-3He
Fuelin the Steady-state
S. N. Hosseinimotlagh1, S. Kianafraz2
1
Department of Physics, Shiraz branch Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, IRAN
Department of Physics, Payam Noor University of Mashhad, Mashhad, IRAN
2
ABSTRACT
In this work, the performance of fusion reactor ITER90H-P with
considering D–T and D-3He fuels areexamined by writing the dynamics
equations on thesystemreactor. Therefore, we solve these equations
analytically in thesteady state. In this state we determine the optimum
conditions
for
achieving
the
maximum
fusion
gain
.Inaddition,weignoretheimpurities because we need to high performance
points withoutimpurities. Our calculationsinthis papershow that we have
maximum fusion gain for D-T and D-3He fusion reactions in steady state at
resonance temperature Kev70 for D-T fusion reaction respectively .Their
maximum values of fusion gain are equal to 6.01for D-T fuel-and the
3
3
0.012 for D  He , respectively. Therefore, currently, using D  He as a
fusion fuel is not recommended.
Key words: steady, fusion gain, power, helium, tritium.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of fusion research is to utilize the energy source of the sun and stars here on earth:
A fusion power plant is to derive energy from fusion of atomic nuclei. Under terrestrial
conditions this can most readily be achieved with the two hydrogen isotopes,
deuterium and tritium. These fuse to form helium, thus releasing neutrons and large
quantities of energy: One game of fuel could yield in a power plant 90,000 kilowatthours of energy, i. e. the combustion heat derived from 11 tons of coal. The basic
substances needed for the fusion process, viz. deuterium and lithium, from which tritium
is produced in the power plant, are available throughout the world in almost inexhaustible
quantities. Like a coal fire, a fusion fire does not happen on its own, but only when the
appropriate ignition conditions are present. As regards the fuel – a low-density, ionized
gas, a ‚plasma‛ it needs an ignition temperature of 100 million degrees. This high
temperature precludes the plasma from being directly confined in material vessels. Any
wall contact occurring would immediately cool the hot gas. Instead, use is made of
magnetic fields, which confine the fuel as thermal insulation and keep it away from the
vessel walls. The principle of deriving energy in this way was first realized in the JET
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
(Joint European Torus) device at Culham, UK, the world’s largest fusion experiment
at present. It was jointly planned and built by Europe’s fusion scientists and has also
been jointly operated since 1983. All scientific and technical objectives specified in
the planning have meanwhile been attained or even exceeded. In 1997 a transient
fusion power of 16 megawatts was achieved. More than half the power needed to heat
the plasma was regained through fusion. However, the JET plasma with its volume
of 80 cubic meters is too small to provide a net energy gain. This will be the role of
the ITER (Latin for the ‚way‛) international experimental reactor. In its plasma
volume of about 830 cubic metres a fusion power of 500 megawatts is to be produced,
this being ten times as much as is needed to heat the plasma.
Humanincreasing needfor energyhas ledtosignificant progresses to be doneinachieving
thevaluesoftemperature, density andconfinementtimeand required parameters to builda
fusion power plant. One of themajor projectsin which scientists, designersandengineers
fromdifferent countriesare doing ,to design anuclear fusionreactor, is ITERtokomak.The
ITER project itself began at the Geneva Summit in 1985, with a device designed
to be capable of a steady-state, self-sustaining fusion reaction with a significant net
energy gain. ITER Conceptual Design Activities (CDA) began in 1988 and were completed
in 1990, carried out jointly by the U.S., E.U., Japan and Russia under the auspices of the
IAEA. Engineering Design Activities (EDA) commenced in 1992 and finished in 1998
resulting in a complete design.
Financial constraints demanded a reduced-cost
approach, though, and a second EDA period of 1999-2001 completed the current
ITER-FEAT (Fusion Energy Amplifier Tokamak) design (Figure 1).
Figure 1: The ITER-FEAT device and major components[9,10,11]
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
With these improvements, it is hoped that ITER will also allow for the possibility
of reaching a more important goal, one that will be essential for a fusion power plant.
For a deuterium-tritium plasma, once heating of alpha particles (the Helium nuclei
product of fusion), not by external input but by the fusion process itself, is equal to the
heat loss through the vessel walls and diverter, the plasma becomes self-sustaining
and is said to be ignited, or burning. External heating can be turned off, and the
plasma will continue to exist and induce fusion. With no heating (energy input), the Q
factor ratio tends to infinity and the fusion process is controlled in steady state only by the
fuelling rate to the torus.
In order tonuclear fusionreactoriseconomicallyaffordable , thesystem must stay for a long
time in the burning plasma steady-state with performance points athighQ .HereQisthe
ratio ofauxiliary power to fusion power which is calledfusion. Thus, in this paper,
underthese conditions we will have study on the behaviorofITER 90 HP fusionreactor in
the steady- state fortwo fusion fuel such as D - T and D  3He with taking into account
thesystemtemperature variations. Finally, wedetermine the required conditionsto
achievehighfusion gain. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in section 2,
Reactivity parameter for D-T and D  3He fusion reactions is presented.in section
3,Nonlinear point Kineticequationsgoverning on the ITER 90 HP fusion reactor ITER 90
HP for the D - T and D  3He fuel are stated, and these equations are solved analytically.
Section 4 is concerned with these equations are solved analytically .Section 5 discusses
the results of the Calculation andcomparison of required parameters forstudy of ITER90Hpfusion reactoratsteady stateforbothfuel D T and D  3He Finally, section 6 contains
some conclusions concerning this work and further extensions and research suggested
in this direction.
Table 1: ITER machine parameters[1,2,6].
SYMBOL
I
R
A
B
𝑘𝑥
𝑘𝛼
𝑘𝐷𝑇
𝑘𝐼
𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥
V
QUANTITY
Plasma Current
Minor Radius
Major Radius
Magnetic Field
Elongation at X
Alpha particle confinement Cte
DT particle confinement Cte
Impurity particle confinement Cte
Beta limit
Plasma volume
VALUE
22.0MA
2.15m
6.0m
4.85T
2.2
7
3
10
2.5I/aB=5.3%
1100m^3
3
REACTIVITY PARAMETER FOR D – T AND D  He FUSION REACTIONS
This paper , presents a strategy for the development of D  He fusion for terrestrial and
space power .the approach relies on modest plasma confinement progress in alternate
fusion concepts and on the relatively less challenging engineering, environmental and
safety features of a D  3He fueled fusion reactor compared to a D - T fueled fusion
reactor. The D  3He benefits include full-lifetime materials reduced radiation damage,
3
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
less activation, absence of tritium breeding blankets, highly efficient direct energy
conversion, easier maintenance and proliferation resistance. The main fusion fuels are :
D + T  4He + n + 17.6 MeV
D + 3He  4He + p + 18.4 MeV
Also another important parameter is reactivity of D - Tand D  3He which depends on the
temperature.
a) Bucky Reactivity is temperature dependent (T (keV)) and isgiven by:
 a

v DT  exp  1r  a2  a3T  a4T 2  a5T 3  a6T 4  (1)
T

Here
a i and
r are given in the Table 2.
r parameters for D - Tand D  3He fusion
reactions using Bucky formula.[3]
D-3HE
DT
1
2.1377692×10
2.7764468×101
1
2.5204050×10
3.1023898×101
−2
7.1013427×10
2.7889999×10−2
1.937545×10−4
5.5321633×10−4
−6
4.9246592×10
3.0293927×10−6
−8
3.9836572×10
2.5233325×10−8
0.2935
0.3597
Table 2: Numerical values of
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
a6
R
a i and
b) Bosch-Halereactivity is given by the following formula

  C 1 e 3
(2)
2
3
m C
r
T

 ،  and B G are:
B2 
  G 
 4 

T
1
3
(3)

T C 2 T C 4 TC 6   
1 

1
T C 3 T C 5 TC 7   

BG   Z 1Z 2
2m r c 2
Theconstants values of
C 1 to C 7
(4)
(5)
in theseequations for different fusion reactions are
given.inTable(3) .
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
Table(3): The constants values of
ISSN 2305-915X
C 1 to C 7 for different fusion reactions[4]
C1
DT
1.17E-09
DDN
5.43E-12
DDP
5.66E-12
D3HE
5.51E-10
C2
1.51E-02
5.86E-03
3.41E-03
6.42E-03
C3
7.52E-02
7.68E-03
1.99E-03
-2.03E-03
C4
4.61E-03
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
-1.91E-05
C5
1.35E-02
-2.96E-06
1.05E-05
1.36E-04
C6
-1.07E-04
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
C7
1.37E-05
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
2
1124656
937814
937814
1124572
m rc
 keV 
According to theabove equations and the data in Tables(2) and (3) we plotted the
versus temperature for the fusion reaction of D – T and D
Bosch-Hale formulae.

v
3
He for both of Bucky and
Figure2: Comparison of the graphs of fusion reactions reactivity variations for a) D - Tand
b) D
 3He

D 3He .B
versus temperature by the two methods, Bucky
(cm 3.s 1 ) and Bosch-Hale ( 
DT .B H
(cm 3.s 1 ) 

DT .B
D 3He .B H
(cm 3.s 1 ) ،
(cm 3.s 1 )
As shown in Figure2-a , the reactivity of D – T fusion reaction is greater than
D  3He .
Because < 𝜎𝑣 >DT at 70 kev temperature has a maximum value thus 70 kev is temperature
resonance.the value of D – T reactivity at this temperature approximately 10 times is
greater than D  3He .By viewing the obtained numerical values and Figure2-b we find
that the difference between the two ways of calculating reactivity is minimal and since that
the method of Bucky is newer than Bosch-Halein our calculations we use this.
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
NONLINEAR POINT KINETIC EQUATIONS GOVERNING ON THE ITER 90 HP FUSION
3
REACTOR ITER 90 HP FOR THE D - T AND D  He FUEL
Inthiswork, wehave used fusionreactor in which approximately particle energy
balanceequationsfor two D - T and D  He fuel are given by:
a)Nonlinear point Kineticequationsgoverning on the D – T fuel
3
dn α n α
n

 ( DT )2  v  DT
dt
τ
2
dn DT n DT
n
n

 2 ( DT )2  v  DT  n
dt
τ DT
2
τd
dn n
n n

s
dt
τd
dn I
n I

 sI
dt
τI
dE E

 P  Pohmic  Prad  Paux
dt
τE
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
b) Nonlinear point Kinetic equations governing on the D  3He fuel
n 3
dn α
n α

 ( D He )2  v D 3He
dt
τα
2
dn D 3 He
dt

n D 3 He
τ D 3 He
 2(
n D 3 He
)2  v D 3He 
2
(11)
nn
τd
(12)
dn n n n

s
dt
τd
(13)
dn I n I

 sI
dt
τI
(14)
dE E

 P  Pohmic  Prad  Paux
dt τ E
In these equations, nI ‫ و‬nn ,
n D 3 He , nDT , nα
(15)
are the alpha particle, deuterium-tritium,
deuterium-helium3,and the neutral fuel (defined as the number of fuel atoms divided by
the core volume) and impurity densities, respectively.   is the confinement time for the
alpha particles, S is the refueling rate , τDT ,
fuel particles of D , T and
3
He , D
τD 3 He are the confinement time for ionized
, respectively.τd is the controller lag time ,E is the
plasma energy,τE is the energy confinement time,τI is the confinement time for the
impurities,SI is the impurity injection rate, Q ∝ = 3.52MeV is the energy of the alpha
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
P , Paux , Prad ,Pohmic , Pi and Pfu are
particles.
ISSN 2305-915X
the alpha power, auxiliary power ,
Ohmic power, radiation loss, the net plasma heating power and fusion power
,respectively that are given for D – T and
D  3He
fuels in the following:[5]
n DT 2
)  v DT Q DT (16  a )
2
n 3
 ( D He ) 2  v  D 3He Q D 3He (16  b )
2
PDT  (
PD 3He
PauxDT

  n DT 
 2 
E
E
2
v
DT
Pohmic  AbDT  n DT
 2n  
2E DT
3N DT
(17  a )
 nDT  4n 
PauxD 3He
2
n

   D 3He  v
E  2 
E
Pohmic  AbD
n
D 3He
 4 n
Q DT
3
He

n
D 3He
D 3He
Q D
3
He

 2n  
Ei , N i
2E D 3He
3N D 3He
are the total energy and
(17  b )
(i  DT , D 3He ) :
density for
3
2
E DT  N DT T
(18  a )
3
E D 3He  N D 3HeT
2
(18  b )
and
N DT  2nDT  3n DT  (Z I  1)nI
N D 3He  2nD 3He  3n D
3
He
(19  a)
 (Z I  1)n I
(19  b )
PradDT  A  Z effDT ne2 T (20  a)
PradD He  A  Z effD He ne2 T (20  b )
bDT
3
bD 3He
3
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
ISSN 2305-915X
where
 Wm 3 
 (21  a )
 keV 
3

37  Wm
 5.35 10 
 (21  b )
 keV 
AbDT  4.85 1037 
AbD
3
He
The effective charge ( Z eff )and electron density(
i
Z effDT 
Z effD 3He
n DT  4n DT
(22  a )
n DT  2n DT
n 3  4n D 3He
 D He
(22  b )
n D 3He  2n D 3He
nei ) for D – T and D  3He
are:
neDT  nDT  2nαDT  ZIn I (23  a)
neD He  n D He  2nαD He  ZIn I (23  b )
3
3
3
Where ZI Is the atomic number of impurities.
PohmicDT  ηDT j2 (24  a)
PohmicD 3 He  ηD 3He j2
(24  b )
j is the plasma current density and n is electron density such that


5 105  j  mA   1.5 106 and 0  ne m 3  14 1019
which for D – T and
D  3He
DT  1.03 104 T
3
2
D
He
3


 ln 


 Z effDT
 1.0310 T
T
3.14  z effD
3
2 Z
(25  a )
effD 3He
3
2
3
He e  n
3
η is the Spitzer resistivity in
we have:[7,8]
3


2
T


 ln 
3

 3.14  z effDT  e  n 


4
.





(25  b )
Here T and e are the electron temperature and charge such that :
e  1.6 1019 C 
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
Pi  P  Prad  P aux Pohmic
i
i
i
ISSN 2305-915X
(26)
i
Where i=DT,D3He. and
PfuDT
n 
 DT
PfuD 3 He 

2
4
 σv DT QDT
n D 3 He

(27)
2
4
 σv D 3He QD 3He (28)
Also,the gain (Q)ofthistype of reactorfor theD - Tand D
the following:
PfuDT
PauxDT
P
QD 3He  fuD 3He
PauxD 3He
QDT 
3 He reactionsD - Tare given in
(29)
(30)
Also from the plotting of equations (24-a) to (25-b) )we have two-dimensionalandthreedimensionalgraphs of resistivity and Ohmic power variations for ITER 90 HP fusion
reactor in terms of electron density and temperature for D – T and D  3He in the
temperature interval 0-100 kev.(see figures (3) and (4)).
Figure3: Comparison of two-dimensionalresistivitycurvesof twofuels a) D T b) D 3 He at three
temperaturesT = 10 keV, T = 70 keVandT = 100 keVin terms of electron density variations.
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a)
b)
Figure 4: Comparison of two-dimensionaldiagramsoftheOhmicpower for two fuel a)D-T
b) D 3 He at threedifferentcurrent density, j  0.5 106 ( A ) ، j  1106 ( A ) and
2
2
m
j  1.5 10 (
6
A
m2
m
in terms of the electron densityvariations.
)
From viewing oftwo-and three-dimensional graphs of resistivity and Ohmicpowerfor both
D T and D  3He fuelwe findthatbothresistivity ( ) andOhmicpower (Pohmic ) decrease by
increasing of electron density ateach temperature but increase by
decreasingtemperature.Energyconfinementtimeof the reactor ITER90H-P is given by:[2]
τE = f 0.082 I1.02 R1.6 B 0.15 Ai 0.5 k X −0.19 p−0.47 (31)
Where the isotopic number for 50:50 D-T mixture percentage is 2.5. The factor scale f
depends on the confinement situation. I ، R ، Band Pare plasmacurrent, plasmaradius,
toroidal plasma field and net plasmaheating respectively, in which its numerical values
are given in Table(4) .
Table(4): Numerical values of ITER90H-P fusion reactor[6]
f
0.425
B Tesla 
4.85
I  mA 
22
Ai
2.5
R m 
6
75
P  MW 
kX
75
Confinement times in terms of different values are scaled with energy confinement time τE
as τd = k d τE ,τα = k α τE ,τDT = k DT τE and τ 3  k 3 τ
D He
D He E .
Inaddition, inourcalculations we ignore of impurities because we interested to free
conditions of impurities.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Note that , the values ofvariables in which obtain inthe steady-state for fusion reactor
ITER90H-p are shown withalineabove them.So,thenumerical valuesof thesevariables
n In
Paux
nD
n
3
He
,nand
‫ و‬energy state variable E atrefueling
DT,n, α
S
and auxiliary power
at steady state from solving of nonlinear point kineticequationscan be calculate with
the inserting leftsidenon-linearequations(6) to (15) equaltozero. Our obtained figures are
given in the following for both D T and D  3He fuel at steady-state in temperature
range 0 to 100kev. It should be noted that the two parameters  and  used indrawing
d
the graphs are considered constantand its numerical values are k  3 and k   7
d
a)
b)
Figure 5: Comparison of variations of neutral fueldensity, a)deuterium and tritium and alpha
particles of D T b) deuterium and Helium and alpha particles of D  3He in the steady state at
temperature range of 0 to100 Kev.
From Fig.5 we see that particledensity of D and T is declining becausedue to nuclear
fusion of D – T, D and T particles are consumed and its amount are decreased.
Thensystemgo toward relativeequilibrium and the value of densities could beafixed
amount. Density of thealpha particlesis increasingbecausedue to D - T fusion reaction
alpha particlesare produced thus the value of themamountincreases. Then since that they
mayhaveescaped from system thus the value of them are reduced and then
sincethesystemgoestoward to arelative equilibrium the numerical values of densities could
beafixed amount. Neutralparticledensity ofthe fuelis injectedat a constant rate
7 1019 m 3 atalltemperatures. Also, for the D  3He reaction in temperature rangeof 0


to100kev,we see that alpha particle density, at first is increasing because as shown in
Figure(2) to a temperature of60 (keV),  3 and therefore number offusion reactions
D He
increase.
As
the
temperature
increases

D 3He
andthus
number
of
fusion
reactionsdecrease.therefore alpha particledensityisdecreased. Initially theparticledensity of
D and 3He decrease because according of Figure(2) till temperature 70 (keV),  3
D He
and thus number of fusion reactions increase therefore more fuel is consumed. Therefore,
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3
theparticledensity of D and He is reducedwhoseits decreasing processes in this
temperature range is perfectly obvious. Then in thetemperature range70 to100 (keV),

D 3He
D  3He
and thus number of fusion reactions of
are reduced. Therefore
low D  He fuel is consumed ,thereforegradually is increased. Neutralparticledensity
ofthe fuelis injectedat a constant rateatalltemperatures. Since that the magnitude of
neutraldensity versus temperature is order of 6.981017 m 3 therefore in comparison
3

19
with thealpha particle ,D, and T densities ( 10
m  )
3

is very low, that can be seen in the
Figure(5).Also Figure (6) shows variations of energy density in terms of temperature for
bothfuel
D T
and D  3He atsteady state.
a)
Figure 6: Energy density variations of a) D
b)
T
and b) D
 3He
c) comparison of
D T
and
D  He inthe steady-stateat the temperature range0 to100 Kev.
3
From Figure 6 for D T and D  3He fuel we observe that initially the energy density of
these fuel increases with increasing temperatureuntilthetemperaturereachestheresonance
and then graduallyreduced.Its reason is that with increasing temperature number
offusionincreases and thusmore energyis produced such that in 70KeV which known as
resonance temperature of D T fusion reaction we have maximum energy. Then with
increasing temperature, 
is reduced. Therefore, the number of fusion reactions are
DT
reduced and thus energy is decreased. The sametrendcan be seenfor the D  3He reaction
except that since 50KeV is the resonance temperature of D  3He .Therefore, at the
resonance temperatureof D  3He fusionreaction we will havethe maximum energy. With
having the values of n DT , n , n n , n
, n 3 , n n 3 and ignoring of impurities and
D He
DT
DT
3
D He
D He
using equations (17)to (20) ,(22)and (26) to (30) respectively ,quantities of auxiliary power (
Paux ),total
energy density ( E ),total density( N ),radiative power loss ( Prad ),effective
charge of all ions ( Z ),net power heating ( P ),fusion power( P ),and fusion gain(Q )of
i
fu
eff
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fuel D T and D  He are calculatedin terms of temperature variations andtheir
curves are given in theFigure(7) to (15).
3
a)
Figure 7: auxiliary power ofa) D
of 0 to100 (keV)
b)
T
and b) D  He at the steady stateinthe temperature range
3
According to Fig.7 can be concluded that auxiliary power of D-T fuel initially is reduced
and the temperature about12(keV ) is minimized then with increasing temperature is
increased and at the 100(keV ) temperature is maximized. For D  3He this power is
maximized at low temperatures then by increasing temperature auxiliary power is
reduced and the temperature near 20(keV ) is minimized and then by adding to
temperature 100(keV ) gradually grows .
Figure 8: Comparison ofthe total energyoftheD-T and
temperature rangeof 0 to100 (keV).
D 3 He fuelin
thesteadystate and
According to the figure 8 we can find that the total energyof bothD-Tand D 3 He fuel
with increasingtemperature has increasedlinearly. Becauseaccording toequations(18 -a),
and (18 -b) thetotal energy, directlyproportional totemperature(T).Since from figure9we
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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can see the total densitiesof N
and N 3
are nearly equal therefore according to
DT
D He
therelations(18 -a), and (18 -b), we can conclude thatthe totalenergy E
and E 3 will be
DT
D He
the same.
Figure 9: Comparison of total density of theD-T and D 3 He fuelin thesteadystate and temperature
rangeof 0 to100 (keV).
According to Figure9 can be seen that the total density of the fuel D - T and D 3 He
similar trends with temperature variations and with temperature increasing, their values
rapidly increase and then reach to a constant value also from 80 (keV) to 100 kev grows
gradually but at all temperatures, the density of D 3 He is greater than D – T. This
behavior is due to the kinetic equations governing the system and the shape of equations
(20-a) and (20-b).
Figure 10: Comparisonof theradiativelosspowerfor both fuel of D – T and
at temperature interval 0 to100 (keV)
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D 3 He in steady state
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Accordingto figure 10can be found that radiative power loss of both fuel D - Tand
D 3 He with temperature increasing, grows. Because, as the temperature increases, the
ions of the plasma, obtain more energy and thus these power increase. Also wecan see that
radiative power loss of D 3 He variations at all temperature range is greater than D – T.
Figure 11: Comparison of effective charge of all ions for both D-T and
state and temperature range of 0 to100 (keV).
D 3 He fuelin the steady
According to figure 11 can be found that effective charge of all ions for D – T with increasing of
temperature increase and its maximum value is about 1.99 at 5 kev then with increasing
temperature its value is fixed . For D 3 He similar performance is occurred except that its
maximum value at 24 kev is about 1.99 then with increasing temperature till 76 kev its value is
fixed and after that with growth of temperature its value is reduced very slowly.Also we can
see that in the temperature interval 30 to 80 kev Z
and Z
are coincidence.
effDT
effD 3He
Alsofromequation (26)netheating power for both fuel D – T and
D 3 He in the
temperature interval 0 to 100 kev are plotted (see fig 12).
Figure 12: Comparison of the net heating power of D – T and
temperature interval 0 to100 (keV)
Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE
D 3 He in
steady state at
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According to figure12 can be found that the value of net heating power of the D - T
increases with increasing temperature such that its value changes from 4.12 107 (W ) to
4.31107 (W ) , and then its value slowly and gradually decreases with increasing
temperature. But from this figure you can see that the D  He total net heating power is
always greater than D – T, in the temperature range0 to100 keV)) .
3
Figure 13: comparison of fusion power for both of D – T and
terms of temperature variations
D 3 He
fuel in the steady state in
Accordingto figure13 canbefound that the fusion power of both fuels D-T and D 3 He
grows with temperature increasing. Since that the number of fusion reactions isenhanced
thereforethe fusionpowerincreases.Also ,we can seethatthe fusion power of D-3He fuel is
higher than D T .
a)
b)
Figure 14: fusion gain variations of a)D - T, b) D 3 He and fuel in the steady state at the
temperature range 0 to100 (keV)and 
,
 16(s )
EDT  3.3(s ) ED 3He
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Accordingto Figure 14 can be found that initially fusion gain of D T fuel is enhanced
with temperature increasing ant its maximum value is about 6,then with temperature
growing its value gradually reduced such that at 100kev temperature its Q value reaches
5.However , D 3 He fusion gain with temperature increasing enhances such that at 20
kev temperature reaches to the value 0.012,than with increasing temperature up to 100 kev
its value is fixed.in general from this figure we see that fusion gain of D-T is greater than
D 3 He . So in thesteady stateis not recommendedto usethe D 3 He fuelfor the reactor
ITER90H-P. For having more realisticinformation about Q for both fuel-D - T and D 3 He
itis better to enter

E
changes on the fusion gain. (see Fig.15)
Figure 15: Three dimensional variation offusion gain for D - Tand D 3 He fuel, in the steady
state at temperature range of 0 to100 (keV) and E range of 0 to 30 seconds.

Also if in determining of physical quantities such as radiative power loss ,total energy
,net heating power, auxiliary power ,power and fusion gain of both fuel D – T and
D 3 He we enter the variations of K d ‫ و‬K  parameters in the range of 0 K   25 ,
0 K d  4 and
also by considering fusion power variations
D  3He versus energy confinement time (
for both fuel
D T
and
 E ) the discussion is wider (see figs.16 to 20).
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Figure16: Three dimensional comparison of radiative power loss for D – T fuel in steady state at
three temperature 10,70 and 100 kev in terms of
With seeing Fig.16we find that
increasing temperature and
Figure17:
 and d variations
ttheradiationpowerloss of
 and d .
Three dimensional comparison of
total energy for D – T fuel in steady state at
three temperature 10,70 and 100 kev in terms of
 and d variations
From Figure17can be seen thatthe total energyof the
temperature as
 and d change.
Figure 18: Three
dimensional
D-T fuel increasedwith
D T fuelincreaseswith increasing
comparison net heating power for D – T fuel in steady
state at three temperature 10,70 and 100 kev in terms of
 and d variations
From Figure 18 can be seen that the net heating power decreases with increasing
temperature as
 and d change.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
Figure 19: Three
dimensional comparison auxiliary power
ISSN 2305-915X
for D – T fuel in steady state
 and d variations
increasing temperatureaxillary power ( Paux ) will rise as
at three temperature 10,70 and 100 kev in terms of
We have seen form Fig.19 ,by
 and d change.
Figure20: Three dimensional variation of fusion gain for D - T and D 3 He fuel in the
steady-state at temperature range of 0 to100 (keV) and energy confinement time range0
to30seconds
According to figure 20 we can say thatin all temperature and confinement time variations
the fusion power D  3He is greater than D-T.
CONCLUSIONS
With studying and analyzing ofITER90H-p fusion reactor sand solving the non-linear
point kinetic equations governing on the two- fuel D - Tand D  3He at steady,
dynamical and perturbation states, we find that the main quantities in determining the
fusion gain are the densities of alpha particles, deuterium, tritium, helium, neutral fuel,
electron , fusion energy and the total energy, and density of total particles, the effective
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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charge of all ions, radiative powerless, auxiliary and fusion power ,respectively. In order
to be commercially competitive, a fusion reactor needs to run long periods of time in a
stable burning plasma mode at working points which are characterized by a high Q ,
where Q is the ratio of fusion power to auxiliary power. Active burn control is often
required to maintain these near-ignited or ignited conditions ( Q = ∞ ). Although
operating points with these characteristics that are inherently stable exist for most
confinement scaling, they are found in a region of high temperature and low density. Our
studies show that in the steady-state above quantities are only a function of temperature
and each has its own specific variations and also at the temperature70 (keV) these
quantities produce the maximum fusion gain for both of fuels D – T and D  3He ,such
that their values are equal to
6.01for D - T fuel-andthe0.012 for D  3He , respectively.
Fusion using D  3He fuel requires significant physics development particularly of
plasma confinement in high performance alternate fusion concepts. Countering that cost ,
engineering development cost should be much less for D  3He than D – T , because
D  3He
greatly ameliorates the daunting obstacles caused by abundant neutrons and
the necessity of tritium breeding. A D  3He fusion fueled fusion reactor would also
possess substantial safety and environmental advantages
over D –
T.CurrentlyrecommendedforreactorITER90H-p is used D - T fuel and still need more
research to be done on the fuel D  3He .
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
N. A. Uckan, J. Hogan, W. Houlberg, J. Galambos, L. J. Perkins, S. Haney D. Post and S.
Kaye, “ITER design: physics basis for size, confinement capability power levels and
burn control”, Fusion Technology, vol.26, (no.3, pt.2), pp. 327-30, Nov (1994).
N. A. Uckan, “Confinement Capability of ITER-EDA Design”, Proceedings of the 15th
IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering,vol.1, pp. 183-6, (1994).
L. M. Hively, “Convenient Computational Forms for MaxwellianReactivities,” Nucl. Fusion,
17, 4, 873 (1977)
H.S.Bosch, G.M.Hale,Nuc.Fusion,32,611(1992)
A.V. Eremin , A.A. Shishkin ,”Fusion D+T And D+D Products Dynamics for the Different
Fueling Scenarios in Toroidal Magnetic Reactors”,ssn 0503-1265. UKR. J. Phys. V. 53, N 5,(2008).
E. Schuster, M. Krstic´ , and G. Tynan,”Burn Control in Fusion Reactors Via Nonlinear
Stabilization Techniques”,Fusion Science and Technology ,VOL. 43 , (2003)
L. Spitzer, Physics of Fully Ionized Gases ~ Interscience, New York, (1956 )
F. Trintchouk,M. Yamada, H. Ji, R. M. Kulsrud, and T. A. Carter,”Measurement of the transverse
Spitzer resistivity during collisional magnetic reconnection”,PHYSICS OF PLASMAS,VOLUME
10, Number 1, (2003).
Kadomtsev, B.B.: Tokamak Plasma: a Complex Physical System, Institute of Physics,
Bristol (1992).
Wesson, J.: Tokamaks, 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1997.
T. Pinna, C.Rizzello,”Safety assessment for ITER-FEAT tritium systems”,Fusion Engineering
and Design 63 – 64, 181 – 186, (2002).
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ISSN 2305-915X
APPENDIX A:
variables we solve
n n D 3He
DT,n, α,n ‫و‬
analytically point kinetic nonlinear equationsgoverning on the two fusion fuels D – T and D  3He .
To obtain thenumerical valuesof the density state
n In
Because,the equationsof the twofuelsare similartherefore we solve only the equations (6) to (9) forD Tfuel.
We put theleftsides ofequations(6) to(9) equal tozero
dn α dn DT dn n dn I



0
dt
dt
dt
dt
So, from putting theequation (1) equal to zero, ,we have:
n DT
n
n
 2 ( DT )2 v DT  n  0
τDT
2
τd
(
)A-1(
n
n DT 2
)  v  DT  α
2
τ
)A-2(
According to equation(A-1)and(A-2), n DT isas follows:
1
(A-3)
n DT

2
4n

 
 v DT τ 
1
2
4n
1 


τ DT  v DT τ 
1

 1
2 
4n
1 2 
2( )  
τ
2    v  DT τ   DT


2
v DT 
(A-4)
1

2
nα nn
4 n
 0

 2
τ τd
 v DT τ 
nn
0
τd
1


2
4 n
nα 
1 

nn   

2
τ

τ
 v DT τ 
τ  d
 DT 

we put equation (8) equal to zero
(A-5) n n
τd
 s=0
By inserting equation (A-4) inside to (A-5) the following relation is given:
1


2
4 n
nα 
1  1 

2
τ  s=0
τd  τ DT   v DT τ 
τ  d


(A-6) 2 n α 
τ
τDT
1
1
 2  n  2
1

   s
  v  DT   τ 
2 
We define x as follows and insert it into the equation (A-6) :
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
(A-7)
 n
x 
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1
2

 τ 
2x2
2x 
1
2 
τDT
2
1

 x s
  v DT 
1
2 
2
τDT
2
1

 x s  0
 v DT 
The aboveequationisaquadratic equation, by solving this equation x is determined and by replacing
into eq (A-4) we have

2
n n  
τ
 DT
1


2
4 n
nα 

  2  τd
τ
  v DT τ 

nn
And using equation (A-7)
(A-8)

2
n n  
τ DT

can be written as :
1

 2 12
1

 x 2 x
  v DT 

τ
 d

Here the variableydefinedas follows and insert it inequation (A-9)
1
2 
2
1
y 


τDT  v DT 
(A-10)

nn  12
  yx  2x 
τd 

we put the equation (7) equaltozero:
n DT 2
(A-11) n DT
τDT
 2(
2
) v DT  n n
τd
0
Then by insertingequation (A-10)intoequation (A-11)we getthefollowingquadratic equation in terms
of
n DT :  n DT  v   n DT   yx
DT
τ
2
2
1
2

DT

 2x   0

by solving this equation we have
(A-12) n DT 
1
2τDT
1 1

2   τ DT 2

1

 2  v  DT  yx

By replacing the densities
(
n DT
1
2
 2
 2x  
 
inequation (A-2)
n is calculatedas follows:
n DT 2
) v DT  nα
τ
2
By inserting Relation (A-12) into equation (A-2)
n is given by :
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
1


 12
 2 
1  1 1  1


2


v

yx

2
x




DT
2

4  2τ DT 2   τ DT 

  


ISSN 2305-915X
2
v DT  n α
τ
n α  τ
4
(A-13) 

Electron densityin thesteady stateis

 1
1 1
 2  v  DT  yx
2
 2τ  2 
  τ DT 

 DT

 v DT
obtainedfromthe relationship: n
eDT
1
2

 
 2x   
  

1
2
2
 nDT  2nαDT  ZInI .
Ifweignoretheeffectsof impuritiestheelectron densityequationisas follows:
n
 n DT  2n αDT
(A-14) eDT
Bysubstitutingequations (A-12and (A-13)inequation (A-14), the steady-stateelectrondensity is given
by (A-15)
(A-15)
n eDT 

1
2τ DT

1 1
 2  v  DT  yx

2   τ DT  2



   1
2  2τ DT

  v  DT
1
1
2
 2
 2x  
 

1 1
 
 2  v  DT  yx
2   τ DT  2

1
2
1

 2 
 2x   
  

2
It should be notedthatthe aboverelationshipisalso truefor D  3He fuel
mentioned relations the index DT must be replaced by
except that
in the
3
D He
AJASE adopt a blinded review policy. Authors are blind to reviewers. Typically, the
review period is within 6 weeks. If authors do not receive a decision letter by email in
8 weeks after the submission, the corresponding author may send an email to inquire
the status of their submission. If you need a shorter review period due to special
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An Evaluation of Water Resources Planning
Organization, an Apex Planning Organization
in Water Sector Bangladesh
Md. Masud Alam
Senior Scientific Officer, Water Resources Planning Organization, Ministry of Water Resources,
Dhaka, BANGLADESH
ABSTRACT
The Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) is an exclusive
government institution (created by Water Resources Planning Act, 1992)
under the ministry of Water Resources Bangladesh for Macro-level water
resources planning and management in Bangladesh by pursuing
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). It is the central
coordinating body for the water sector and acts as an Executive Secretariat
of the Executive Committee of the National Water Resources Council
(ECNWRC). The Bangladesh Water Act, 2013; The Water Resources
Planning Act, 1992; National Water Policy, 1999; Coastal Zone Policy, 2005;
National Water Management Plan, 2004; National Water Resources
Council (NWRC); the Executive Committee of the National Water
Resources Council (ECNWRC), etc. have given mandated task for
WARPO. The four main task of WARPO are to prepare and update the
National Water Resources Plan (NWRP); update and maintain the National
Water Resources Database (NWRD); act as a clearing house role for all
projects undertaken by any agency involved in the water sector; and
coordinate & implement Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
From the creation of WARPO, it has made remarkable contribution to
water sector, Bangladesh. However, a lot of gaps are existing in this
Organization. The existing staffing structure, strength, support and service
of WARPO are not sufficient to commensurate with its mandate and
redefined functions effectively. This study has identified the contribution
of WARPO in Water Sector and at the same time has identified the existing
gaps in this organization and finally has recommended the tasks to become
the centre of excellence in Water sector Bangladesh.
Key words: Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), water
resources planning, National Water Resources Council (NWRC), centre of
excellence.
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1 INTRODUCTION
T
he Water Resources Planning Organization (WAPRO) is a statutory Organization
(Water Resources Planning Act, 1992) under the Ministry of Water Resources, the
Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. WARPO acts as the Executive
Secretariat (Bangladesh Water Act, 2013; NWPo, 1999) to the Executive Committee of
the National Water Resources Council (ECNWRC). It is also a key organization dealing with
nation - wide macro level water resources planning and management. WARPO is a multidisciplinary organization. It has 87 staff members of which 42 officers are professionals.
WARPO‟s roots lie in the Master Plan Organization (MPO) established in 1983 (WARPO
Annual Report, 2003-2004) that was responsible for preparing the National Water Plan
(NWP) completed in 1987. The MPO started a second National Water Plan (NWP II) in May
1989 and completed in 1991. After the completion of NWP-II, the Government of Bangladesh
enacted the Water Resources Planning Act, 1992 by which WARPO was created. Under this
act, the entire task that had been done under MPO has taken as a task under WARPO.
The Government of Bangladesh established Flood Plan Coordination Organization (FPCO)
in 1989 to manage the Flood Action Plan (FAP, 1989-1995) study. Under FAP study, 26
studies had been done. The FAP study had been finished in 1995. After that FPCO was
merged with WARPO in January, 1996.
This study will show the evolution of WARPO, its mandate, laps and gaps and finally will
recommend an apex planning organization which can play a vital role for implementing
IWRM practice in Bangladesh.
2 OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY
The overall objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of Water Resources
Planning Organization (WARPO) under the ministry of Water Resources Bangladesh.
However, the specific objectives include:
 To identify the mandated task of WARPO and Work done
 To identify the gaps in WARPO
 Recommended organizational developed plan for effective implementation of
IWRM in Bangladesh
3 METHODOLOGY AND
APPROACH
Principally an analytical framework process has been followed to understand the WARPO
role. An extensive consultation with questionnaire survey has been done to the national
Water Expertise and WARPO professional for getting more appropriate knowledge to
strengthen this work. The Organization structure has been reviewed for analysis of this
Organization. The government policy, plan and rule have been analyzed to understand the
organizational structure. Various documents and report have been studied to identify the
mandated task and corresponding gaps of this organization. Finally SWOT (Strength,
Weakness, Opportunities, Threat) analysis has been done for better understanding of this
Organization.
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND SCOPE OF WORK
4.1 Organizational brief Mission:
The Mission of WARPO (www.warpo.gov.bd) is to achieve sustainable water resources
development in Bangladesh by pursuing Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM).
Vision:
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To become an apex organization in macro-level planning,
A center of excellence for the management and integrated development of water
resources,
The central coordinating body for all relevant activities in the water sector,
The custodian of National and Regional Water Resources Databases and
Information systems,
To act as secretariat to the NWRC and ECNWRC.
4.1.1 Mandated task of WARPO
A. Act No. 12 of 1992
The mandate of the organization, as per Act No. 12 of 1992, includes the following:









To formulate water resources master plans in an environmentally sustainable
manner and to develop national water resources;
To draw up national work plans and policy relating to scientific utilization and
conservation of waters resources;
To advise other concerned organizations regarding the development, utilization
and conservation of water resources;
To co-operate with any institution in conducting surveys involved in the
development of water resources, utilization and conservation and if necessary,
conduct special surveys regarding any such matter;
To evaluate and analyze matters which develop due to the undertaking of measures
by any institution involved in development, utilization and conservation of water
resources and to advice on such matters;
To develop standards of education, training and professionalism relating to the
utilization of water resources;
To collect and analyze information regarding the utilization of water resources and
to disseminate the same;
To organize and conduct national seminars, and having obtained the prior approval
of the Government, international seminars, conferences and workshops regarding
water resources;
To perform such other functions as may be conferred by the Government regarding
water resources.
The Water Resources Planning Organization Act (Act No. 12 of 1992) provides the legal
framework for WARPO as a statutory organization.
B. Mandates of WARPO, as per National Water Policy (NWPo), 1999
WARPO will be the exclusive government institution for macro-level water resources
planning. Its principal responsibilities are:
 Providing administrative, technical, and legal support to the ECNWRC (Executive
Committee of the National Water Resources Council).
 Advising the ECNWRC on policy, planning, and regulatory matters of water
resources and related land and environmental management.
 Preparing and periodically updating the National Water Management
Plan(NWMP) for approval of the NWRC.
 Setting up and updating the National Water Resources Database (NWRD) and
Information Management System.
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Acting as a "clearing house" for all water sector projects identified by different
agencies and reporting to the ECNWRC on their conformity to the NWMP.
Undertaking any special study, as may be required by the ECNWRC, for fulfilling
the objectives and program envisaged in the National Water Policy and the
Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy (BWFMS).
Performing any other function as may be assigned to it from time to time by the
Government.
C. Mandates of WARPO, as per Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo), 2005
 To co-ordinate the development initiatives taken by different agencies in the coastal
zone;
 To establish of Program Co-ordination Unit (PCU). Monitoring and evaluation of
projects in relation to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) indicator
framework will be the main function of PCU.
D. Other Mandates as conceived/emerged from NWMP, NWRC and Others
 To centrally coordinate and monitor the implementation of the “National Water
Management Plan”;
 To prepare and update National Water Law revising and consolidating the laws
governing ownership, development, appropriation, utilization, conservation, and
protection of water resources.”
 To resolve interagency conflicts related to water development and management and
report to ECNWRC;
 Upkeep water resources assessment, delineate sub-regions and zones and assist
relevant agencies in establishing water stress areas, flood vulnerable areas, zones for
brackish aquaculture for planning of new projects and regulations for location of
new industries on the basis of water availability and effluent discharge possibilities
etc.
E. Mandates of WARPO, as per Bangladesh Water Act, 2013.
 As soon as possible, after the commencement of Bangladesh Water Act, 2013, the
Water Resources Planning Organization shall, through the Executive Committee of
National Water Resources Council (ECNWRC), place for approval before the
National Water Resources Council (NWRC) a draft of the National Water Resources
Plan (NWRP) prepared in accordance with the Water Resources Planning Act, 1992
(Act No.XII of 1992)
 For the efficient functioning of the ECNWRC, the Director General of WARPO shall
provide all administrative and secretariat support to it
 For the purpose of this Act, the Director General shall have the following duties,
namely:o To implement and apply the policies and strategies adopted by the NWRC
and Executive Committee (ie. NWRC);
o To prepare all kinds of proposals for placing before the meeting of the
NWRC and the ECNWRC as per the directions thereof;
o To pay visit to any site or project area for inspection;
o To take necessary steps to build awareness with regard to this Act; and
o To perform such other duties as may be assigned to him by the NWRC and
ECNWRC, from time to time.
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For the purposes of this Act, the Director General of WARPO may delegate any of
his duties for visiting any site or project area for inspection to any officer or
employee of the WARPO or of any other organization, and the officer or employee
so authorized shall be called the inspector for the purpose of this Act.
The Inspector shall, with respect to any irregularity, defect or violation of any order
found during inspection, submit a report thereof to the Director General of WARPO
or any officer authorized by him in this behalf.
4.1.2 Functions of WARPO
By analysis all the mandated tasks given to WARPO, it can be said, some are Routine Core
Functions and some are Periodic Functions of WARPO (WARPO Annual Report, 2003-2004).
It has given below:
Routine Core Functions
Periodic Functions
 Maintenance, updating and dissemination of  Executing studies and Research &
the
NWRD
and
the
Management
Development activities.
Information System (MIS).
 Preparation of and advice on
 Preparation an update of National Water
policy, strategy, institutional and
Resources Plan (NWRP) (Bangladesh Water
legal issues.
Act, 2013).
 Execution of Special Studies,
 Functioning as a “Clearing House” (NWPo,
research etc as required from time
1999)
to time.
 Establish Project Co-ordination Unit (PCU)  Assisting
other
agencies
in
for implementing Integrated Coastal Zone
planning, monitoring, studies and
Management (ICZM).
investigations.
 Secretariat to the NWRC/ECNWRC.
 Stimulate, co-ordinate and help in providing
specialized, multi-disciplinary and crosssectoral training in IWRM.
4.1.3 Management of WARPO
WARPO is being managed with the following framework of tire system
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4.1.4 Board of Directors:
Minister, Ministry of Water Resources.
Member, Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural
Institution
Division
of
Planning Commission
Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources Ministry
Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture
Secretary, Ministry or Division of Local Government
Secretary, Ministry or Division of Road & Road Transport
Secretary, Ministry of Planning
Secretary, Ministry of Forest & Environment
Secretary, Ministry of Shipping
Director General, WARPO
Responsibilities: Overall governance of WARPO.
Chairman
Vice-chairman
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member Secretary
4.1.5 Karjo Nirbahi Parishod:



Director General, WARPO
Director-1, WARPO
Director-2, WARPO
Chairman
Member
Member
Responsibilities: The karjo Nirbahi Parishod will advise & assist the Governing Body and is
responsible for the implementation of its decisions.
4.1.6 Technical Committee:
 Member, Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Institution Division of
Planning Commission.
Chairman
 Executive Chairman, Bangladesh Agriculture Research Council
Member
 Additional Director General (Planning), BWDB.
Member
 Chief Engineer, Department of Public Health Engineering.
Member

Director General, WARPO.
Secretary
Member-
Responsibilities: To advise WARPO on technical coordination among water-related
agencies.
4.1.7 Web site
Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) has been maintaining a web site, the
domain name of which is: www.warpo.gov.bd. Recently WARPO web site has been updated
with an updated data list of National Water Resources Database (NWRD). The web site of
WARPO is one of the worldwide contact media for interaction with experts and
professionals. During the development of NWMP, professionals, experts including the
international panel of experts irrespective of their location of stay would contribute
significantly through providing their comments, suggestions on the topic papers, draft
NWMP reports using the WARPO web site.
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4.1.7 Library Facilities
WARPO has a well-organized and rich library with various important water sector study
reports and as well as all relevant sector (Fisheries, environment, land, agriculture, public
health, flood, climate change, coastal zone, river, erosion, water, sanitation, pollution etc.)
study reports. It is continually maintaining and updating it‟s web enabled, easy searching
computerized cataloging system. Online Library Catalogue of WARPO can be found easily
with http://www.warpo.gov.bd/Library (Ministry of Water Resources Annual Report,
2011-2012)
4.2 Organogram of WARPO
4.2.1 Current setup:
According to approved Organogram, the total manpower of WARPO is 87. This figure has
been shown in following table:
Officers and
Total figure according to
Current
Vacant
staff
Organogram
figure
post
Officers:
First Class
42
29
13
Second Class
2
2
Staff
43
43
Total
87
74
13
As of February, 2014.
Presently, WARPO is led by a Director General and Two Directors; and organized in seven
sections. The sections are:
 Engineering
 Water Resources
 Monitoring and Evaluation
 Computer and Information
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 Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
 Agriculture
 Economics
Every Section is headed by a Principle Scientific Officer (PSO).
4.2.2 Budget and Expenditure
According to the National Water policy, 1999, Article 5.d, WARPO is the exclusive
government institution for macro-level water resource planning. Function of WARPO is
implemented under the revenue and development budget of the government of People‟s
Republic of Bangladesh. Revenue and development budget of WARPO has been shown in
following figure of financial year of 2012-2013.
Revenue and Development budget of financial year 2012-2013
(In lakh taka)
Project Name
Financial
Expenditure
Source
allocation
up to
2012-2013
June- 2013
Water Management
200.00
168.31
World Bank/
Improvement
Nederland
project (WMIP)
Revenue
Allowances
257.15
217.00
GoB
Other
423.40
404.36
Sub total
680.55
621.36
Total
880.55
789.67
4.2.3 Major Contributions of WARPO in Water sector Bangladesh
WARPO has published a good number of technical papers and reports (more than 60,
including those of MPO, Flood Plan Coordination Unit (FPCO) and WARPO). Major
contributions are:
 Preparation of National Water Plan-I (NWP-I), 1983-87
 Preparation of National Water plan-II (NWP-II), 1987-91
 Flood Action Plan (FAP) Studies (FPCO), 1989-1995
 Bangladesh Water & Flood Management Strategy, 1995
 National Water Policy (NWPo), 1999
 NWMP Development Strategy Report, 2001
 Draft Guidelines for Environmental Assessment of Flood Control, Drainage and
Irrigation Projects (EA Guidelines), 2001
 National Water Management Plan (NWMP), 2001
 Establishment of National Water Resources Data Base (NWRD), 2001
 Options for Ganges Dependent Area (OGDA) Study, 2001
 Draft State of Water Resources Report, 2002
 Actively participated in preparing interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (iPRSP), March, 2003
 Actively participated in preparing 3-years Rolling Plan (2003-2004-2005-2006), 2003
 Preparation of documents under Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan
(ICZMP)
 Coastal Zone Policy, 2005
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Integrated Coastal Resources database (ICRD), 2005
Coastal Development Strategy (CDS), 2006
Regional Technical Assistant for IWRM in Bangladesh, 2009
Bangladesh Water Act (BWA), 2013.
4.2.4 Major ongoing activities ( As of February, 2014)
Water Management Improvement Project:
The project is being implemented by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) and
WARPO under the Technical Assistant of World Bank and Royal Nederland. This project
has two components: BWDB part and WARPO part. The name of the WARPO part is
Component 3B: WARPO Institutional Improvement. The aim of the WARPO part is to
strengthening of WARPO by organizational Development and to updating the NWRD.
The main objective of WARPO part is to assist WARPO for institutional strengthening to
enhance its capability in water resources planning and other mandated tasks mentioned in
different policy documents. This project has started in June 2009 and will be finished in June
2015. The total cost of the project is Tk 219.56 milion
The subcomponents of 3B are:
 TA Institutional Improvement / Database consultant at WARPO
o
WARPO: S1: Consultancy Services for Strengthening of WARPO
Organizational and Institutional Development;
o
WARPO: S2: Consultancy Services for Maintenance, Updating and
Dissemination of National Water Resources Database (NWRD).
o
WARPO: S3: Additional activities for updating NWMP
 B. Human Resources Development

C. Office Equipment

D. Transport Vehicle

E. Incremental Operating Cost
Nuffic-NICHE-BGD/155 (Scenario Development in Integrated Water Resources
Management in Bangladesh: Coping with future Challenges):
This project is being implemented by UNESCO-IHE (Dutch side) and Bangladesh University
of Engineering and Technology (BUET) (Bangladesh side), in association with WARPO,
Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS) and Bangladesh
Agriculture University (BAU). Donor agency is Royal Nederland. UNESCO-IHE, Deltares,
Allevas and Wageningen UR will provide technical assistant. Total Project cost is 2499690
euro. Duration is 2013-2017. The objective of this project is to deliver capacitated graduates
researchers and policy staff on IWRM to contribute/support the realization of the Delta plan
in order to cope with future challenges in Bangladesh. This project will be implemented by
strengthening the research activities under PhD, MScs and Collaborative research.
Clearing house role of WARPO:
It is one of the important and mandated routine tasks of WARPO. According to NWPo
Article5.d.v, “WARPO will act as „clearing house‟ for all water sector projects identified by
different agencies”. Upto December 2013, WARPO has cleared 114 Development Project
Proforma (DPP) of Bangladesh Water development Board.
Data Dissemination:
Another one of the important and mandated routine tasks of WARPO. From October 2013 to
January 2014, WARPO has disseminated Data to 10 agencies including River Research
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Institute (RRI), BUET, Dhaka University, BAU, BRAC University etc from NWRD and
Integrated Coastal Resources Database (ICRD) and has earned total taka of 543484 by
discounting rate in Education and Research sector according to WARPO Data dissemination poilcy.
Review of NWMP implementation and assessment of State of Water Resources:
It is an additional activity under the WMIP project. The aim of this project is to assessment
of state of GW and SW Water Resources and review of NWMP implementation and to
strengthening of Clearing house role of WARPO. The activities has been started in
November 2013will be end on June 2015.
Institutionalization of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) process in
Compliance with Bangladesh Water Act , 2013
This project is implementing by WARPO and the Donar Agency is Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation (SDC) and Government of Bangladesh (GoB). The aim of this
project is to institutionalize of IWRM process which is the main mandate of WARPO in
relation with Bangladesh Water Act 2013. This project has been started in November, 2013
and will be finished in October, 2016.
4.3 Organizational development:
Recommended by NWMP:
National Water Management Plan (NWMP) in Cluster Institutional development, ID 006,
has identified the lack of permanence staffing in WARPO, inadequate funding support and
lack of built office of WARPO. For resolving this, NWMP suggested long term permanent
staffing with high caliber in WARPO, Permanent Office building for WARPO, adequate
funding and various capacity building programmes. NWMP also suggested that WARPO
may shift to a neutral agency such as Prime Minister‟s office or the Planning Commission.
Recommended by RETA project:
Regional Technical Assistant (RETA) supporting IWRM (Bangladesh) project (ADB RETA
Project No: 39199: Process development for preparing and Implementing Integrated Water
Resources management Plans) recommended in the following area for WARPO
Organizational Development:
 Broadening the mandate of WARPO to accommodate the various tasks that have
been identified for WARPO subsequent to the original mandate.
 Re-positioning of WARPO. WARPO would be situated under the Prime Ministers
Secretariat or within the Ministry of Planning.
 Highly qualified technical specialists are needed for WARPO to properly fulfill its
mandate.
 Establishing a mechanism for appointing leadership in which merit, commitment,
and interests are deciding factors.
Recommended by WMIP
It has mentioned earlier that the WMIP project is being implemented by WARPO for its
Organizational development, human resources development and updating of National
Water Resources Database. In Organizational and Institutional Development Part, It has
recommended for reviewing of Water Resources Planning Act (WARP, 1992) for illustrating
the mandate by creating rules and regulation, for activating the secretariat of ECNWRC,
functioning of Board of Directors meeting of WARPO regularly. Final report of
„Strengthening of WARPO Organizational and Institutional Development‟ has been
submitted to WARPO by WMIP consultant in December 2011.
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Human Resources Development is being alleviated in WARPO by Professional Training in
home and abroad by WMIP project. Also, 50 data layers are being incorporated in NWRD
and at the same time the existing data layers are updating under WMIP project. This project
will be end on June 2014.
Recommended by Twinning Mission:
Intuitional development of WARPO is pre-requisite to carry out its mandate and functions
affectively. This is likely to involve changes to management structure and appointment of
more qualified and skill professionals. Twinning arrangement between the Ministry of
Water Resources of Bangladesh and the Ministry of Transport, Public Health and Water
Management of the Netherlands had been signed on November 22, 2000 to support WARPO
in the field of institutional strengthening and capacity Building. The Twinning arrangement
has been signed for a period of 5 years commencing from November, 2000. During these 5
years it is foreseen to have missions 3 to 4 times per year. Under the Twining Arrangement
the Twinning Mission Members completed their visit in successive years and until June 2009,
they completed 24th visit. During their Visit, series of meeting were held with WARPO Task
Force members. A Twinning Mission task force
recommended for improving
communications and information dissemination; providing continuity of management and
expertise; strengthening cooperation and coordination with other Ministries, Departments,
Agencies, Sectors and Donors; recognizing that updating the National Water Management
Plan every five year is the core business of WARPO; obtaining approval of the
Organizational Development Plan (ODP) is required for WARPO to function effectively
across a range of responsibilities associated with its mandate.
4.4 Questionnaire Survey:
Questionnaire survey has been done to the National Water Expertise and WARPO
professional for getting more appropriate information and to strengthen the work. It was
asked to the Expertise what is the gaps in WARPO and what should be the way out to fill up
the gaps in WARPO. Here are the few reflections.
Dr. Sultan Ahmed (Email: [email protected]), Director (Natural Resource
Management) in Department of Environment (DoE), Said that, WARPO is a coordinating
Organization in Water Sector, therefore, WARPO should disseminate his product in the
other Organization. Extensive consultation is needed. He also, emphasized that, WARPO
should update NWRD by systematic revenue budget.
H. S. Mozaddad Faruque (Email: [email protected]) , Water Resources Expert, Center
for Environment and Geographic Information Services, Said that, WARPO‟s Board of
directors is very strong. WARPO can be strengthening by re-arranging its structure. He,
however, emphasized that promotion of WARPO professional should be more mobilized.
Mr. Md. Enamul Haque (Email: [email protected]), Ex- director General of WARPO
thought that Name of the organization should be Water Resources Planning Authority
(WARPA) in lieu of Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO). His
recommendation was to decentralize WARPO office at every district level with new
Organogram of WARPO including manpower 878 in lieu of present 87.
Mr. Md. Saiful Alam (Email: [email protected]) director, Planning of WARPO thinks
that WARPO should perform his core responsibilities and in this way, WARPO shall be
strengthen.
Mr. Md. Saiful Hossain (Email: [email protected]), PSO, Engineering section of
WARPO thinks that for proper mobilization of WARPO, the head of the Organization
should at least state Minister Level. At present the head of the Organization is below
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Secretary Level. Under these circumstances, to controlling other ministries for proper
coordination with other ministries and Organization is quite difficult.
Mr. Md. Rezaul Karim (Email: [email protected]), PSO (In charge), Monitoring and
Evaluation section of WARPO said that, WARPO should perform his duty with the present
set-up in full swing. He also urged that, as WARPO is a multidisciplinary Organization,
hence, coordination with other Organization is must. He also recommends that the
designation of WARPO official should be changed such as from „scientific officer‟ to
„Assistant Director‟ to perform regulatory function according to „Bangladesh Water Act2013‟.
Dr. Md. Aminul Haque (E mail: [email protected],) PSO (In charge), Economic section
of WARPO, said that, the main gaps of WARPO are: Lack of manpower, lack of budget,
insufficient promotional scope and remuneration etc. He, however emphasized that for
resolving the unlock of WARPO, the Organization should have to come back in core
function, recruitment should be mobilized by Public Service Commission. He also said that,
The Government or Ministry should take some responsibilities for organizational
development.
5 DATA ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFYING GAPS
5.1 Overall performance of WARPO.
It has been shown that within lot of constraint the professionals of WARPO are attempting to
complete their committed assignment with strong and appreciable confidence. Lot of Works
has been done in the meantime such as preparation of NWMP, NWPo, CZPo, Bangladesh
Water Act (BWA), 2013 etc. At the same time WARPO is acting as a clearing House role for
screening the Water Resources Development project. Initiatives have been taken for
updating and Monitoring of NWMP. Lot of Works have not done yet according to policy
and Act such as to advice and coordinate the other agencies regarding the development,
utilization and conservation of water resources. To promote professionalism in water
sector, the Organization have not take yet the initiative for conducting seminar and training
for development, utilization and conservation of water resources. New ideas and research
field have not identified yet for 21th centuries water resources development.
5.2 SWAOT Assessment
5.2.1 Strong point of WARPO
The Water Resources Planning Act, 1992; National Water Policy, 1999; The Bangladesh
Water Act 2013; the Coastal Zone Policy, 2005, NWMP 2001, CDS 2006 all the documents are
in favor of WARPO. Also the Board of Directors is very strong for WARPO. WARPO has an
enriched library. WARPO is the secretariat of ECNWRC. WARPO will disseminate the
NWRD and at the same time will act as a „Clearing House role‟ for all water Sector project
activities according to National Water policy. However, WARPO is a statutory Organization.
5.2.2 Weak point and Gaps of WARPO
After details analysis, the gaps and weak point of WARPO have been identified in the
following areas:
Lack of leadership
RETA project suggested a commitment leadership for this organization. Actually, the
director General (DG) of this Organization mainly comes from Bangladesh Water
Development Board within a short period of time. Till now, the salary scale of DG of this
Organization is 2. During the last five years approximately 10 DG has been appointed for
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this Organization. Under these circumstances, the Organizational function cannot be
performed properly.
Lack of Coordination
WARPO is a multidisciplinary and Coordinating Organization in Water sector. 35 agencies
and 13 Ministries are involved in these processes. But, unfortunately after creation of this
Organization, the coordination with all the relevant agencies are not quite satisfactory.
Lack of manpower
There is an extreme shortage of manpower in WARPO. To perform WARPO‟s mandates
task with 87 manpower, is quite difficult.
Limited Budget
As WARPO is an Organization with 87 Professionals, it is normal that budget will be the
minimum especially in revenue budget. In some cases budgetary allocation is a measure of
an Organizational efficiency.
Inadequate Service rule
The service rule for the WARPO professionals is quite inadequate. The maximum
promotional post in the existing Service rule of WARPO (WARPO Probidan, 1995), is grade
3 as per in government pay scale. Job facilities such as promotion, pension and other
facilities are under severe constraint. Still now, there is no pension facility in WARPO.
Lack of decentralized office
WARPO is now centrally located in Dhaka. It has no regional offices for competent authority
for each hydrological region. Existing staffing structure, strength, support and service of
WARPO are not sufficient to commensurate with its mandate and redefined functions
effectively.
Lack of Permanent Office building
Although, WARPO, is responsible for macro-level water resource planning in Bangladesh,
but it has no permanent office building. The function of WARPO is being implemented in
rented house. Several times it office had been changed. Lot of valuable documents had been
lost due to this shifting. But it is a matter of joy, that WARPO is constructing its Permanent
office building in 72, Green road, Dhaka. It hopes that, WARPO may shift from its present
Location to its permanent Office building in December 2015.
5.2.3 Opportunities of WARPO
WARPO is Dhaka based Organization; hence Coordination with other Organization is quite
easier. Almost all the policy and guided documents are in favor of WARPO; hence the
Organization can do a lot of works in water sector. The ownership of NWRD, NWMP are for
WARPO. Lot of research task, collaborative research, national and international conferences
can be done under NWRD and NWMP. Under these tasks, remuneration is also possible for
WARPO professional. Only need the initiatives.
5.2.4 Threat for WARPO
In the previous history, lot of Government department has been abolished due to insufficient
performance. As WARPO‟s manpower and Budget are very short and If WARPO foil to
perform his man mandated task, Government may re- Organized this Organization or may
abolish it. But during the last decade, WARPO has created lot of exemplary works in water
sector which has been discussed in article 4.1.12. Therefore this possibility is extremely
limited.
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5.3 Recommendation for unlocking the potentials and Implementation of Common Strategies
Finally for functioning WARPO, it is necessary for impartial Leadership for playing central
role of IWRM, recruitment of additional trained manpower, promote professionalism i.e. job
facilities including inceptives, smooth budgetary mobilization for data dissemination and
permanent office building. Also it is necessary for changing the name of the Organization.
The changing name can be the “Bangladesh Water Resources Commission (BWRC)” or
“Water Resources Planning Authority (WARPA)” in lieu of Water Resources Planning
Organization. WARPO can establish a „central water resources training unit‟ and „central
water resources library‟ which shall provide the training and information of NWRD,
NWMP, Finance system, NWPo, Clearing House role, Coastal Zone (CZ), IWRM etc. to the
water professional along with all stakeholder. The continuous recruitment process in
WARPO should be performed by the Public Service Commission (PSC). A new Cadre
Service called „Water Resources Cadre‟ should be formulated in Water Sector Bangladesh,
for strengthening of WARPO, as well as other water related Organizations.
WARPO is the apex national body in macro-level planning of water resources of the country.
It has gained sufficient experience through the implementation of FAP studies and then
National Water Management Plan (NWMP). For continuation and upgrading of the internal
capabilities, the professionals of WARPO need continuous on the local on-the-job training
and exposure to experiences abroad. The training programme needs to be relevance with the
functional needs of the organization. The continued education and training will improve the
skills of the existing manpower, institutional capacity as well as providing planning and
management support to other water related agencies. This skill development involves;
 Skill development in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) towards/
upgrading of NWMP.
 Skill development in macro level planning and management.
 Acquaintance with modern tools and techniques
 Skill development in preparing, monitoring and evaluation of NWRP programmes
implementation.
 Skill development in presentation capability and organising seminars (national and
international), preparing training guidelines and manuals.
 Skill development of Participatory Planning Capacity width special emphasis on SocialGender issues as well as environmental concern.
 Skill development in coordinating water sector activities with stakeholders involving
GoB, line agencies, LGIs and Development partners.
 Skill development in research works in collaboration with national and international
Universities/Research Institutes.
Review of Water Resources planning Act is urgently necessary, where the Organization will
keep One DG and at least two Additional Director General (ADG). The grade of the DG will
be must 1. It means that the ranking of DG of this Organization will be the same as Secretary
to the Ministry. The Organogram and Service role of this Organization should be changed,
where the promotional post will hold at least grade 2. It is mentionable that, WARPO has
prepared Organizational development plan (ODP), where there is a provision of extra 120
post for this Organization. The Ministry of water resources has recommended extra 93 post
for this Organization. But the ODP process is now pending under the Ministry of Water
Resources. During this time, Bangladesh Water Act-2013 has been enacted by the parliament
of the Government of Bangladesh. This Act has given specific direction to WARPO for
performed its mandated task. As a result, to perform WARPO‟s mandated task as a
regulatory body, this manpower will not be sufficient. Decentralized office of WARPO
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outside Dhaka will be needed. I recommend, 8 regional offices at every Hydrological region
delineated by NWMP, outside Dhaka shall have to be established for reaching it goal by
pursuing IWRM. An Initiative for Common Implementation strategies for strengthening of
WARPO has been shown in the following figure.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The study has shown that, In spite of constraints to perform WARPO‟s mandated task, the
progress towards the mission and vision of WARPO is quite satisfactory. Much remains to
be done. WARPO professional should have to aware their duties and responsibilities.
Strengthening of WARPO as an institute and its leadership is important for implementation
and update the future NWRP. Government also have to take some responsibilities for the
sake of this organization. Nevertheless, advancing WARPO‟s mandated task is a process of
incremental steps and the WARPO is clearly moving in the right direction.
REFERENCES
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MoWR, 1999. National Water Policy, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the
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WARPO, 2001. National Water Management Plan, Vol.2: Main Report, Water Resources Planning
organization, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
MoWR, 2013. Bangladesh Water Act, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the
People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
ADB, 2009. “Final Report and Road Map” and “Annexes”. Regional Technical Assistance
(RETA) Supporting IWRM (Bangladesh), ADB RETA Project No: 39199, Dhaka: Asian
Development Bank, Water Resources Planning organization, Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh GWP: available on:.
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[5]
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WARPO, 2014. Web page of Water Resources Planning Organization, (www.warpo.gov.bd,
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Access on March, 2014)
DOE, 2014. Web page of Department of Environment, Bangladesh (www.doe-bd.org, Access
on February, 2014)
LGED, 2014. Web page of Local Government Engineering Department (www.lged.gov.bd,
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February, 2014)
CEGIS, 2014. Web pages of Center for Environmental and Geographical Information services,
Bangladesh (www.cegisbd.com, Access on January, 2014)
MoWR, 2013. Annual Report 2011-2012, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the
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WARPO, 2005. Annual Report 2003-2004, Water Resources Planning organization, Ministry of
Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
[13]
WARPO, 2006. Organizational Development Plan (ODP) of WARPO, Dhaka, Water Resources Planning
organization, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
[14]
WARPO, 1992. Water Resources Planning Act, 1992. Water Resources Planning organization,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of BangladeshGWP: available on.
WARPO, 1995. Water Resources Planning Organization Probidanmala, 1995.
MoWR, 2005. Coastal Zone Policy, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s
Republic of Bangladesh.
WARPO, 2006. Coastal Development Strategy, Water Resources Planning organization,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
NWRD, 2001. National Water Resources Database. Water Resources Planning organization,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
WARPO, 2014. Water Management Improvement Project, Water Resources Planning organization,
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
WARPO, 2013. Nuffic-NICHE-BGD/155 (Scenario Development in Integrated Water Resources
Management in Bangladesh: Coping with future Challenges), Water Resources Planning
organization, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.
WARPO, 2014. Institutionalization of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
process in Compliance with Bangladesh Water Act, 2013.
Belgium, 2011. An evaluation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) activities
in Bangladesh for sustainable Water Resources development and Comparison with European
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and Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium, September 2011.
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Situation Analysis and Perspectives of
Transboundary Wastewater Management
Along Israel/palestine borders
Eyad Y. Yaqob1, Rashed Al-Sa`ed2, George Sorial3, & Makram Sudian4
1,3,4
2
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Birzeit University, Birzeit, PALESTINE.
ABSTRACT
Environmental problems between countries can have deep historical roots
and consequences for several reasons. Most environmental transboundary
problems are yet to be resolved.Solutions that were developed responded
to the forcesof political, media, and localNon-Governmental Organisations
(NGOs), and did not respond to the needs or reality on the ground. This
paperfocuses on transboundary wastewater management between Israel
and Palestine. Themeasures undertaken by Israel, thestronger party,and
the associated effects on solvingthe transboundarypollution issues are
presented. Of equal importance, proceduresfollowed by the weaker
party,Palestine, to resolve the environmental problems are discussed. The
responsibility ofthe donor countries and localNGOsin the conflict is also
addressed. Results obtained revealed that the current bi-national
agreement does not achieveenvironmental justiceand protection. The
stronger party applies stringent standards and guidelines, which go
abovethe technicaland financialcapacity of the weaker party to achieve
sustainable sanitation facilities within its region. A regional cooperative
framework with clear coordination mechanism considering the
international experience on transboundary management of wastewater and
engagement of NGOs and donor countries is needed.
Key words: environmental management; transboundary wastewater;
conflict analysis.
INTRODUCTION
A
ccording to recent United Nation (UN) data, 33% of the world population (about
2.6 billion people) have no access to adequate sanitation. The construction of
facilities, wastewater management, and the promotion of hygiene require high
investments that many regions cannot afford. Consequently, 80% of diseases around the
world are caused by unsafe water and lack of sanitation services [1]. When such problems
cross borders, they call for co-operation. These problems cannot be solved without
cooperation between States and help from the rich to the poor countries [2, 3].
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Conflict between countries is often due to the absence of binding international law to
resolve environmental problems. International humanitarian law (IHL) on environmental
protection during armed conflicts lacks clarity in the definition of environmental damage
and also lacks legal certainty regarding the protection of components of the environment
and civilian targets. Application of the principle of proportionality as harmful to the
environment "collateral damage” is also a problem [4].Conflict resolution is hampered by
differences between countries in their capability or resources to deal with decontamination
problems [5]. Environmental transboundary conflicts frequently arise because parties‟
rights and properties are unspecific and not clear. More importantly, the international law
of transboundary water tackles only freshwater entails only hints and remarks on
pollution issues. In the Israeli-Palestiniancase, there is no problem in the human capacity
staff to manage the sanitation sector because ofthe commitment of donor countries to
provide training programs for Palestinian technical crews by providing part of the project
funding for training and capacity building e.g. Albireh and Nablus west treatment plants.
Thus, the solution depends on political will, not on technical issues and needs [6].
It is often difficult to identify the polluter, especially regarding non-point pollution. It is also not
clear legally, how and when the polluter should pay, how much, and sometimes even for what.
When addressing transboundary pollution, no central authority exists to identify the polluter,
mandate enforcement or allocate property rights [7].Europe failed in the period between 19451987 to solve the Rhine River‟s pollution problem, due to the river‟s transit between several
countries, poor diplomatic relations and the lack of joint or harmonized environmental
regulations and laws. After 1987, the Rhine became clean because of the available political
climate and only one body applied environmental laws and regulations. Middle Eastern
Countries are currently experiencing what Europe suffered from for decades [8].
The historical perspective is useful as a reference showing how water conflicts have arisen and
been approached between countries. Attempts to handle transboundary water pollution
problems and conditions on the ground form the baseline for future subsequent negotiations
and solutions [9]. Israel and Palestine need to face shared border environmental pollution
problems that plague water, air and land. This study explores the issue of sewage across the
western borders of the West Bank-Palestine flowing towards Israel and to determine the actual
bi-national and unilateral technical negotiations between Israel and Palestine over
transboundary wastewater. There are many intricacies in the joint water treaties negotiated.
The transboundary wastewater subject may give rise to cooperation, but it may also be a
source of volatile behaviour [10]. Research efforts on policy development for the wastewater
management conflict between Israel and Palestine are still developing and most research work
is confined to case studies [11]. Only a few studies have employed conflict analysis as an
integrated approach to understand and analyse how to promote sustainable wastewater
management on both a local and regional scale [11, 18, 23]
In order to examine how the parties deal with the technical side in the negotiations to
resolve the transboundary pollution problem, this study explores the case of
Palestinian/Israeli transboundary wastewater. The study present and illustrates in detail
the transboundary case study. Next, the paper discusses conflict analysis and the dutyof
all stakeholders followed by the Parties‟ response to the conflict. Finally, some conclusions
and recommendations are offered about the role of political variability in determining the
appeal behind the technical issues and the solution emerging from the media and political
pressure. It could be claimed that the negotiation of environmental conflict is not seen in
the technical aspects when drafting transboundary pollution agreements.
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METHODOLOGY
The analysis of environmental conflict is the foundation for understanding the sensitivity of
the conflict itself. It aim sat understanding the interactions between the conflicting parties and
those who assist them in resolving the dispute[12], and ignoring such analysis could intensify
the complexity of the current situation. Subsequently, for the sake of finding a solution, this
study focuses on the transboundary wastewater pollution conflict between Israel and the oPt.
There are many methods and procedures for addressing environmental conflict, including
but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, which eventually would provide
general solutions and guidelines on how the conflict could be resolved.
But since each case has its own specificity, these solutions will not be applicable on all cases.
Accordingly, this study follows an approach in analysing the conflict; where the conflict
history, causes, nature, and parties have been identified in the introduction and the case study
sections. The conflict roots alongside the obstacles that prevented reaching a solution were
analyzed by concentrating on the conflict level, its impact on human beings‟ lives, and the
technical, social, and political aspects; as well as the parties‟ interests in this continuing conflict.
Furthermore, a conflict map has been used as a tool for analysis; this tool is based on defining
the parties by using circles in which the circle size indicates the party‟s power. The circles are
linked by lines where the shape of the line and its size indicate the nature of the link between
the parties. In order to reach awin-winresult, Stakeholder Analysis (STA) is used to determine
the needs of conflicting parties who have „stake‟ and interest in reforms. It is essential to have
information about stakeholders‟ interests and willingness to support the solution, thus
ensuring the adaptation of realistic and sustainable policies[12].In the STA part, stakeholders‟
matrix, engagement towards conflict, and responses to the conflict were used as tools to
understand their positions, their relationships with other groups, and their desire to find
suitable solutions. In the last section, win-win solutions were developed based on the analysis
of the conflict and of stakeholders, which helps in identifying possible negotiable strategies
with the conflicting stakeholders.
THE STUDY AREA
The Oslo Agreement divided the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) into three political Areas (A, B
and C) which designate varying levels of control [13]. Area A comprised 1,004 km² (20 %) of the
West Bank, Area B comprised 1,204 km² (21%) of the West Bank, while Area C constituted 3453 km²
(59%) of the West Bank. The inhabitants of the West Bank is 2.6 million people in the area of 5,661
km² [14,15]. The West Bank has a very high growth rate, about 2.6%, and is distributed as follows:
68.81% in urban districts, 25.79% in rural districts and the remaining 5.40% in refugee camps [16].
The West Bank population generates 44.8 million cubic meter per year of wastewater, which
implies an amount of supplied water of 55 liters per inhabitant per day [17]. Most of the
generated wastewater in the West Bank is discharged untreated into the environment. The
discharge of 70.25% of the public sewage networks runs untreated into open areas, while the
effluent of 16% of the sewage networks is treated or pre-treated in wastewater treatment
plants. The wasteof the remaining 13.75% of the sewage networks is treated in Israeli
treatment plants and reused for irrigation purposes[18]. This situation is aggravated by the
impact of untreated wastewater that is disposed of the 257 Israeli settlements which are in the
West Bank region affecting the neighbouring Palestinian villages and agricultural land [19].
The main wastewater stream flow is in Wadi Zeimar, Wadi el-Sajour (Nablus), Wadi Beitunia
(Ramallah), Wadi en-Nar (Bethlehem) and Wadi as-Samen (Hebron) [20]. Figure 1 shows the
transboundary area between Israel and Palestine.
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The Joint Water Committee (JWC) was formed according to Article 40 of the Oslo Agreement,
and the parties agreed on the agenda and mechanism of the committee. Despite this
agreement, the Palestinian side claims that during the previous 15 years, Israel has agreed to
only one Palestinian sanitation project (Nablus West) and refused more than 25 projects that
are located in area C. Nevertheless; the Palestinians agreed to more than 30 sewage projects
which service Israeli settlements in the West Bank [21].
According to official Israeli sources in 2007,Israeli colonies in the West Bank produce annually
about 35 million cubic meters of sewage. 81Israelicolonies out of 257 (according to Israel Interior
Ministry‟s eyes there are 120 legal settlements and more than 100 settlements so-called “outposts”) Colonies
inside the West Bank have wastewater treatment plants. More than half of the existing treatment
plants do not work and do not achieve the required standards. The director of the ministry‟s
Central District, Gideon Mazor, admitted the failure of the ministry and the Supreme Planning
Council in the Civil Administration to prevent construction or occupancy of buildings in
settlements and industrial areas in the West Bank that do not have solutions for wastewater[20]. In
a personal interview with Mr. Benny, Environment officer in the Israeli Civil Administration, who
is responsible for all wastewater projects in the West Bank; Benny said that all the projects
submitted by the Palestinian side to Civil Administration were approved and that all Israeli
settlements in the West Bank have waste water treatment plants [22]. Settlements from the Israeli
perspective considered as military zones and therefore; it is difficult to get any information about
its infrastructure and residents. The assigned consultant for constructing a carrier line and regional
wastewater project for Wadi Zomer catchment areas funded by the German Government, failed to
get technical information about the settlements for design purposes due to Israeli side rejection [23].
Figure 1 Green Line border, transboundary area
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The transboundary pollution concern needs cooperation from both sides in order to solve the dispute
[24]. In the Israeli-Palestinian case, the Israelis believe that the military force can achieve long-term
cooperation and permanent environmental protection.JWC and Civil Administration granted all
necessary construction permits for Salfit waste water treatment plant. However; the Israeli army stopped
by force the construction and did not respect the permits issued by their own government.[25, 26].
Since 2003 Israel deducts the expenditures of transboundary wastewater treatment from
Palestinian tax money that should be refunded to the Palestinian Ministry of Finance‟s national
budget. It should be highlighted that Israeli treatment plants located along the Green Line are
established or expanded from funds deducted from Palestinian tax money that is under Israeli
control without any negotiating or agreement with the Palestinian side [20,25,27]. The international
community has pledged $500 million USD to build sanitation infrastructure in the Palestinian
territories [28]. Israeli side refused to issue the necessary permits and continuously imposed an
old/new requirement which links Israeli settlements inside the West Bank to Palestinian sanitation
projects funded by the international community, which is considered illegal under international
law. Israel demands high quality parameters of effluent that cannot be achieved unless
complicated expensive technologies are applied, equivalent to the ones used in the US and
Europe and which cannot be afforded by Palestinian targeted communities [29].
The lack of a clear mechanism in the Joint Water Committee (JWC) to give construction permits
for sanitation projects in the West Bank has helped the Israeli side force its unfair water policy on
the Palestinians [20,30]. This policy is not serving the purpose of future permanent and viable
Palestinian state. Israelis are placing obstacles in the way of Palestinian sanitation projects, such
as the imposition of high specifications, the connection of Israeli settlements, the requirement of
zero treated effluent discharge during the winter, and the construction of wastewater carrier lines
from the West Bank into Israel (Wadi Qana carrier line, Ariel carrier line).
Most Palestinians observe the JWC as a continuation of Israeli domination. These views are related
to the veto power embedded in the Oslo B accords in the form of decision making by consensus: [All
JWC agreements should be] reached by consensus, including the agenda, its procedures, and other
matters (Article 40, paragraph 13; [31]). Since the water treaty was signed, Palestinians have
continuously experienced the Israeli veto power on their wastewater development projects.
Palestinians cannot veto the Israeli water and sanitation projects in the West Bank (Area C) or on a
shared resource within Israel. The Palestinian Water Authority published a report where meetings of
the JWC were described as ”continuous suffering”. The report also noted that even water and
sanitation projects that were approved by the JWC were not implemented [21,32].
CONFLICT ANALYSES
The problem of transboundary pollution between Palestinians and Israelis has existed for more
than 60 years and up to now no sustainable solution has been established. About 1.6 million
Palestinians live-in the west mountainous region in the West Bank within a watershed area,
which has a topography where dry and seasonal valleys carry wastewater into Israel [33].Other
sources of pollution to the valleys come from the Israeli settlements in the West Bank. Recent
data [34] indicated that almost 500,000 Israeli settlers live in the watershed area where raw
wastewater is being discharged onto Palestinian lands and streams. This current wastewater
disposal from both sides leads to the damage of farmland, contamination of water resources
and poses public health hazards. Furthermore, while the Palestinian per capita water
consumption is only70 liters per day and the consumption of an Israeli settler is 296 liters per
day as a result of Israel's control over water resources and higher living standards. [35].
The problem of transboundary sewage between Palestinians and Israelis goes back to the
British mandate (1917-1948), Jordanian era (1948-1967), and the current Israeli occupation.
The Israeli government did not provide any acceptable solution during the occupation period
between 1967 and 1996, and have never tried to solve this matter. Since 1996 until now,
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transboundary wastewater arouses conflicting issues between related parties that call for an
urgent solution [36]. According to the Oslo Agreement, Figure 1 illustrates that the West Bank
has an approximate total area of 5643 square kilometres classified into three areas of control:
Area A, which represents about 20% of the West Bank is categorised by a lack of geographic
connection. In addition, no flow of goods and materials is allowed except through Israeli
checkpoints scattered all over the West Bank. Areas classified as “A” are of high population
density; the development of this area is boarded and limited as they are surrounded by Israeli
settlements and only inside these areas is there full Palestinian control.
Area B is subject to the Palestinians‟ civil control whereas security matters are under the
control of Israelis. This category also represents about 20% of the West Bank; while the area
classified as Area C represents 60% of the West Bank and is under Israeli control and
represents the area of agricultural land with a low population. This category is the most
important category because it is obviously the majority area of the West Bank and has a
potential future for agricultural, economic and urban development. However, In order to
have viable possibilities for wastewater treatment plant construction, the Palestinians must
consider Area C for the establishment, the availability of agricultural land for treated
wastewater re-use and distance from population centers. Such type of construction in Area C
(i.e. wastewater treatment plants, or any other buildings and construction) must obtain the
approval of 14 governmental and security parties on the Israeli side, which makes the process
extremely difficult, and need a long time, meaning years [37-40].
Figure 2: Oslo agreement geopolitical map for the West Bank (Palestine).
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The conflict of transboundary wastewater was initiated between Israel and the
Palestinians after the signing of the Oslo Agreement in 1996.Israelis started to claim that
Palestinians need to resolve the pollution problem as soon as possible despite the fact that
Israel did not consider solutions for these issues from 1967 to 1996. Regardless of these
demands, Israel has hampered all Palestinian efforts to solve the problem ever since the
1996 Oslo Agreement. Below are some obstacles caused by Israel that prevented the
implementation of wastewater projects:
 Israeli authorities through the JWC and the Civil Administration delayed and refused
Palestinian requests for licenses and rejected several applications to erect wastewater
treatment facilities to serve Palestinian communities [1996 until 2011].
 The Israelis withdrew their JWC and Civil Administration consent and approvals for
some Palestinian water and sanitation projects such as sewage and drainage projects
of Salfit in 1998 and Tulkarem in 2003.
 Israelimposed stringent standards that need huge capital investments and high annual
operation, maintenance and repair costs. Citizens have no affordability to pay for
treatment costs.
 Israel water law (effluent reuse) prohibits [32, 41] the discharge of treated wastewater into
seasonal valleys despite complying with required effluent quality standards. As a result,
this calls for the construction of mega storage reservoirs, especially during the winter
period, where no effluent reuse in irrigation can be practiced. Huge financial burdens and
loss of valuable land are associated with such a rule, and thus cannot be implemented.
Because of the conditions listed above, none of the funded and proposed wastewater
projects is being implemented, resulting in the wastewater flowing into valleys and across
the border into Israel. Wastewater flows from the Palestine side through the border is
around 20 million cubic meters annually [11]. On the other hand, wastewater flows from
the Israeli settlements inside West Bank is 54 million cubic meters per year that is dumped
into the environment within the West Bank [42].
The four involved parties in this conflict are Israel, Palestine, donor countries and NGOs,
both local and foreign. There are varying roles and relationships of these parties regarding
the problem of pollution. Israel has political and military power, economic and technical
resources, and control over all aspects of life in the West Bank. In addition to controlling
Palestinian day to day life, Israel as the main and stronger player in this conflict put
political pressure on the donor countries to follow its own agenda. On the other hand,
Israel has to handle the tense relationship with the civil societies because of local and
international criticism of Israeli policy towards the Palestinian. Another aspect of this
conflict is the relationship with the Palestinians. Palestine has no military and economic
power and lacks sovereignty on its own resources as guaranteed by international laws.
Palestinians should always seek Israeli approvals despite the concessions they made in the
Joint Water Committee. The concessions entailed approval to erect more than 30 sewage
projects within the Israeli settlements in the West Bank, as well as construction of a sewage
main trunk line from Israeli settlements into Israel [ according to JWC minutes of
meetings]. (It is worth knowing that the peace process has been stalled due to the
construction of Israeli settlements that oppose international law and challenges the
Palestinian leadership.) The relationship between donor countries and Palestinians is in a
good manner., Also relations with NGOs are good because these are defending
environmental rights based on international law. Figure 3 shows the conflict map which
explains the relation between the involved parties.
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Figure 3 Conflict Map
RESPONSE TO THE CONFLICT
Parties have various responses to the conflict. The Israeli response to the conflict is affected by
its military and economic power so it is trying to impose conditions on the weaker party [the
Palestinians]. Israel truncates 1,000,000 US dollars every month from Palestinian tax money
without mutual agreements and neglects joint agreements and international law. Israel has also
used army forces to stop the establishment of Palestinian wastewater treatment plants, despite
the approval of such sanitation projects by the Joint Water Committee. The Palestinian position
in the conflict is mellow due to its non-exist ant military and weak economy. However, the
Palestinians work on clarifying their position and ask donor countries and NGOs for justice.
Palestinians try to mobilize the international community to place pressure on the Israeli
government to solve the transboundary problem based on international law. Israel must
cooperate to protect shared water resources and the environment from pollution, thus
achieving environmental justice towards. Figure 4 shows the role of power and interest in the
stakeholders‟ engagements. The role of the donor countries is reflected in their understanding
of the conflict and in trying to use their political and economic power to fund wastewater
projects and to coordinate joint meetings between the two parties to discuss the problem and
find the best solution. The power of local and international NGOs regarding the conflict is
grounded from international environmental law and technical aspects. The NGOs act as
catalysts by understanding the conflict and the position of each party. NGOs development
projects in water and sanitation infrastructure advances communities and protects the
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environment and water sources from contamination, table 1 shows the conflict analysis.
Figure 4 Engagement towards stakeholders
Table 1. Stakeholder‟s matrix
Stakeholder
Role
What’s
at stake
Threat/
Cooperation
Potential*
Suppression
Engagement
Toward
party?
H. Power
L. interest
Relation
to other
stakeholders
Israel
Downstream Political
interest
Palestine
Upstream
Rights &
L.T& H.C
Ownership
NGO*
support
interest
H. cooperation Acceptance
M. interest
Discretionary
Donors**
support
Interest
H. cooperation Acceptance
M. interest
Discretionary

H. T& L. C
Response
to the
conflict
Management
L. Power
and promotion H. Interest
Dormant
Dependent
H: High, L: Low, M: Medium, P: Potential, T: Threat, C: Cooperation
Acceptance: Recognize a conflict, but accept whatever solution emerges or is imposed.
Management: Acknowledge a dispute, and act to control its impact
Promotion: Parties with a serious grievance and little power may feel they need to agitate to gotheir
problem heard.
Suppression: Powerful parties may use their influence to deny a problem and prevent a grievance from
surfacing.
* Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) (The main international NGOs: Friends of Earth, Oxfam, Care, Anera,
B‟TSELEM,……etc).
** Donors-Funding agencies (The main wastewater projects donors in Palestine: Germany-KFW, US-USAID, FranceAFD, EU, Japan-JICA, …, etc.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION
Conflict management and resolution are tools that can be used to induce the parties to
open up and be aware of each other‟s interests and positions in the conflict itself.
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Management mechanisms can reduce potential conflicts by considering different
perspectives and interests to establish new management options and win-win solutions. A
negotiation plan consists of three stages:
 The first stage is called as fact finding stage and constitute mainly of data collection for
the purpose of understanding the reality of the conflict. This stage is conducted by
research centers and NGOs that are considered neutral in describing the reality.
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Figure 5 Negotiation strategic map
 The second stage is called the mediation stage. This stage is characterized by
identifying the requirements and conditions of all the involved parties in order to
facilitate the development of solutions in the negotiation scenarios. Israeli side calls for
environmental protection through imposing high specifications and standards on the
Palestinian side. On the other hand, the Palestinian side supports the protection of the
environment, but within the acceptable international specifications and standards that
match the Palestinian economic capacity. Whereas the donor countries, NGO and
research centers working in the region are seeking to push the peace process and
protect the environment from pollution.
 The third stage is the negotiation stage that is intended to meet the requirements of all
parties; which allows the Palestinian side to build wastewater treatment plants within
the borders of the West Bank and verify the degree of processing within the
international standards. But in case the treated wastewater crosses the Israeli border,
then it must be within the Israeli specifications. Figure (5) below shows the negotiation
map which is one of the resolution tools.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The conflict between Israel and Palestine on management of transboundary wastewater is
in fact, not just a conflict about polluted runoff, but it is an unbalanced fight over water
sources, because wastewater is a key component of integrated water management. Treated
wastewater can be considered as a water resource that can preserve and expand the
available water resources, and provide unconventional resource to meet diverse water
needs, while also providing protection of aquatic ecosystems. If these achievements are
conducted, it will then reduce the dependency on freshwater, reduce the need for water
control structures (dams and reservoirs), and maintain a healthy ecosystem via improved
water and wastewater management.
The conflict analysis between Israel and Palestine regarding trans boundary pollution
should not be limited to the “polluter pays” principle, which is based on pollution
eliminating costs, because wastewater is a source and has economic, social and
environmental benefits after treatment. Future negotiations that aim at resolving the trans
boundary wastewater conflict should consider the actual economic, environmental and
social impacts caused by pollution. The compensation price for the water pollution source
should take into account the economic benefits of treated effluent reuse/no-use and longterm benefits such as the entry of this source in the water balance of the ecosystem.
In the environmental conflict, Israel is the stronger side in terms of land and natural
resources control; thus it can impose its own terms on the Palestinians. If Israeli`s water
law aims at protecting the environment from pollution caused by Palestinian trans
boundary wastewater, then Israel should cooperate with donor countries and NGOs to
find the best solutions to solve the problem depending on a cooperation principle. If it
agrees that the conflict is an environmental struggle rather than political conflict, the
donor countries have pledged to provide any needed funds to solve the problem, and the
civil institutions are willing to provide technical support for the Palestinian party. The two
parties, Israel and Palestine, should cooperate by granting the necessary construction
permits for sewage projects, and to revise the high design standards. Cooperation between
Israel and Palestine will guarantee sustainable operation of sewage infrastructures.
Stringent by-laws and complying with environmental standards will provide a guarantee
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for environmental justice and fair implementation.
The Palestinian side is the weaker party in the conflict and has the responsibility to
prevent wastewater pollution resulting in its regions, after the stronger party provides
appropriate conditions. The stronger party shall remove technical and military obstacles,
using the principle of cooperation and stop the principle of unilateral actions. The weaker
side should build an effective, efficient sanitation institutional system in order to build
trust and cooperation with the stronger side. The Palestinian side should invest in research
to develop the sanitation sector and try to get best technical specifications that are
compatible with the Palestinian environment.
Trans boundary wastewater conflict consists of three technical challenges. (1) Israelis
impose high design criteria and effluent quality standards upon Palestinians for the
establishment of sanitation facilities, in areas that do not commensurate with technical and
economic potentials. (2) Israelis impose restrictions upon Palestinians which prevent the
discharge of treated effluent into the seasonal valleys, which means an increase in the
capital and running costs of sewage systems to build reuse systems on the Palestinians. (3)
The definition of high sensitivity areas for pollution, because this element can lead to
relocation of proposed wastewater treatment plants in other less sensitive zones.
Donor countries and NGOs have a responsibility to foster the convergence of views
between the opposing parties. Allocating funds for the establishment of wastewater
treatment facilities in the West Bank leads to stem the flow of pollution into Israel and
helps advance treated water as an additional water resource. The NGO and donors
partiesalso aid in establishing the principle of cooperation between the two sides for the
purpose of making them equal parties in the technical capabilities and infrastructure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author highly appreciates the financial support provided by the German Agency for
Technical Cooperation (GIZ, Ramallah office) for the author during his activity as Senior
Technical Advisor for the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). In addition, the author thanks
Eng. Beesan Shunnar, Naseem Zeidan, and Angela Judy for her interactive discussions and
technical corrections. The author highly appreciates the assistance of the GIS department at the
PWA for producing the necessary maps. Heartfelt thanks also to the anonymous referees.
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publishing and delivering superior, Peer-reviewed standard research
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Linear Active Control Algorithm to Synchronize
a Nonlinear HIV/AIDS Dynamical System
Said Al Hadhrami1, Azizan Bin Saaban2, Adyda Binti Ibrahim3,
Mohammad Shahzad4, & Israr Ahmad5
1,4,5
College of Applied Sciences Nizwa, Ministry of Higher Education, SULTANATE OF OMAN
School of Quantitative Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences, UUM, MALAYSIA
2,3,5
ABSTRACT
Chaos synchronization between two chaotic systems happens when the
trajectory of one of the system asymptotically follows the trajectory of
another system due to forcing or due to coupling. This research paper
addresses the synchronization problem of an In-host Model for HIV/AIDS
dynamics using the Linear Active Control Technique. In this study, using
the Linear Active Control Algorithm based on the Lyapunov stability
theory, the synchronization between two identical HIV/AIDS chaotic
systems and the switching synchronization between two different
HIV/AIDS and Qi 4-D chaotic systems has been observed. Further, it has
been shown that the proposed schemes have excellent transient
performance and analytically as well as graphically found that the
synchronization is globally exponential stable. Numerical simulations are
carried out to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed approach that
support the analytical results and illustrated the possible scenarios for
synchronization. All simulations have been done using Mathematica 9.
Key words: Synchronization, Linear Active Control, Lyapunov Stability
Theory, HIV Model
INTRODUCTION
T
oday, mathematical theory of chaos is a fundamental base of natural sciences [1]. It
proves that the complexity of the behavior of a chaotic system stems from the
exponentially unstable dynamics rather than from the fluctuations or large degree of
freedom. Mathematically, a chaotic system is a nonlinear deterministic system that plays
unpredictable and exceedingly complex behavior [1]. After the pioneering work of
Edwards Lorenz on Chaos [2], there has been tremendous interest worldwide in the
possibility of using chaos in secure communication, physical and other basic sciences [35]. Chaos theory plays a vital role in the study of biological Sciences [6-7] and various
chaotic dynamical models for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have been described
and extensively studied in the literature in a large extent to understand the HIV dynamics,
the mechanism and spread of disease, to predict its future conduct and some conclusion
for better treatment and drug therapies [8-10]. These models provide a quantitative
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understanding of the level of virus production during the long asymptotic stage of HIV
infection [9]. HIV infects different body cells, but mainly target the CD4+T lymphocytes,
which are the most copious white blood cells of the immune system. HIV inflects the most
damage on the CD4+ T cells by causing their decline and destruction, decreasing the
resistance of the immune system [10] and this causes a certain deaths.
Many mathematical models of HIV have been proposed and analyze to study the
dynamics of HIV/AIDS. The utilization of mathematical models support in understanding
the features of HIV/AIDS and virus infection dynamics have been substantial in the past
two decades. The effect of saturation and delays have also been discussed [9, 10].
The chaos control and synchronization have been an attractive field of research in the last two
decades [11]. Research efforts have explored the chaos control and synchronization and have
been one of the critical issues in nonlinear sciences due to its potential applications in different
fields including chemical, physical, biological and many engineering systems [12, 13]. In this
line, a wide range of different effective control techniques and strategies have been proposed
and applied successfully to achieve chaos control and synchronization of chaotic systems [14].
Noteworthy among those, chaos synchronization using linear active control techniques has
recently been accepted and considered as one of the most efficient techniques for
synchronizing both identical as well as nonidentical chaotic systems because of its
implementation to practical systems such as, Bose-Einstein Condensate, Nonlinear Gyros,
Ellipsoidal Satellite and Bonhoffer-van der Pol Oscillators [14] etc.
Chaos synchronization using active control technique was proposed by Bai and Longren
using the Lorenz system and thereafter has been utilized to synchronize other chaotic and
hyperchaotic systems [15]. If the nonlinearity of the system is known, linear active control
techniques can be easily designed according to the given conditions of the chaotic system
to achieve chaos control and synchronization globally. There are no derivatives in the
controller or the Lyapunov exponents are not required for their execution and these
characteristics gives an edge to the Linear Active Control Techniques on other
conventional control approaches [16]. HIV/AIDS in its various forms have attracted the
attention of mathematicians for the last two decades. At this stage, it is now significant to
synchronize the HIV/AIDS chaotic system [17] for further research purposes in order to
reduce the causes of mortality due to HIV in the future.
Motivated by the above, the main goal of this paper is to employ the Linear Active Control
Technique [14] to study and examine the chaos synchronization problem of HIV/AIDS
chaotic system [17] and to extend the applications of synchronization in treatment of
HIV/AIDS related epidemics on theoretical ground.
Based on the Lyapunov Stability Theory [18] and using the Linear Active Control
Technique, a class of feedback control strategies will be designed to achieve the
synchronization globally. The controllers will be designed in a way that the nonlinearity of
the system should not be neglected, and the error signals converges to the equilibrium
point (origin) asymptotically global with less control effort and enough synchronization
speed. Numerical simulations and graphs will be furnished to show the efficiency and the
performance of the proposed approach.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: In unit 2, the Linear Active Control
Methodology is given. In unit 3, description of the HIV/AIDS model is given, and chaos
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synchronization of identical and nonidentical HIV/AIDS chaotic systems will be examined
using the Linear Active Control Technique. In unit 4, numerical simulations will be
provided to show the effectiveness of the proposed methods and finally the concluding
remarks are then given in unit 5
DESIGN OF A LINEAR ACTIVE CONTROLLER
A particular chaotic system is called the drive or master system and the second system is
called response or slave system. Many of the synchronization approaches belong to driveresponse (master-slave) system configurations in which the two chaotic oscillators are
coupled in such a way that the performance of the second (response/slave) system is
controlled by the first (drive/master) system and the first system is not affected by the
exertion of the second system. Consider a master system described by the following
differential equation:
(2.1)
x  Px  f ( x)
and the slave system is described as:
(2.2)
y  Qy  g ( y)   (t )
n
n
Where x, y ϵ Rn are the state vectors, f ( x), g ( y ) : R  R are the nonlinear continuous
nn
sequential functions and P, Q  R are constant system matrices of the corresponding
n1
master and slave systems respectively and  (t )  R
as a control input injected into the
slave system. The synchronization error of the systems (2.1) and (2.2) is described as:
Where,
matrices
e  y  x
e  Qy  g ( y)  Px  f ( x)   (t )

(2.3)
e  Ae  F ( x, y, e)   (t )

ei  yi  xi , i  1, 2,..., n , A  Q  P is the common part of the system
in the master and slave systems and F ( x, y)  g ( y)  f ( x)  Qy  Px that
contains
the
nonlinear
functions
and
non-common
terms
and
 (t )  [1 (t ), 2 (t ),...., n (t )]  R as the Linear Active Control input.
If f ()  g () and / or P  Q then x and y are the states of the two unified chaotic
systems and if, f ()  g () and / or P  Q , then x and y are the states of two
T
n1
nonidentical chaotic systems.
An appropriate active feedback controller '
 (t )
' that satisfies the error system converges
to the equilibrium point (zero), i.e,
lim ei  lim yi (t )  xi (t )  0 ,  x, y, e  R n .
t 
t 
Then the two chaotic systems (2.1) and (2.2) are said to be synchronized [14].
Thus the main issue to synchronize two identical/nonidentical chaotic systems is to design
an appropriate linear active feedback controller that is injected into the slave system to
follow the master system asymptotically in course of time. The active controller should be
designed in a way that it vanishes the nonlinear terms and non-common parts and to
sustain other linear part to attain asymptotically global stability [14].To achieve
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asymptotically global synchronization using Active Control Technique, let us assumes the
following theorem.
Theorem 1. The trajectories of the two (identical or nonidentical) chaotic systems (2.1) and
(2.2) for all initial conditions,
 x1m (0), x2m (0),...., xnm (0)  y1s (0), y2s (0),...., yns (0) 
will be asymptotically global synchronized with a suitable active controller '  (t ) ' as:
 (t )  [1 (t ), 2 (t ),...., n (t )]T  R n1 .
Proof: let us assume that the states of both systems (2.1) and (2.1) are measurable and
parameters of the master and slave systems are known. A proper refinement of the Linear
Active Controller locates the unstable eigenvalue(s) to a stable position. The control signal
 (t )  R n1 is constructed in two parts. The first part eradicates the nonlinear terms from
(2.3) and the second part v (t ) acts as an external impute to stabilize the error dynamics
(2.3), i.e,
 (t )  G( x, y)  v(t )
Where
v(t )   Be   B(yi  xi ) is a linear feedback controller and B  R nn as the
feedback control matrix [14] that determines the strength of the feedback into the slave
system. Thus the error dynamics (2.3) becomes:
(2.4)
e  Ae  v(t )  Ae  Be  e( A  B)  Ce
Where, C  A  B .
From equation (2.4), if the error system (2.4) is a linear system of the form, e  Ce and if
the system matrix C is Hurwitz [18], i.e., the real parts of all eigenvalues of the system
symmetric matrix C are negative, then by the Linear Control Theory [19] the error
dynamics will be asymptotically stable.
To achieve globally exponential stability of the errors system (2.4), let us if we select a
Lyapunov errors function candidate as:
V (t )  eT Me
Where,
M  dig (m1 , m2 ,...mn )  R nn is a positive definite matrix and V : R n  R n is a
positive definite function by construction [3].
If an active feedback controller  (t )  [1 (t ), 2 (t ),...., n (t )]T  R n1 is designed such
that:
V (e)  eT Ne ,
Then, V : R  R is a negative definite function [16] with N as a positive definite
matrix, then the two systems (2.1) and (2.2) are globally exponential synchronized by the
Lyapunov Stability Theory [18]..
n
n
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DESCRIPTION OF AN HIV/AIDS CHAOTIC SYSTEM
HIV is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is an
advanced phase of HIV infection. Recently, P. Das, et.al. [17] presented and studied an Inhost chaotic model for HIV/AIDS dynamics with saturation effect and discrete time delays.
In [17], the switching phenomena for the stable equilibria is observed when a discrete time
delays is incorporated. Further, it has been analyzed the stability analysis with and
without time delays and discussed the effect of various parameters that may control the
disease transmission.
. The differential equations for the HIV/AIDS model [17] is given as:
x  az  bx


c

y 
 dy   xy
x

z  q1 xy  s1 z   w(t   ) 

w  q2 xy  s2 w   w

Where x, y , z , w  R
n n
(3.1.1)
are the state variables which represent the number of virions
(virus particles), number of uninfected targets cells, number of productive infected cells
and number of latent infected cells respectively at any time in an host cells [17].
a, b, c, d ,  ,  ,  , q1 , q2 , s1 and s2 as the system parameters. The virus is reproduced by
the infected cells at a rate of ‘ a ’ that is assumed to be proportional to number of latent
infected cells ‘ z ’. The uninfected cells are produced by the host cells at a particular rate of
c
which depends on the number of virions in the host cells. It is assumed that not all
x
newborn cells are uninfected. These uninfected cells die at a rate of ‘ d ’ and become
infected by the virus at a specific rate ‘  x ’ (  x is the functional response of the viruses
in the uninfected cells) entering ‘ z ’ class and ' w ' class respectively in proportion. A
proportion ‘ q1 ’ of the infected cells become productively infected while the remaining
proportion, ‘ q 2 ’ become latently infected where,
q2  (1  q1 ) . Productive infected cells
and latent infected cells die at particular rates ‘ s1
 r1  d ’ and s2  r2  d respectively,
r1 and r2 are the additional death rates due to
infection. Only the‘ z ’ cells produce virions, and ' w ' cells move to the ‘ z ’ class at a per
where ‘ d ’ is a natural deaths rate,
capita rate  . Moreover, τ (0 < τ < ∞) is the delay due to the formation of productive
infected class from the latent infected class. The parameter c is a constant and ‘  ’ is the
half saturation constant.
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IDENTICAL SYNCHRONIZATION OF AN HIV/AIDS CHAOTIC SYSTEM
To study and analyzed the identical synchronization problem for the HIV/AIDS chaotic
system [17] using linear active control technique, the master-slave system configuration is
described as:
x1  az1  bx1


c

y1 
 dy1   x1 y1
  x1

z1  q1 x1 y1  s1 z1   w1 (t   ) 

w1  q2 x1 y1  s2 w1   w1

(Master system)
(3.2.1)
and
x2  az2  bx2  1


c

y 2 
 dy2   x2 y2  2

  x2

z2  q1 x2 y2  s1 z2   w2 (t   )  3 

w 2  q2 x2 y2  s2 w2   w2  4


(Slave system)
(3.2.2)
x1 , y1 , z1 , w1  R nn and x2 , y2 , z2 , w2  R nn are the corresponding state vectors
of master and slave systems respectively, a, b, c, d ,  ,  ,  , q1 , q2 , s1 and s2 are the
parameters of the master and slave systems and  (t )  [1 (t ), 2 (t ),3 (t ), 4 (t )]T  R n1 is
Where
the Linear Active Controller that is yet to be designed. The HIV/AIDS system describes
chaotic behavior with the parameters:
a  5, b  1, c  10, d  1,   1,   200,   2, q1  0.3, q2  0.7,  18, s1  1and s2  0.1 .
From system of equations (3.2.1) and (3.2.2), the errors dynamics can be described as:
e1  be1  ae3  1


c
c

e2  de2   ( x2 y2  x1 y1 ) 

 2
  x2   x1

e3   s1e3  bz1  s1 z1  q1 ( x2 y2  x1 y1 )   (t   )e4  3 

e4  ( s2   )e4  q2 ( x2 y2  x1 y1 )  4

(3.2.3)
The main goal of this section is to synchronize two identical chaotic systems (3.2.1) and
(3.2.2) using linear active control technique by defining a feedback controller that the slave
system force to track the master system and the states of two chaotic systems (3.2.1) and
(3.2.2) show similar deportment for all future states. To achieve this goal, let us assume the
following theorem.
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Theorem 2. The trajectories of the two chaotic systems (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) will achieve
synchronization asymptotically global for initial conditions,
( xm (0), ym (0), zm (0), wm (0))  ( xs (0), ys (0), zs (0), ws (0)) with the following control law:
1 (t )  ae3  1 (t )


c
c

2 (t )   ( x2 y2  x1 y1 ) 

 (t )
  x1   x2 2

3 (t )  bz1  s1 z1  q1 ( x2 y2  x1 y1 )   (t   )e4  3 (t ) 

4 (t )  q2 ( x1 y1  x2 y2 )  4 (t )

(3.2.4)
Proof: Let us assume that the parameters of the master and slave systems are known and
states of both systems (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) are measurable. Substituting equation (3.2.3) in
equation (3.2.4), we get:
e1  be1  v1 (t )
e2  de2  v2 (t )
e3   s1e3  v3 (t )
e4  ( s2   )e4  v4 (t )
(3.2.5)
Where,
 v1 
 b11 b12
 

 v2     b21 b22
 v3 
 b31 b32
 

 b41 b42
 v4 
b13 b14   e1 
 
b23 b24   e2 
b33 b34   e3 
 
b43 b44   e4 
(3.2.6)
The error system (3.2.5) to be controlled is a linear system with control input
v1 , v2 , v3 and v4 as function of e1 , e2 , e3 and e4 respectively where the constants bij ' s
are the feedback gains. As long as these feedbacks stabilize the error system then
e1 , e2 , e3 and e4 converge to zero as time ’t ' goes to infinity [14]. This implies that the
two identical chaotic systems (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) are synchronized asymptotically.
Replacing equation (3.2.6) in (3.2.5), we have:
 e1   b 0
  
 e2    0 d
 e3   0
0
  
0
 e4   0
0
0
 s1
0
  e1   b11 b12
e  
0
  2    b21 b22
  e3   b31 b32
0
  
( s2   )   e4   b41 b42
0
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b13 b14   e1 
 
b23 b24   e2 
b33 b34   e3 
 
b43 b44   e4 
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
i.e.,
 e1   b  b11
  
 e2    b21
 e3   b31
 e   b
41
 4 
b12
d  b22
b13
b23
b32
b42
 s1  b33
b43
ISSN 2305-915X
b14
b24
  e1 
e 
 2 
  e3 
b34
 
( s2   )  b44   e4 
(3.2.7)
Thus the aim of this paper is to choose a suitable coupling matrix B be in way that the
closed loop system (3.2.7) must have all the eigenvalues with negative real parts so that
the errors dynamics converge to zero as time t tends to infinity. For the particular choice of
feedback gains:
 b11

b
B   21
 b31

 b41
b12
b22
b13
b23
b32
b42
b33
b43
b14   1

b24   0

b34   0
 
b44   0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0 

0 
0 

0.1
With this particular choice of the feedback gain matrix and considering,
b  1, d  1,   1,   2, s1  1 and s2  0.1 , the errors system (3.2.7) becomes:
0
0   e1 
 e1   2 0
  
 
0   e2 
 e2    0 2 0
 e3   0
0 2 0   e3 
  
 
0
0 2   e4 
 e4   0
(3.2.8)
From equation (3.2.8), It can be seen that the error system (3.2.8) is a linear system of the
 2

0
form, e  Ce . Thus the system matrix C  
 0

 0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
0 

0 
is Hurwitz [19] and
0 

2 
all the eigenvalues of the system matrix C are negative (-2, -2, -2,-2). Hence the above
system (3.2.8) is asymptotically stable. To achieve globally exponential stability, let us
assume a quadratic Lyapunov errors function of the form:
V (t )  eT Me
(3.2.9)
where
0
0 
 0.5 0


0 0.5 0
0  which is a positive definite function.
M 
 0
0 0.5 0 


0
0 0.5 
 0
It is clear that the Lyapunov errors function,
V (t )  0 .
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Now the time derivative of the Lyapunov function along the trajectory of the error system
(3.2.3) is given as:
V (t )  eT Me  eT Me
V (t )  (b  b11 )e 12 (d  b22 )e 2 2 ( s1  b33 )e 32 ( s2    b44 )e 4 2
Therefore,
2

T 0

V (t )  e
0

0
2

0
T

V (t )  e Ne and N  
0

0
0 0 0

2 0 0
e0
0 2 0

0 0 2
0 0 0

2 0 0
which is also a positive definite
0 2 0

0 0 2
matrix.
Hence based on the Lyapunov stability theory [18], the errors dynamics converge to the
origin asymptotically global which implies that the two identical chaotic systems (3.2.1)
and (3.2.2) are globally exponential synchronized.
NONIDENTICAL SYNCHRONIZATION OF AN HIV/AIDS CHAOTIC SYSTEM
In this section, two different chaotic systems are described. Both systems are 4-D chaotic
systems. To achieve switching synchronization between two different chaotic systems, let
us assume that the HIV/AIDS chaotic system drives the Qi 4-D chaotic system [20]. Thus
the master-slave system arrangement is described as:
x1  az1  bx1


c

y1 
 dy1   x1 y1
  x1

z1  q1 x1 y1  s1 z1   w1 (t   ) 

w1  q2 x1 y1  s2 w1   w1

(Master system)
(3.3.1)
and
x2  a1 ( y2  x2 )  y2 z2 w2  1 
y 2  a2 ( x2  y2 )  x2 z2 w2  2 


z2  a3 z2  x2 y2 w2  3


w 2  a4 w2  x2 y2 z2  4

(Slave system)
(3.3.2)
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
Where
x1 , y1 , z1 , w1  R
n n
and
x2 , y2 , z2 , w2  R
of master and slave systems respectively.
parameters of the master system where
systems respectively and
n n
ISSN 2305-915X
are the corresponding state vectors
a, b, c, d ,  ,  ,  , q1 , q2 , s1 and s2 are the
a1 , a2 , a3 and a4 are the parameters of the slave
 (t )  [1 (t ),2 (t ),3 (t ),4 (t )]T  R n1
are the Linear Active
Controller.
From systems of equations (3.2.1) and (3.2.2), the error dynamics can be described as:
e1  a1e1  (b  a) x1  a1 y2  az1  y2 z2 w2  1


c
e2  de2  (d  a2 ) y2  a2 x2  x2 z2 w2   x1 y1 
 
  x1 2 

e3  e3  x2 y2 w2   (t   ) w1  q1 x1 y1  3

e4  a4 e4  a4 w1  s2 w1   w1  x2 y2 z2  q2 x1 y1  4

(3.3.3)
To achieve synchronization asymptotically globally using Linear Active Control
Algorithm, re-defining the controller,  (t )  [1 (t ), 2 (t ),3 (t ), 4 (t )]
T
 R n1 as:
1 (t )  (a  b) x1  a1 y2  az1  y2 z2 w2  v1 (t )


c
2 (t )  (d  a2 ) y2  a2 x2  x2 z2 w2   x1 y1 
 v2 (t ) 
  x1


3 (t )   x2 y2 w2   (t   ) w1  q1 x1 y1  v3 (t )

4 (t )  a4 w1  s2 w1   w1  x2 y2 z2  q2 x1 y1  v4 (t )

(3.3.4)
Substituting equation (3.2.4) in equation (3.2.3), we get:
e1  ae1  v1 (t ) 
e2  de2  v2 (t ) 


e3  e3  v3 (t ) 
e4  a4 e4  v4 (t ) 

vi (t )   Bei   B(yi  xi ), i  1, 2,3, 4
Where
(3.3.5)
(3.3.6)
Replacing system of equations (3.2.5) in equation (3.2.6), we have:
 e1   a  b11
  
 e2    b21
 e3   b31
  
 e4   b41
b12
d  b22
b13
b23
b32
b42
1  b33
b43
b14
b24
  e1 
e 
 2 
b34   e3 
 
a4  b44   e4 
(3.3.7)
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For the following particular choice of feedback gain matrix B,
b13 b14   27 0 0 0 

b23 b24   0 2 0 0 

b33 b34   0
0 2 0 
 

b43 b44   0
0 0 7 
b  1, d  1,   1,   2, s1  1and s2  0.1 , the error system (3.3.7)
 b11 b12

b b
B   21 22
 b31 b32

 b41 b42
and considering,
becomes:
 e1   3 0 0 0   e1 
  
 
 e2    0 3 0 0   e2 
 e3   0 0 3 0   e3 
  
  
 e4   0 0 0 3   e4 
(3.3.8)
e  Ce with the
 3 0 0 0 


0 3 0 0 
system matrix, C  
is Hurwitz [19] and all the eigenvalues of the
 0 0 3 0 


 0 0 0 3 
It is now clear that the error system (3.3.8) is a linear system of the form,
system matrix C are negative
(-3, -3, -3,-3). Hence the above error system (3.3.8) is asymptotically stable.
Let us construct the same Lyapunov errors function candidate with the same positive
definite matrix as in (3.2.9). The time derivative of the Lyapunov errors function is given
as:
V (t )  (a  b11 )e 12 (d  b22 )e 2 2 (1  b33 )e 32 (a4  b44 )e 4 2
Therefore,
3 0 0 0


3 0 0
T 0

V (t )  e
e0
0 0 3 0


0 0 0 3
V (t )  eT Ne .
Hence based on Lyapunov stability theory [18], the errors dynamics approaches to the
origin asymptotically globally which implies that the two nonidentical chaotic systems
(3.3.1) and (3.3.2) are globally exponential synchronized.
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80
60
x1
40
x2
x2 without control
20
0
0


1
2
3
4
5
Fig 1: Time Series of x1 & x2 For Identical HIV systems
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
y1
0.06
y2
0.08
0.10

y2 without control

0
1
2
3
4
5
Fig 2: Time Series of y1 & y2 For identical HIV systems
15
10
z1
z2
z2 without control
5
0


1
2
3
4
5
Fig 3: Time Series of z1 & z2 For identical HIV systems
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12
10
w1
w2
8
w2 without control
6
4
2


0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Fig 4: Time Series of w1 & w2 For identical HIV systems
0
2
4
ex
ey
6
ez
0
ew

8

1
2
3
4
Fig 5: Time Series of errors For identical HIV systems
20
x1
15
x2
10
x2 without control
5
0
5
0


1
2
3
4
Fig 6: Time Series of x1 & x2 HIV and Qi systems
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8
6
y1
4
y2
y2 without control
2
0
2
4
6
0.0


0.5
1.0
1.5
Fig 7: Time Series of y1 & y2 HIV and Qi systems
2.0
5
z1
0
z2
z2 without control
5
10
0.0


0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig 8: Time Series of z1 & z2 HIV and Qi systems
w1
5
w2
w2 without control
0
5
0.0


0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig 9: Time Series of w1 & w2 HIV and Qi systems
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ISSN 2305-915X
3
ex
ey
2
ez
1
ew
0
1
2
3
0


1
2
3
Fig 10: Time Series of errors HIV and Qi systems
4
0
10
20
30
For Identica HIV systems
40
50
For Nonidentical
0
1
2
3
HIV & Qi systems


Fig 11: Time Series of V t
4
5
10
For Identical
8
For Nonidentical
6
4
2
0
0
1
2
3
Fig 12: Convergence of errors
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
Numerical simulations are furnished to validate not only the advantages and potency of
the proposed method as well as to overcome the chaotic nature of the HIV model. The
parameters for the new chaotic system [17] are taken as:
a  5, b  1, c  10, d  1,   1,   200,   2, q1  0.3, q2  0.7, s1  1and s2  0.1 ,
with initial conditions are taken as: (10, 7,9,8) & (2, 7, 6, 2) .
The
parameters
for
Qi
4-D
chaotic
system
[20]
are
selected
as:
a1  30, a2  10, a3  1and a4  10 , and initial values are taken as: (1.1, 2.2, 0.3,5.8) &
(5.8,1.15, 2.3, 0.4) .
For the above chosen values, we have plotted the time series of state variables for identical
HIV systems (Figures 1- 6) and for non-identical HIV and Lu systems (Figures 7-10) and it
is clear that the states grow chaotically in the absence of an acceptable controller.
The figure 5 illustrates the synchronization errors of two identical HIV/AIDS chaotic
systems and figures 10 shows the synchronization errors of the two nonidentical
(HIV/AIDS) and Qi 4-D chaotic systems respectively. For the two different chaotic
systems (HIV/AIDS and Qi), that contain parameters mismatches and different structures,
the controllers ware utilized to synchronize the states of master and slave systems
asymptotically globally when the controls were switched on at t = 0 s. It has been shown
that the HIV/AIDS chaotic system is forced to track the Qi 4-D chaotic system and the
states of two chaotic systems show common conduct after a transient time of 2.8 s while
for identical HIV/AIDS systems, the two systems show similar behavior after 3.5 s which
illustrates that the errors signal (figure 10) for two different HIV/AIDS and Qi chaotic
systems have fast response as compared to identical HIV/AIDS chaotic systems. It has
been shown that the error signals converges to the origin very smoothly with a minimum
rate of decay and enough synchronization speed showing that the investigated controllers
are more robust to accidental mismatch in the transmitter and receiver.
The figure-11 depicts the derivative of Lyapunov errors functions of identical chaotic
systems (HIV/AIDS) and nonidentical HIV/AIDS and Qi 4-D chaotic systems.
Moreover, the figure-12 illustrates the analysis of the synchronization between master and
slave systems which has been also confirmed by the convergence of the synchronization
quality defined by the breeding of the error signals:
e
 e1    e2    e3    e4 
2
2
2
2
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In this research article, global chaos synchronization of identical and nonidentical of an Inhost model for HIV/AIDS chaotic system has been investigated. Based on Lyapunov
Stability Theory and using the Linear Active Controller, a class of proper feedback
controllers was designed to achieve exponentially global stability of the error signals.
Since the Lyapunov exponents are not required for their execution, Linear Active Control
Technique is a powerful algorithm for synchronizing two identical as well as nonidentical
chaotic systems. Results are furnished in graphical forms with time history (Figures 1- 12).
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In this study, using the Linear Active Control Technique, all graphical as well as analytical
results shown that the proposed strategies have excellent synchronizing performance and
that the synchronization is globally exponential stable.
In addition, the synchronization with negative derivative of the Lyapunov errors functions
allows large synchronizable interval which shows that the non-progression of the
HIV/AIDS virions could be maintained to a specific value for a long-term and would be
especially significant for HIV infection treatment and thus biologically it would be more
effective to react for treatments such as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), etc.
that provide a useful option for HIV/AIDS infection treatment.
This research can be significant for supplementary research in HIV/AIDS for the long-term
immunological control of HIV/AIDS and crafting of such therapy that changes a
progression patient in a long-term non-progression by slowing down the reproduction of
HIV in the body and can prevent people from becoming ill for many years.
Since the synchronization of two identical as well as nonidentical chaotic systems presumes
potential applications in the field of nonlinear dynamics, the result of this research work
should be helpful and could be employed in the field of epidemiology and may be considered
a good tools in analyzing the spread and control of infectious diseases in the field of HIV/AIDS.
In numerical simulations, the evolution of the synchronization can be modified by
choosing different control gain. We have noticed that by using active control techniques,
if the convergence time is reduced, the magnitude of the control signals is increased. This
may lead to a large controller gain and a signal saturation which creates self-excitation and
noise in the system and the synchronization might be disregarded completely.
This research work is totally based on theoretical ground, but in practice, it may also be
disturbed by some additive noise. Further research can be done to overcome on these
limitations by designing proper gain for the system in studies that can robustly against the
internal or environmental noise.
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applications”, Physics Reports 329, 103-109, (2000).
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Relaxation Method:, Abstract and Applied Analysis, vol. 2012 (2012).
A. Saaban, A. Ibrahim, M. Shahzad & I. Ahmad. “Global Chaos Synchronization of Identical
and Nonidentical Chaotic Systems Using Only Two Nonlinear Controllers,” In proceeding of
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J. Cui, Z. Wu & X. Zhou. “Mathematical Analysis of a Cholera Model with Vaccination,”
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H. Mai, Y. J. Huang, X. Liao & P. C. Wu. “Simple model-Free Controller for the stabilization of
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G. Chenand, L. Wang. “Global Exponential Robust Stability of Static Interval Neural Networks
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Z. Wang, Z. Guo. “Dynamical Behavior of a New Epidemiological Model”, Journal of Applied
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A.M. Elaiw and A.S. Alsheri. “Global Dynamics of HIV Infection of CD4+T Cells and
Macrophages,” Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society, vol. (2013).
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K. Zhuang and H. Zhu. “Stability and Bifurcation Analysis for an Improved HIV Model with Time
Delay and Cure Rate,” WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on MATHEMATICS, vol. 12, issue 8, (2013).
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different Chaotic Systems Using Nonlinear Control. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and
Applied Research (IJSBAR), Volume 13, No 1, 225-238, (2014).
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Quasi-1D Bose-Einstein Condensate, Journal of Chaos, vol. 2013 (2013).
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4-D, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 42 (2009) 101–112.
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with unknown Parameters. International Journal of Information technology and Computing
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AJASE? www.ajase.weebly.com
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ISSN 2305-915X
Thermal Characterization of Nematic Liquid
Crystal Elastomer
Rita A. Gharde1, Santosh A. Mani2
1
Department of Physics, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, INDIA
K. J. Somaiya College of Engineering, Mumbai, INDIA
2
ABSTRACT
We have synthesized and characterized thermal properties of Nematic
Liquid Crystal Elastomer (NLCE) using Polarizing Microscopy Studies
(PMS), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermo gravimetric
Analysis (TGA). The synthesis of NLCE was confirmed by Fourier
Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. The NLCE used in the present
study, has a unique coupling between the anisotropic order of Liquid
crystal components and elasticity of polymer network. The investigations
revealed that there is a spontaneous change of the NLCE at nematic –
isotropic transition, which gives a flexing effect, when the material is
pinned on the substrate. This shows that this synthesized material can be
used for large number of biological applications.
Key Words:
Nematic
Liquid Crystal Elastomer (NLCE), Fourier
Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimetry
(DSC), Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA)
INTRODUCTION
L
iquid Crystals are condensed materials with a degree of order intermediate between
anisotropy of crystalline solid and isotropy of a liquid phase. There are different
liquid crystal phases depending on the degree of positional and/or orientational
order like Nematic, Smectic and Cholesteric. Liquid Crystals offer broad range of
applications in the field of Liquid Crystal Displays, Liquid Crystal Thermometer, Optical
Imaging etc. (P. G. De Gennes; 1975).
The advances in the polymer science have opened a new arena for active materials which
has attracted significant interest from scientific community. These most promising
materials, which combine the properties of liquid crystalline units and rubber elasticity of
the cross-linked network, are Liquid Crystal Elastomers (LCEs) (R. Zental and G. Reckert;
1986, E. M. Terentjev; 1999). Liquid Crystal Elastomers (LCEs) have attracted considerable
interest from both basic and applied science research points of views due to their
anisotropic mechanical and thermal properties. These materials have several unusual
properties like spontaneous; reversible shape change on heating, soft elasticity, mechanical
instabilities and optical switching, etc. LCEs are weakly cross-linked elastic polymer
networks that incorporate rigid, anisotropic units (termed mesogens) bounded to the
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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polymer chains. The mesogens can exhibit spontaneous orientational ordering of the same
type that is observed in ordinary low molar mass liquid crystals. However, since the
mesogens are chemically bound to the cross-linked polymer network, any change in their
orientation will be coupled to changes in the mechanical as well as thermal properties of the
material. As the mesogens undergo a phase transition from the liquid crystalline state to the
isotropic state, LCEs exhibit a significant change of their macroscopic shape due to the motion
of the polymer network, which is coupled to the mesogens. The transition between the ordered
and disordered states is dictated by the thermodynamic equilibrium; hence the shape change is
fully reversible. The coupling between the liquid crystal chain and backbone is critical to
thermostrictive behaviour of LCE material. (C. H. Legge, J. Davis and G. R. Mitchell; 1991, H.
Finkelman, J. Kupfer; 1991, S. V. Fridrikh E. M. Terentjev; 1999).The concept of LCE was put
forward by P.G. De Gennes in 1975. However, the first LCE was synthesized by
Finkelmann et al in 1981. LCEs with thermo – responsive, photo – responsive and electro –
responsive functions have been developed. (A.R Tajbakhsh, E. M Terentjev; 2001, P. E.
Cladis, P. Ehrhard., D.Riley; 2001, M. Bispo, Daniel Guillon, Bertrand Donnio, H.
Finkelmann; 2008, P.M Hogan, A. R Tajbakhsh, E. M Terentjev; 2001). Depending on the
phase exhibited by liquid crystal, LCEs are divided into nematic LCE, smectic LCE and
others (P. E. Cladis, P. Ehrhard. D. Riley; 2008)
Nematic LCEs (NLCEs) consist of pendent liquid crystal mesogens attached to a polymer
network. They are soft, elastic materials that have wide range of applications. (M. Warner
and E. M. Terentjev; 2003, M. Bispo, Daniel Guillon, Bertrand Donnio,
H.
Finkelmann; 2008). In recent years, their applications as micropumps, microvalves for
microfluidic devices and opto-mechanical shutters have been developed. (Dukes, D.; Li,
Y.; Lewis, S.; Benicewicz, B.; Schadler, L.; Kumar;2010, Biggins, J.S.; Warner, M.;
Bhattacharya;2012, Jayaraman, A. J;2013) . In the present study, we synthesized NLCE
using Finkelmann procedure and thermal properties of this material were characterized by
Polarizing Microscopy Studies (PMS), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and
Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA). Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy is
used for structural investigations and confirmation of NLCE synthesis
EXPERIMENTAL
Synthesis
The samples of NLCE was made by preparing partially crosslinked films in a centrifuge,
highly swollen in toluene (2-3 ml per 1 g of material), reacting for 25-35 minutes before
evaporating the solvent. A careful study of reaction kinetics ensured that approximately 50% of
crosslinks were established in the first stage of this preparation. The orientation is then fixed by
the subsequent second-stage reaction, when the remaining crosslinks are fully established. The
structure of polymer, monomer and cross linking agent is shown in Figure 1.
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Polymer
Monomer (Pure
NLC)
Cross linking
Fig. 1.Synthesis of NLCE
Characterization Techniques
The thermal characterizations of synthesized NLCE were performed by Fourier Transform
Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermo
gravimetric Analysis (TGA). The heating rate for DSC and TGA were kept at 100C/min.
The heat flow for DSC was recorded upto temperature of 1600C, whereas weight for TGA
was recorded upto temperature of 2000C.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FTIR Analysis
FTIR is an effective analytical instrument for detecting functional groups and
characterizing covalent bonding information. The spectrum produces a distinctive
molecular fingerprint that can be used to scan samples for many different
components. The spectra obtained from FTIR spectroscopy is shown in Figure 2.
According to FTIR spectra, spectral peak obtained at 3445 cm-1 was due to some moisture in
the sample (water), peaks in between 3445 and 2926 cm-1 was due to benzene C-H bond,
peaks at 2926 and 2857 cm-1 was due to long chain of -CH2- group, peak at 1731 cm-1 was due
to C=O group, peak at 1606 cm-1 was due to C=C group, peak 1509 cm-1 due to benzene
(C=C), peak at 1465 cm-1 was C-H deforming ,1256 cm-1 was due to Si-C bond, 1196 cm-1 was
due to C-O (sample present in the group), 1069 cm-1 was due to C-O of benzene group, 1009
cm-1 was Si-O bonding, peak at 763 cm-1 also confirms benzene in the sample. This spectrum
confirms the synthesis of NLCE.
Fig.2. FTIR of NLCE
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Polarizing Microscopy Studies
PMS is the most widely used method to identify different phases. The synthesized material of
NLCE under investigation was studied at crossed polarized light for various temperatures of
heating and cooling cycles. The textures obtained by PMS are shown in Figure 3. In these
textures molecular alignment and defects are seen at different temperatures.
It is found that the NLCE material possesses nematic phase upto a temperature of 76 0C
followed by isotropic phase. The nematic liquid crystal (monomer), used in synthesis of
NLCE, possesses nematic phase upto 580C followed by isotropic phase.
DSC Analysis
DSC is a thermo analytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of sample and reference are measured as a function of temperature.
Both sample and reference are maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout. When
they undergoes phase transition heat flows to it than to the reference to maintain both at the
same temperature. The amount of heat flow into the sample depends on whether the process is
exothermic or endothermic. DSC graph of NLCE for heating and cooling cycles is shown in
Figure 4. The heat flow (in mW) was recorded upto temperature of 1600C at a heating rate of
100C/min. The value of ∆Cp value was found to be 0.041J/g 0C at 77.750C.
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TGA Analysis
Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) is an analytical technique used to determine a
material‟s thermal stability and its fraction of volatile components by monitoring the
weight change that occurs as a specimen is heated. The weight is recorded as a function of
increasing temperature. The TGA graph of NLCE is shown in Figure 5. The weight was
recorded upto temperature of 2000C at a rate of 10oC/min. It is found that weight remains
same upto temperature of 60oC and then decreases linearly and becomes minimum at
90oC. The weight increases linearly for further increase in temperature and becomes
constant at 120oC.The weight remains same for further increase in temperatures. This is
due to spontaneous change of the NLCE.
CONCLUSIONS
The FTIR spectroscopy confirms the syntheses of NLCE. The thermal characterizations
performed by DSC and TGA shows there is a spontaneous change of the NLCE due to
change of rotation of the liquid crystalline side chains. This shows that this is a unique
class of soft material which can be used for wide range of biological applications like
artificial muscles. This behavior has a great practical relevance and we are continuing our
investigations to understand many other aspects of this soft material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the help and encouragement given to us by Dr. Anuradha Misra,
Professor and Head, Department of Physics, University of Mumbai. We are also grateful to Dr.
Shubha Pandit, Principal, K. J. Somaiya College of Engineering, Mumbai for her help and motivation
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H. Finkelman, J. Kupfer, Makromol. Chem. Rapid Commun. 12, 717-726 (1991)
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P. E. Cladis, P. Ehrhard., D. Riley, Proc. Euro Mech,. 408, Kluewer Accademic, pg. 123, (2001).
M. Bispo, Daniel Guillon, Bertrand Donnio, H. Finkelmann, Macromolecules. 41, 3098-3108 (2008)
P.M Hogan, A. R Tajbakhsh, E. M Terentjev, Cond. Mat. (2001)
P. E. Cladis, P. Ehrhard., D. Riley, Proc. Euro Mech,.408, Kluewer Accademic, pg. 123, (2001).
M. Warner and E. M. Terentjev, Liquid Crystal Elastomers, Clarendon Press Oxford , (2003).
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Dukes, D.; Li, Y.; Lewis, S.; Benicewicz, B.; Schadler, L.; Kumar, S.K. Macromolecules 43, 1564
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Biggins, J.S.; Warner, M.; Bhattacharya, K. Elasticity of polydomain liquid crystal elastomers.
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Important!!!
If the responses and the revised manuscript are not submitted by the deadline, submission is deemed to
have been abandoned. The rejection of the manuscript will be conveyed to the Authors. AJASE
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Float Trays as an Alternative to Methyl
Bromide in Tobacco Production in Hurungwe
District, Zimbabwe
Rumbidzai Debra Katsaruware1, & Justin Gwembire2
1
Programme Coordinator, Department of Agricultural Management, Zimbabwe Open University, ZIMBABWE
Programme Coordinator, Department of Teacher Development, Zimbabwe Open University, ZIMBABWE
2
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out in Hurungwe district in Zimbabwe to evaluate the
feasibility as well as the challenges of using float trays as an alternative to the use
of methyl bromide in tobacco production. The study made use of the qualitative
and quantitative research design. Questionnaires, interviews, economic analysis
and field observations were used as data collection instruments. Descriptive
analysis was used in the research. The results of the study indicated that floating
trays can effectively substitute the use of methyl bromide in tobacco seedling
production. This is because of their accessibility, ability to produce excellent
quality seedlings because of reduced insect pest, weeds and disease attack and
also a reduction in labor requirement. The float trays maintain or improve
productivity because the transplanting shock is reduced; when the seedlings are
ready for transplanting, there is a reduction land required for seedling
production as well as the cost effectiveness of the float trays. There are, however,
challenges that affect the float tray system, although the challenges are
outweighed by the advantages. The challenges include the technical knowhow
that is associated with the float tray system. The unavailability of additional
substrates, the distance to the float tray distributors where the trays are procured,
high initial establishment costs and the need for farmer to stay on the farm until
the seedlings are transplanted onto the field are also factors affecting the
adoption of the float trays. From the results of the research, it can be concluded
that float trays can substitute methyl bromide in insect pest, weeds and disease
control while being environmentally friendly. It is recommended that there is
need for farmer training on the use of float trays, government subsidies in initial
establishment of the technique, ready supply of the float trays and
decentralization of the manufacturers of float trays into tobacco growing areas.
Key words: alternative, float trays, methyl bromide, phase.
INTRODUCTION
M
ethyl bromide is a broad spectrum fumigant that has been in use in Zimbabwe for
over half a century (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012). The chemical is mainly used as
a pre-plant soil sterilant and disinfectant in warehouses, ships and aeroplanes
(Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012) which kills a broad spectrum of insect pests, weeds, soil
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pathogens (Stevens, 1993; Martin, 2003) and a single treatment before planting controls
nematodes, diseases and weeds (Meadows, 2013). Between 70-80% of Methyl bromide is used
for soil sterilization pre-planting. Soil fumigation of methyl bromide has traditionally been
practiced in high-input, high-value production systems (Ristaino and Thomas, 1997). The
chemical has been proven to be effective in the control of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
sp) and Cyperus sp which are problematic in tropical and subtropical climates (Gilreath and
Santos, 2008). In Zimbabwe, much of the Methyl bromide is used to sterilize soils in tobacco
and horticultural nurseries, as well as grain fumigation (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012).
Methyl bromide was identified as ozone depleting in 1985 (Ristaino and Thomas, 1997;
Rosskopf et al, 2005). This toxic gas is so volatile that more than half of the amount injected into
the soil can eventually end up in the air. When methyl bromide rises high in the atmosphere, it
contributes to thinning of the ozone layer (the layer that shields us from ultraviolet radiation)
(Meadows, 2013).The disruption of the ozone layer causes increased ultraviolet radiation to
reach the earth‟s surface, with potential effects to human health, the environment and
agricultural crops. According to Stevens (1993), the ozone layer has a concentrated band at 1530km altitude and shields the earth from harmful ultra violet-B (UV-B) radiation. The excessive
exposure to the radiation by human beings is linked to skin cancer, eye diseases in humans,
suppression of the immune system in the living organisms, damage to protein and DNA.This
phenomenon was supported by over 160 countries who are signatories to the Montreal
Protocol of 1987 (Cunningham, 1990). In 1992, Methyl bromide was added to the list of ozone
depletion substances under the same Montreal Protocol. By September 1997, controls on
methyl bromide production and use had been agreed to under the Montreal Protocol whereby
it was agreed that there was to be a 50% cut in production by 2001, a 70% reduction by 2003
and total phasing out by 1 January 2005 in developed countries. Developing countries were to
reduce consumption in 2002 at a 1995-1998 average, reduce consumption from that baseline by
20% in 2005, and are to phase out Methyl Bromide by 2015 (USDA Economic Services
Research, 2000). Despite the agreement Methyl bromide is still being produced in the
developed countries (Zasada et al., 2010).
Zimbabwe as one of the signatories to the Montreal Protocol has proposed a number of
alternatives have been proposed and recommended for use to replace Methyl bromide. It is in
the interest of Zimbabwe to phase off methyl bromide as soon as possible because the golden
leaf which is largely exported is likely going to face consumer resistance
Alternative methods for soil pest control have resulted in some drawbacks such as uneven and
inadequate coverage (Meadows, 2013), short stability in the soil, with microbial degradation
responsible for chemical inactivation (Gan et al., 2000), inefficiency on fungi, weeds and insects
(Gilreath et al., 2006). Other methods such as solarisation, seedling trays with overhead
watering (microjet), composted pine bark (substrate) seedbeds and seedlings floating in the
water, burn and ethylene dibromide (EDB), dichloropropene, ethyl dibromide, chloropicrin
have been developed by TRB (Thompson, 2000). The evaluation of alternative methods in
Zimbabwe started in 1994 by Tobacco Research Board and is still continuing (Thompson,
2000). Some studies indicated that the seedlings grown in seedling trays with overhead
irrigation system were much smaller than those grown in pine bark as well as those of the float
system.
Zimbabwe has set herself the deadline of 2011, four years in advance of the Montreal Protocol
deadline, to phase out methyl bromide (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012a). In Brazil, sixty
percent of tobacco seedlings are raised using the float system (FAO, 2001). Tobacco Research
Board has introduced the float tray system whose adoption by small-scale farmers is at
between 30 and 40% (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012a).
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research was carried out in Hurungwe district that falls under Zimbabwe‟s agroecological
region 2b. The region is characterized by intensive farming based on crop production. Rainfall
amounts were in the range of 700-1050 mm with 16-18 pentads per season. Hail occasionally
causes damage to leaf crops like tobacco. The first frost occurs around June. Most of the soils in
the area are sandy to loamy sand that makes the area most suitable for tobacco production.
Cereal and tobacco production is widespread in the study area.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The study used both the qualitative and the quantitative research design in evaluation of the use of float
trays. The descriptive research approach was used. The qualitative and a quantitative approach allow the
systematic collection of information about objects of the study in a setting (DeVaus, 1996). Field evaluation
was important in this research to compare the performance of seedling between the seedlings grown
under soil treated with methyl bromide, seedbeds without any soil treatment and the floating trays. This
however, gave the researcher the correct information about what is happening on the ground. Qualitative
design was used on the other hand, to bring out data on farmers experiences and feelings. For the
questionnaire random sampling was done on a cluster of farmers in six operational zones who were into
tobacco farming. Ten farmers were selected from each operational zone to come up with 60 farmers in all
the six zones. In the operational zones, two farmers from each zone allowed the researcher to assess the
various treatments on each treatment. The findings from the observations were triangulated with the
questionnaires as well as the interviews to improve the validity of the research findings.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Questionnaires, interviews and field observations were used as data collection techniques. The
observations were made once after three weeks up to the twelfth week when the seedlings
were said to be ready for transplanting. The quality of the seedlings was later coded for
analysis. Descriptive analysis was used in the form of tables graphs and pie-charts. An
economic analysis was also used to compare the cost of the float tray technology and the
traditional (conventional) seedbed
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
1. Gender and age of respondents
The results of the study show that the majority of tobacco farmers are males (75%) while
women constitute 25% of the respondents. A higher number of tobacco farmers are in the
above 40 age group for both the male and the female tobacco farmers. There were no farmers
in the below 20 age group whereas only 15% and 25% constitutes farmers in the 21-30 age
group and 31-40 age group respectively. The farmers who were above 40 age group
constituted 60% of the respondents (Table I).
Table I: Gender and age of respondents
Age group (yrs)
<20
21-30
31-40
>40
Total
Gender
Female
Male
0 (0%)
0(0%)
3(5%)
6(10%)
3(5%)
12(20%)
9(15%)
27(45%)
25%
75%
Total
0%
15%
25%
60%
100%
N=60
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The results of the study were in line with the research by Mazarura et al (2012) who observed that the
majority of farmers in tobacco production are males in the adult age group which in this case are over
the age of forty. The shift of women from the traditional non-cash food crops as evidenced by the fewer
number of women who are into tobacco production could raise fears that the shift might lead to food
insecurity in the households (Muwanga-Bayego, 1994). The research finding that the majority of
growers were adult males conforms to the findings by Capehart (2004) who observed that there are
fewer young farmers in tobacco production. In another study, in Bindura, it was found that the
smallholder tobacco farmers in Bindura are males who constitute more than half of the farmers in the
district (AREX, 2012). In this study most of the farmers were above the 40 age group similar to the
work of (Manyumwa et al, 2013) who observed that the age group in the range of 40 years and above
years is dominating smallholder tobacco farming in the district due to experience in tobacco farming.
2. Land area used in tobacco farming
The highest number of farmers (68.3%) use land area of between 1 and 3 hectares followed by 21.6% of the
respondents who use 4-6 hectares for tobacco farming. The smallest number of farmers (10%) use more
than six hectares of land for tobacco production (Table II). This means that most farmers use small
portions of land for tobacco production.
Table II: Land area used in tobacco farming
Land area
Number of respondents
Frequency (%)
1-3ha
41
68.3
4-6ha
13
21.6
>6ha
6
10
Total
60
100
N=60
Small land areas are used for tobacco production because the tobacco industry is now dominated by
farmers who have benefited from the fast track land reform programme the majority of whom are on
six hectare plots (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012b). The research results was also similar to the work of
Jayne et al, 2003 who found that the majority of tobacco growers in the sub Saharan region were
smallholder farmers working on land less than two hectares. The nature of smallholder farmers of
characterized by mixed cropping where by maize is part of the production system means that the
farmers could also have been involved in some activities such as maize and legume production on
some of the land that they own. This means that growing only tobacco on their pieces of land could
lead to food insecurity hence need for producing food crops on the other hand (Rahman, 2011).
3. Experience of farmers in tobacco farming
The results of the study indicates that the large proportion (46%) of farmers surveyed have between 4
and 6 years of tobacco production however while 35% had between 7 and 9 years of tobacco farming.
Farmers with more than ten years of experience in producing the crop constituted 13.3% of the
respondents (Table III). In brief 95% of the surveyed farmers have at least four years experience in
tobacco farming.
Table III: Farmers experience in tobacco farming
Experience in tobacco farming
1-3 years
4-6 years
7-9 years
>10 years
Total
Number of respondents
3
28
21
8
60
Frequency (%)
5
46.7
35
13.3
100
N=60
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The majority of farmers had at least four years experience in tobacco production because
tobacco has become a major commercial crop of late, providing the farmer with a readily
available, very sophisticated and well managed marketing system (Mazarura et al, 2012)
therefore becoming a key crop in smallholder farming (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012b). In
the 2010-11 seasons, tobacco earnings totaled US$347.8 million (Karavina and Mandumbu,
2012) which was very attractive to most farmers and therefore this could further attract more
farmers into the tobacco production industry (Chivuraise,2011).
4. Accessibility of float trays
The results of the study indicates that of the 60 respondents, 28 (43%) indicated that the float
trays were easy to access, 24 (38%) indicated that the floating trays were not accessible while 12
(19%) indicated that the floating trays could not be accessed by many (Fig 1). This means that
the highest number of farmers was able to access the float trays.
not accessible
19%
43%
difficult to access
38%
easy to access
Fig1. Farmers accessibility of float trays
The highest number of respondents was able to access the float trays probably because they
had vehicles that would enable them to go to Harare to buy the float trays from Harare. Some
farmers have complained that it is not easy to secure the trays as well as the media and quarry
to mix with seed for even seed distribution at planting because these trays sometimes are not
available at the time they go to buy the trays. This was in line with the research by Karavina
and Mandumbu, 2013 who indicated that sales records at the Tobacco Research Board (TRB)
how that most of the trays are taken up by large scale commercial farmers leaving very few or
no trays for the smallholder farmers who would want to buy the trays in smaller quantities as a
result of the land area that they use for tobacco production.
5. Affordability of the float tray technology
The response of the farmers shows that the costs of the float trays were affordable to most
farmers. Ninety three percent indicated that the float trays were affordable while 4% were not
sure of the costs.
However only three percent have indicated that the float trays are not affordable (Fig 2.).
3%4%
Affordable
Not affordable
Not sure
93%
Fig 2: The response of farmers on the affordability of new technology
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Most farmers have indicated that the technology is affordable probably because of the reduced
labour needs that usually manifest itself in reduced labour costs since most of the farmers rely
on hired labour in addition to the household labour. The labour requirements are reduced in
the float tray system compared to the conventional seed bed because of the limited areas on the
float trays that needed to be monitored, sprayed, weeded and ploughed.
Farmers have also indicated that the float tray technology is costly. This could be because of the
requirements of additional inputs into the float tray system which are the growing media and
the black plastic in addition to the float tray (Manyumwa et al, 2013).
6 Quality of seedlings in tobacco seedbeds
Quality of seedlings varied according to the treatment. The various codes that were used to
describe the quality of the seedlings were excellent, good, fair and poor. According to Strahler
(1988), excellent quality seedling that is ideal for transplanting should be 12-15cm from crown
to bud, be size of a pencil in diameter, should be well hardened and have a vigorous and
abundant root system. The quality of seedlings in the excellent category was almost similar
between the methyl bromide treatment and the floating seedbed technology where it was 60%
and 63.3% respectively. However for a treatment that had no either methyl bromide or float
trays the majority of the seedlings were in the fair category. There was also slight difference in
the quality of seeds between the methyl bromide and the floating seedbeds that were in the
good category. Either methyl bromide or the float tray system had no poor seedlings while the
poor seedlings were obtained in untreated seedbed (8.3%) (Table IV).
Table IV: The quality of seedlings in the seedbeds
Treatments
Methyl bromide
Floating seedbed
No treatment
Number Frequency(%) Number Frequency(%) Number Frequency(%)
Excellent
36
60
38
63.3
8
13.3
Good
22
36.7
20
33.3
20
33.3
Fair
2
3.3
2
3
27
45
Poor
0
0
0
0
5
8.3
Total
60
100
60
100
60
100
The results of the study indicate that the floating trays can equally compete with the methyl
bromide that has been phased out. The trays can potentially reduce disease and pest incidences
in the same manner as the methyl bromide treated seeds that in the end contribute to the
quality of the seedlings.
7. Advantages of using float tray system
Farmers cited several advantages that are associated with the float tray system. The float trays
were said to reduce labour (78%), reducethe effort that is required for pulling plants (93%),
reduce risk of plant failure (85%), maintains yield (57%), controls weeds (80%), results in
uniformity of seedlings (98%), reduce the use of pesticides (88%), saves land (100%) and reduce
incidence of diseases (85%) (Table V).
Table V: Advantages of using the float tray system
Advantage
Number of respondents
Frequency(%)
Reduction of labour
47
78
Reduced task of pulling plants
56
93
Risk of plant failure from dry weather is
eliminated
Yield is maintained
51
85
34
57
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Weed control is eliminated
48
80
There is uniformity of seedlings
59
98
There is reduced use of pesticides
53
88
Land is saved
60
100
Reduction of disease
51
85
A reduction in labour requirements was said to be associated with the float tray system. This
could be because, in the „floating tray‟ system, seedlings are raised in trays that float in water.
The system uses less space and therefore less labour required for watering compared to the
traditional system. The float tray also requires less labour as watering also takes place less
frequently (Mtonga and Mumba, 2010).
The benefits of using the float tray system were said to be associated with the reduction of
disease incidences in the plants. This is attributed to the use of disease-free substrate (pine bark
or vermiculite), nutrient solution, and containers. Irrigation pipes are also maintained clean as
well as the workers or visitors production system interface. This gives the seedlings a good
start and response to key production inputs (Upenyu and Asher, 2011).
There is also reduced labour required for pulling the plants because the practice produces
better quality seedlings with intact dense root systems which result in more uniform crops. The
plant uniformity, therefore reduces transplanting shock during the initial seedling
establishment in the field (Upenyu and Asher, 2011).
Farmers indicated that there was a production of good quality seedlings in the float tray
system. This could be because of the ideal proportion of air and nutrients on the substrate that
ensures better root development of seeds that result in good quality seedlings (Pearce and
Palmer, 1999) resulting in less disease which in turn have an effect on the reduction in the use
of pesticides. The research results are in line with the work of Mazarura (2004) which indicated
that the seedlings grown in float trays were more drought resistant (Mazarura, 2012).
Mazarura, (2012) further attested that the farmers who practiced the float tray system found it
easy and confirmed that the float tray system produced uniform seedlings The production of
more uniform, drought resistant seedlings ensure easier field management of the crop
(Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012).
The farmers have also indicated a yield maintenance using the float tray method. Research has
consistently shown that yields are the same or tend to be better than from the conventional
system of using methyl bromide in seedbeds (Upenyu and Asher, 2012). This could be as a
result of the production of uniform, disease free and drought resistant seedlings that can
survive even harsher conditions. Float tray raised seedlings also allows easier and more
efficient transplanting which means farmers do not spend time in sorting the better young
plants from the rest, which greatly shortens the procedure of transplanting and have a positive
results on the yield.
Farmers have indicated that the float tray technique saves land. Optimal use of land lies in the
fact that approximately 20 m2 of the seedbed produces seedlings enough to cover a hectare
after transplanting, something that is not possible with the seedbed applied with methyl
bromide (Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012).
8. Challenges of using the float tray system
Farmers have indicated challenges associated with the float tray system. These are associated
with labour constraints (25%), too technical (88%), high cost (28%), proneness to diseases (12%),
need for additional substrate (22%), forces the farmer to stay on the farm (57%) and high initial
establishment costs (67%) (Table VI).
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Table VI: Challenges of using the float tray system
Challenge
Number of respondents
Labour intensive
15
Too technical
53
Costly
17
Forces the farmer to stay on the farm
34
Float trays are prone to diseases
7
Need for additional substrates
13
High initial establishment cost
40
ISSN 2305-915X
Frequency (%)
25
88
28
57
12
22
67
Some smallholder farmers have indicated that they are still reluctant to use the float tray
seedbed technology for tobacco seedlings arguing that the technique is labour intensive. This is
caused by labour constraints that are rampant in the first year of using the technology in the
sense that seed bed construction includes labour intensive tasks and heavy work for those
physically challenged (Manyumwa et al, 2013).
The farmers cited the problem of high initial establishment costs. This is because, in the first
season, the farmers need to secure the float trays first, establish a permanent source of water
and then construct the pit that can hold the trays and the water (Karavina and Mandumbu,
2012). In a related study, in Bindura district in Zimbabwe, it was also observed that
smallholder farmers are in shortage of initial capital to establish the float tray technology
(Manyumwa et al, 2012). Some farmers also feel that the float tray technology is too technical.
The technicality associated with the float tray technology could have been linked to the lack of
knowledge, high entry costs of innovation, lack of training, input costs and lack of information
(Manyumwa et al, 2013; Karavina and Mandumbu, 2012b) and lack of the required resources
(Khanna, 2001). A little proportion of the respondents indicated that the use of float trays is
costly. This could be because technologies that are capital intensive are only affordable by
richer farmers and hence the adoption of such technologies is limited to larger farmers who are
richer than the smallholder farmers (Khanna, 2001). The float tray system would forces the
farmer to the farm always whereas the traditional method only needed regular watering and
monitoring and gave the farmer room to do other chores. The float tray would need constant
monitoring probably because of the need to maintain the water level in the tray such that the
nutrient media would not become toxic to the growing seedlings.
Table VII: The partial budget analysis of using float tray seedbeds over methyl bromide
Losses (USD)
Gains (USD)
Income lost
0.00
New Income
0.00
New Costs
Costs saved
Pine bark
4.16
Water
9.36
River sand
0.82
Fumigation hire 2.55
Trays
3.86
Labour
21.35
Total Loss
8.84
Total gain
33.26
Net gain (33.26-8.84) 24.42
Using float trays results in saving costs that are incur when using the traditional seedbed
method. The partial budget (Table 7) shows that the farmers can save up to $24.42 through
savings in irrigation water, fumigation hire when using methyl bromide, and the labour that is
required for constructing the beds, insect pests and diseases control (Table VII). This means
that the practice is a cheaper alternative compared to the use of methyl bromide.
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the results of the study, it can be concluded that float trays can be used as an alternative
to methyl bromide in tobacco seedlings production. This is as a result of the positive effects on
the quality of the seedling, reduction of labour, saving of land that could be needed if the
seedlings are produced in a seedbed and a reduction in the use of pesticides in the trays that
have an in turn conservative effect on the environment. The study has shown that the use of
float trays is relatively cheaper compared to the use of methyl bromide.
Government is urged to support the farmers through training in the technicalities of the float
trays that are considered a challenge by farmers yet in fact it is the lack of knowhow and
information on the use of the float tray.
The government should financially assist the farmers who are into tobacco production with
initial capital such that the float trays become attractive to most of the farmers.
The float trays manufacturing and distribution should also be decentralized in the tobacco
growing regions and the extension officers should be responsible for distribution of the float
trays to smallholder farmers in their agricultural zones
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Capehart, T. (2004). Trends in U.S. Tobacco Farming, United States Department of Agriculture.
CBCS (Communication in Biometry and Crop Science), (2006).Seedling quality of flue-cured
tobacco as affected by different types of peat. International Journal of the faculty of
Agriculture and Biology, Vol 1, Number 1, pp 56-62
Chivuraise, C. (2011). Economics of smallholder tobacco growing on deforestation in
Hurungwe district of Zimbabwe. MSc Thesis, University of Zimbabwe
Cunningham, W. P. and Saigo, B. W. (1990). Environmental Science: A global concern,
Dabaque, Brown Publishers, USA
De Vaus, D. A. (1996). Surveys in Social Research 4th Edition, London, UCL Press
FAO (2001).Global report on validated alternatives to the use of methyl bromide for soil
fumigation. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y1809E/Y1809E00.HTM
Gan, J., Yates, S. R., Ernst, F. F. and Jury, W. A. (2000). Degradation and volatilization of the
fumigant chloropicrin after soil treatment. Journal of Environmental Quality 29:1391-97
Gallo, R. L., Staszewski, R., and Granstein, R. D. (1990). Physiology and pathology of skin
photoimmunology. In Skin and Immune System, ed. J. Bos. CRC Press
Gilreath, J. P. and Santos, B. M. (2008). Managing weeds and nematodes with combinations of
methyl bromide alternatives in tomato. Crop Protection 27:648-652.
Gilreath, J. P., Santos, B.M., Busacca, J. D., Eger, J. E., Mirusso, J. M. and Gilreath, P. R.
(2006).Validating broadcast application of Telone C-35 complemented with chloropicrin and
herbicides in commercial tomato farms. Crop Protection 25:79-82.
Khanna, M. (2001). Sequential Adoption of Site-Specific Technologies and its Implications for
Nitrogen Productivity: A Double Selectivity Model.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics
83:35-51.
Karavina, C. and Mandumbu, R. (2012). Phytoparasitic nematode management post methyl
bromide: Where to for Zimbabwe? Journal of Agricultural Technology 8(4): 1141-1160.
Karavina, C. and Mandumbu, R. (2012b). Biofumigation for crop protection: potential for
adoption in Zimbabwe. Review paper. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences. Vol 14 Issue 3 pp1-10
Manyumwa, D. et al, (2013). Extent and adoption determinants of float tray technology by
smallholder tobacco farmers: A case of Zimbabwe. Journal of Development and Agricultural
economics. Vol 5 (10) pp 416-424
Martin, F. N. (2003). Development of alternative strategies for the management of soilborne
pathogens currently controlled with methyl bromide. Annual Review of Phytopathology.41: 325-50
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Mazarura, U. Mahaso, F. and Goss, M. (2012). Response of farmers to technological transfer in
the methyl bromide phase out programme in Zimbabwe: The floating tray system. African
Crop Science Journal, Vol 20. No 3 pp 171-177
Mtonga, Y.P and Mumba, J.B. (2010). Evaluation of the Mother Bed Nursery System –a Novel
System for the Production of Tobacco Seedlings. ARET Annual Report for 2009/10 Season.
Lilongwe, Malawi
Mundell, R. Chambers, O. O‟Daniel, J. P., Davies, H. M. (2012). Evaluation of float trays with
high cell numbers on stand counts and yields in a close-grown tobacco production system.
Tobacco Science: Vol. 49, pp. 4-7.
Meadows, R. 2013.California Agriculture 67(3):125-127. DOI:0.3733/ca.v067n03p125. JulySeptember 2013.
Pearce, B. Palmer, G. (1999). Management of tobacco float systems. Cooperative Extension Service
Publication ID-132. College of Agriculture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. Pp 1–6.
Peek, D.R., Reed, T.D. (2002). Burley tobacco production guide. Greenhouse transplant
production. http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/tobacco/436-050/436-050.html
Ristaino, J. B. and Thomas, W. (1997). Agriculture, methyl bromide, and the ozone hole: can
we fill the gaps. Plant Disease 81: 964-77.
Rosskopf, E. N., Chelleni, D. O., Kokalis-Burelle, N. and Church, G. T. (2005). Alternatives to
methyl bromide: a Florida perspective. Plant Health Programme. Doi:10.1094/PHP-2005-1027-01-RV
Smith, W.D., Boyette, M.D., Moore, J.M., Sumner, P.E. (2002). Transplant production
ingreenhouses http://www.griffin.peachnet.edu/caes/tobacco/handbook/greenhouse.html
Stevens, J. G. R. (1993). Pesticide and Human Welfare. 2nd edition, New York, USA, Belhaven Press.
Upenyu and Asher, 2011. How to use the floating tray system to grow your own tobacco
seedling. Angorique Publishers
USDA Economic Services Research (2000). Economic Implications of the Methyl Bromide Phase
out. An Economic Service Research Report. Agriculture Information Bulletin Number 756.
Available on www.ers.usda.gov. Accessed on 21 July 2011.
Zasada, I. A., Halbrendt, J. M., Kokalis-Burelle, N., LaMondia, J., McKenry, M.V. and Noling, J. W.
(2010). Managing nematodes without methyl bromide. Annual Reviews of Phytopthology 48: 311-28.
Asian Business Consortium realizes the meaning of fast publication to researchers,
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An Investigation of National Water Resources
Database, Bangladesh
Md. Masud Alam1, Md. Ataur Rahman2, & Md. Shahabul Alam3
1
Senior Scientific Officer, WARPO, Ministry of Water Resources, BANGLADESH
Professor, Department of Water Resources Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, BANGLADESH
3
Sub-Divisional Engineer, Bangladesh Water Development Board, BANGLADESH
2
ABSTRACT
The Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) is a statutory
organization (Water Resources Planning Act, 1992) under the Ministry of Water
Resources, which deals with water resources strategic planning and
management in Bangladesh. One of the core functions of WARPO is to update
and maintain the National Water Resources Database (NWRD). According to
National Water Policy (NWPo, 1999) article 5.d.iv., WARPO will set up and
update the National Water Resources Database (NWRD) and Information
Management System. According to this direction, WARPO has prepared the
NWRD while preparing the NWMP in 2001. Now-a-days, the NWRD is used
for national and regional level planning, research and study by governmental,
non-governmental organizations and others. For national or regional level
planning and management, all data should be authentic or reliable and readily
accessible. Planners in Bangladesh need access to a wide range of data to assess
resources, demands and constraints, evaluate options and formulate alternative
strategies. The NWRD is the largest geo-spatial database in the country, which
contains more than 450 layers of spatial and temporal datasets. After creation
of NWRD, it is being updated with the project activities. Few updated tasks
had been done with Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZMP)
project in 2005. Recently few updated tasks are being continued with Water
management Improvement Project (WMIP) project, but it is not enough for
proper maintaining of NWRD. This study has shown the details analysis of
NWRD, the existing gaps of NWRD and has recommended the common
implementation strategy for proper maintaining of NWRD.
Key words: Data base, update, planning, water resources, management
INTRODUCTION
W
ater resources assessment requires systematic collection, assembly and reporting of
hydrological, physiographic, demographic and socio-economic data. Physical
measurements at measurement stations need to be taken with designated frequency
and accuracy. The existing network of stations for rainfall, evaporation, discharge, sediment
transport and water quality meets the standards of the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) 1974.
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The government declared the National Water Policy (NWPo) in January 1999. The policy
mandated the Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) to establish and maintain a
National Water Resources Database (NWRD) to meet the demand for data and information of
planners, experts, researchers and managers in the water and related sectors by assembling
information from various authorized Data Collecting Agencies (DCAs). Generally, quality
control is the responsibility of the data collecting agency. Each DCA has its own collection
mechanisms with equipment and staff provided from its own budget, often supplemented
through project funds. The National Water Resources Database team prepared a draft
„Guidelines on NWRD Spatial Data Quality‟ and „Time Series Data Quality Control Guideline‟
to promote rigorous quality control by the DCAs. The data contained in NWRD is collected
from a wide range of sources and organized into a relational database format, to form the
largest geo-spatial database in the country (http://www.warpo.gov.bd/nwrd_brief.html).
The National Water Management Plan (NWMP) was finalized in 2001 and finally approved by
the National Water Resources Council (NWRC) in March 2004. The National Water Policy
specifies that the Plan should be updated every five years to suit the need and priorities of the
Government in line with the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and to include any outstanding issues not previously covered.
Recently the Government of Bangladesh has enacted the Bangladesh Water Act, 2013. In the
article 15 of Bangladesh Water Act, 2013, it has shown that the Water Resources Planning
Organization (WARPO) has to prepare the National Water Resources Plan (NWRP) through
the Executive Committee of National Water Resources Council (ECNWRC). Therefore, for the
preparation and implementation of NWRP, the continue collection and updatation of water
resources data is pre-requisite
OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY
The objective of this study is to analyze the existing database, to identify its laps and gaps.
However the specific objectives include:
 Review of existing National Water Resources Database
 Set up questionnaire survey to the National Water Expert
 Establishing the Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat (SWOT) analysis for the
existing database
 Implementing the Common Strategy for proper maintaining the database.
OUTCOME OF THIS STUDY
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The gaps in existing database will be identified by this study
An updated database with incorporating new layers will be established.
A Common Implementation Strategy will be formed for proper managing of this Database.
METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH
In principle, an analytical framework process has been followed to understand the NWRD. An
extensive consultation with questionnaire survey has been done to the national Water
Expertise and WARPO professional for getting more appropriate knowledge about the NWRD
to strengthen this work. Various documents and reports have been studied for getting
updating information about the database and their recommendation. SWOT (Strength,
Weakness, Opportunities, Threat) analysis has been done for better establishing the Common
strategy for maintaining the existing Database.
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SCOPE OF WORK
BRIEF REVIEW OF NWRD
NWRD Data Sets
As of February 2008, a total of 406 data layers were available within NWRD. Data layers are
updating in NWRD and new 50 data layers are incorporating in NWRD by WMIP project
(Source: WARPO). While updating in NWRD, few old data layers stay at previous position
and new data layers are adding. As a result by incorporating new layers and updating of old
layers a total of
478 data layers are available within NWRD at present
(http://www.warpo.gov.bd/pdf/nwrd_Data_list.pdf, Access in March, 2014), which
categorized into three hierarchical levels – data group, data type and data layer. Most of the
data layers consist of spatial data, time series data and attribute data.
The data groups are:
Base Data: Cover administrative boundaries at various levels: national, divisional, district,
Upazila and Union. The base data also cover other features such as airway, catchment,
navigation, planning unit, power sector project, railway regions, river, road, water bodies and
topography.
Surface Water: Includes water level, discharge, salinity, sediment, river cross section and
relevant Master Plan Organization (MPO) data.
Groundwater: Covers water levels, water quality, abstraction, aquifer properties, lithology and
information from MPO.
Meteorological: Covers rainfall, evaporation, humidity, temperature, wind speed & direction,
sunshine-hour data, etc.
Soil and Agriculture: Includes geo-ecological zones, crop suitability, crop statistics, drought
maps, fertilizer use, land type, agricultural land use and soil association.
Forest: Includes forest land data.
Fisheries: Covers fish catch data.
Socio-Economic: Encompasses census, char land, and economic data.
Environment: Covers data related to indicative parameters, industry, natural disaster and
surface water quality.
Images: Various satellite images like LANDSAT, IRS and SPOT satellite images covering
different regions or the whole country are stored in CD-ROM and usually used for WARPO's
internal analysis purposes.
Document and Report: This new data group contains the digital version of the National Water
Management Plan, December 2001.
The details of data in association with meta data are available in
http://www.warpo.gov.bd/pdf/Datacatalogue.pdf
Data Availability
Most of the data layers in NWRD consist of spatial data, temporal data and attribute data. Data
are provided in both hard and soft copy. The database is designed using Oracle in the back-end
to store the data, and Arc View GIS software for spatial query and display. Metadata for each
data type are also available in the NWRD, which has been archiving its data layers since the
National Water Management Plan of 2004.
Hydro-meteorological data are especially vital for water resources development planning and
design. Availability of these data from the various agencies is summarized below:
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Data Type
Water Level (Non Tidal)
Water Level (Tidal)
Discharge (Non Tidal)
Discharge (Tidal)
Rainfall
Ground Water Level
Data Collecting Agency
BWDB
BWDB
BIWTA
BWDB
BWDB
BWDB
BMD
BWDB
DPHE
BADC
Available Data Range
1965 – 2009
1960 – 2009
1977 – 2002
1934 – 2007
1964 – 2007
1961 – 2008
1960 – 2008
1967 – 2003
1986 – 1997
1984 – 1991
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No. ofStations
275
181
08
120
09
308
34
1,256
4461
1,453
Source: WARPO, March, 2014
Data Quality
Generally, quality control is the responsibility of the data collecting agency but NWRD checks
for obvious errors in time series and spatial data. When supplying to data users, both original
and corrected data are provided and data history is explained in the metadata.
As noted earlier, the two standard guidelines namely „Guidelines on NWRD Spatial Data
Quality‟ and „Time Series Data Quality Control Guideline‟ developed by WARPO for quality
checking of time series and spatial data. These documents are being finalized by WMIP project.
Data Accessibility
Data are available to all relevant users upon request through appropriate governmental
authorities. The Director General, WARPO is the approving authority on such requests.
Data Updating
For updating the NWRD database, WARPO has to pay a royalty to the data collecting agencies,
except in the case of BWDB data. Budgetary limitations have seriously restricted the updating
effort, so that updating since the end of the NWMP project has been generally insignificant.
However, some work has been done in the Integrated Coastal Resources Database (ICRD) of
WARPO, supported under the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan project.
Progress on updating the NWRD database on development programs has been slow. From the
end of the NWMP (2001) until August 2007 WARPO has requested 11 sectoral government
agencies to provide their respective development activities in defined formats. Only
Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) and Local Government Engineering
Department (LGED) responded (Source: WARPO). In 2009, WARPO started updatation
process of NWRD by WMIP project. Under this project the existing data layer will be updated
and new 50 data layers will be incorporated. This project will be end on June 2014. Upto
January 2014, total of 140 data layers have been updated of NWRD and 145 data layers have
been updated of ICRD.
Data Archiving
All data are stored in a single oracle server. NWRD maintains a system of regularly archiving
the data once or twice a month depending on frequency and extent of new data being added.
MOUs Between WARPO and Other Agencies
WARPO has signed Memorandum of Understanding (MOUs) with Bangladesh Water
Development Board (BWDB), Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), and Joint
River Commission (JRC), Physical Infrastructure Division of the Planning Commission, Char
Development and Settlement Project of BWDB, and the Center for Environmental and
Geographic Information Services (CEGIS). These MOUs mostly concern data sharing
arrangements.
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Major Data collecting agencies and their corresponding data
Data collecting agencies
Bangladesh Water
Development Board (BWDB)
Bangladesh Inland Water
Transport Authority (BIWTA)
Bangladesh Agriculture
Development Corporation (BADC)
Department of Public
Health Engineering (DPHE)
Bangladesh Meteorological
Department (BMD)
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS)
Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI)
Institute of Water Modeling (IWM)
Center for Geographic Information Service (CEGIS)
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Major data
Surface Water Level
Discharge
Sediment
Rainfall
Evaporation
Surface water quality
Ground water level and quality
River Morphology
Lithology
Aquifer testing etc
Water level
Bathymetric data
irrigation equipment,
irrigation water quality,
ground water levels,
irrigation costs, and
crop production costs etc
Water Quality etc
Ground water table
Water quality etc
Temperature
Relative humidity
Rainfall
Sunshine
Soil moisture
Pan evaporation
census data
Agricultural products
Soil data
Water level (Tidal and Non tidal)
Discharge (Tidal and non tidal)
Velocity profile
River cross section
Bathymetric data
Suspended sediment
Bed sample
Ground Water Level
Evaporation
Rainfall
Water Quality
Land Topography
Water level
Discharge
Groundwater level
Groundwater quality
River cross section
Rainfall
Temperature
Humidity
Wind speed
Sunshine hour
Evaporation
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Data Users
A number of data users depend on the NWRD. The most common categories of data users are:
 Government organizations
 Semi-government organizations
 Autonomous bodies
 Projects and programs of governmental, semi-governmental and autonomous
organizations
 Local and international non-government organizations
 Private companies
 International organizations
 Local and foreign educational institutions
 Local and overseas researchers
 Individual users and
 Others
Data Dissemination
One of the important and mandated routine tasks of WARPO is data dissemination. From 1999
to till now, WARPO is disseminating data to National and International organizations,
Universities research organizations, projects etc. Data is being used for water resources
planning, management, research, study etc. From October 2013 to January 2014, WARPO has
disseminated Data to 10 agencies including River Research Institute (RRI), Bangladesh University
of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka University, Bangladesh Agricultural University
(BAU), BRAC University etc from NWRD and Integrated Coastal Resources Database (ICRD)
and has earned total taka of 543484 by discounting rate in Education and Research sector according to
WARPO Data dissemination poilcy
Under WMIP project, the data layers of NWRD are updating and the 50 layers from the followings layers
will be incorporated. The layers are:
 Agro Based Industry
 Aman Area
 Aman Area
 Bathymetry of Main River
 Bio Ecological Zone
 Boro AreaCropping Intensity
 Cyclone Shelter Information
 Cyclone Track
 Demand of Food Grain
 Detail Area Plan
 Drinking Water and Sanitation Information 2001
 Drinking Water Quality Standards
 Dhaka Water Supply and Sanitation (DWASA) Zone
 Eco-tourism Information
 Erosion and Accretion (1996-2001) in Coastal Zone
 Erosion Vulnerable Location of Major RiversFish Sanctuaries
 Flood Prone Areas of Bangladesh
 Gas Transmission Line
 Geological classes
 Groundwater Zoning 2004
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 Hilisa Spawning and Shrimp Farming Area
 Industrial Effluent of Major Cities
 Industrial Location of Major Cities (Dhaka, Chittagong)
 Information of Livestock (Species) 1996
 Irrigation Demand
 Irrigation Water Quality Standard of Bangladesh
 Location of Bridges and Culverts
 Location of Food Godown
 Location of Mineral Resources
 Location of Rubber Dam
 Mauza Boundary
 Monga Affected Area
This project will be end on June 2014
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
Questionnaire survey has been done to the National Water Expertize and WARPO
professional for getting more appropriate information and to strengthen the work. In the
questionnaire survey, it was asked that what are the gaps in NWRD and what should be the
recommendation for updating of NWRD. Here are the few reflections of questionnaire survey.
Dr. Sultan Ahmed (Email: [email protected]), Director (Natural Resource Management)
in Department of Environment (DoE), Said that, WARPO should update NWRD by systematic
revenue budget.
Mr. Md. Saiful Hossain (Email: [email protected]), PSO, Engineering section of
WARPO thinks that for maintenance and updatation of NWRD, the data should be free for
public access. He mentioned that before enactment of Bagladesh Water Act 2013, there was no
legal framework for other organizations to give data in WARPO. Now Bangladesh Water Act2013 is legal framework for WARPO by which WARPO can collect data from other
Organizations according to the article 41 of this Act
Mr. Md. Rezaul Karim (Email: [email protected]), PSO (In charge), Monitoring
and Evaluation section of WARPO said that All the relevant data collecting agencies should be
aware of about the Bangladesh Water Act 2013, where it is mandated to give the data in
WARPO. To perform these activities, WARPO has to arrange seminar with the stakeholders
for proper dissemination of Bangladesh Water Act 2013
Mr. Md. Saiful Alam (Email: [email protected]) director (planning) of WARPO thinks
that WARPO has to maintain the quality of Data by checking WARPO professional. He,
however, mentioned that WARPO has to collect data from all relevant organizations with
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).
Dr. Sultan Ahmed (Email: [email protected]), Member Director (Routine Charge),
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), said that NWRD is an excellent database
and useful for agricultural information. He mentioned that BARC has an excellent database;
therefore NWRD should linkage with BARC database. He also emphasized that, WARPO need
more MoU with organizations, especially with BARC. He recommends to incorporate some
missing data in NWRD such as Hills area agricultural Information, SAARC Agricultural
information, Soil salinity data etc.
Dr. M.A. Matin (Email: [email protected]), Professor, Department of Water Resources
Engineering, BUET, Dhaka-1000, said that there is a lacks of logistic support and management
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tool of WARPO for maintaining NWRD. He mentioned that NWRD is an excellent tool for
managing water resources in an integrated manner, but it is not fully web enabled. He also
mentioned that there is no definite data collection and dissemination strategy. He highlighted
that data should be free for student and researchers. He recommends to incorporate the
updated bathymetric data, catchment delineation data in Mouza level, morphological data in
NWRD. He, however emphasized the Institutional capacity building and strong data
dissemination policy.
Sardar M. Shah-Newaz (Email: [email protected]), Principal Specialist & Director, Flood
Management Division, IWM mentioned that NWRD is the multi-sectoral, large scale water
sector database. NWRD should contain updated bathymetric data, transboundary flow
condition, Climate Change data. He highlights for the necessities of stakeholder consultation,
trained manpower in WARPO.
Malik Fida A Khan (Email: [email protected]), Director, Climate Change Study Division,
CEGIS said that NWRD is the Richest Database in Water Sector Bangladesh. He recommends
for latest census data, world heritage data, mouza boundary data, and wetland biodiversity
data in NWRD. He thinks that extensive stakeholder consultation, trained manpower in
WARPO, strong dissemination policy, fully wed enabled NWRD are needed for proper
functioning of NWRD.
Mr. M. Salim Bhuiyan (Email: [email protected]), Chief Training of BWDB (Former
Superintending Engineer of Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle of BWDB) said that
NWRD is the excellent database for hydraulic research and development. He mentioned that,
online payment system is required for NWRD. He also said that as BWDB is the prime Data
providers in NWRD, therefore extensive consultation is needed with BWDB for collecting and
processing of Hydro-meteorological Data in NWRD. He said that some data such as erosion
accretion rate in major rivers, wave run up, river bed slope etc, should stay in NWRD. He
highlights for the quality control of NWRD.
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
Recommended by National Water Management Plan Draft Development Strategy
(NWMP-DDS)
The National Water Management Plan project Draft Development Strategy (NWMP-DDS),
Volume 09, Annex K: „Data Management‟ has recommended the following areas for NWRD
development.
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WARPO need liaison with other data holding agencies such as BBS etc.
It is important for WARPO to continuously participate in a forum to discuss with other
organizations how they manage their data.
Apart from the specific needs of the WARPO planners, the NWRD needs to be general
resources for planning at regional and sub-regional levels, and particularly for preparation of
Local Area Development Plans.
To maintain quality control, WARPO needs a rigourous examination of existing data collection
and analysis procedures, and a re-examination of the way data is collected in the future.
Management plans need to be drawn up to improve quality control within the data collecting
agencies to use the facilities offered by the NWRD to raise standards by cross checking with
other data, and to get feedback from users to identify and eliminate errors.
WARPO should Update NWRD tools for quality checking
Data collected at public expense must be disseminated freely to all, with the fewest possible
restrictions, to ensure that its value is maximized.
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Inter-Agency Cooperation is must. The collection and dissemination of data have to be brought
under legislation.
For sustainability of NWRD, WARPO needs staff, training, equipment and outside support.
Adequate budget is pre-condition for proper maintaining of NWRD.
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Recommended by NWMP
NWMP in Program ID: EE007-“NWRD improved Data Collection and processing facilities”
recommended for stake holder consultation for principle of common standard, access protocol
and data pricing option. NWMP also recommended for one stop data retrieve and availability
of all reports in digital format.
Recommended by Regional Technical Assistant Project (RETA)
RETA project recommended for collection of hydro-meteorological data by outsourcing
method, archiving of project database, adopting new technology, avoiding duplication in
NWRD, quality control and open exchange the data between organizations.
Recommended by WMIP
Under WMIP project the data layers are updating and 50 new data layers are incorporating in
the existing database. Also MIS is being developing under WMIP project.
Recommended by NWPo
According to NWPo, 1999, in article 4.15.a, “The Government will develop a central database
and management information system (MIS) consolidating information from various data
collection and research agencies on the existing hydrological systems, supply and use of
national water resources, water quality, and the eco-system”.
Article 5.d.iv, in NWPo, “WARPO will Set up and update the National Water Resources
Database (NWRD) and Information Management System”.
Recommended by Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo), 2005.
Article 5.5.2 of the Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo, 2005) of Bangladesh recommends the
establishment of an Integrated Coastal Resources Database (ICRD).
Recommended by Bangladesh Water Act, 2013
According to Article 15 and 15.2.c in Bangladesh Water Act 2013, “WARPO shall, through the
Executive Committee of National Water Resources Council, Place for approval before the
Council a draft of the National Water Resources Plan (NWRP) prepared in accordance with the
Water Resources Planning Act, 1992. In addition to the matters mentioned in the Water
Resources Planning Act, 1992, the National Water Resources Plan shall contained the
scientifically analyzed of all data and information on water resources”
IDENTIFYING GAPS AND DISCUSSIONS
GAPS IN NWRD
Gaps in Data collection
The equipment, trained manpower and financial resources of the various data collecting agencies
are often inadequate to collect process and publish data in a timely manner. BWDB closed some
water level stations when gauge readers retired and were not replaced (ADB, RETA, 2009). In
addition, many of the non-departmental gauge readers under BWDB are no longer interested to
work with the old remuneration package and this has created serious constraints in data
collection. Most projects in the water sector have their own form of data collection and
information processing, and present their outputs in the form of reports and project databases.
There is no formal requirement that the reports or data are forwarded to a central archive. As a
result, some valuable research data and findings may be lost or are not available to other users.
Technological change in instrumentation is rapid, and new technologies for gathering
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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information more accurately and safely should be adopted as quickly as practicable. Newer
technologies usually involve easier field procedures and less effort for collecting data than
traditional methods. Remote sensors can collect, store and or transmit data without human error
with proper setup and calibration. Well-calibrated hydrodynamic models allow interpolation of
water levels and flows within a sparse observation network.
NWMP documents overlap in data collection activities. BWDB and BMD collect
meteorological data, BWDB and BIWTA as well as IWM and CEGIS collect water level and
morphological data. BWDB, DPHE and BARC all have responsibilities for groundwater data.
This situation remains little changed over the past decade since this was documented. This has
resulted in duplication of some of the work, gaps between data collected and user needs,
inconsistent data formats, and needless expenditures.
Due to lack of stronger institutional shape and MoU with other agencies as well as lack of
revenue budget, the collection of data process hindrance in WARPO.
Drawback in Quality Check
At present, there is no standard in place for checking and maintaining the quality of water
resources data at a national level. The problem of data quality control is widespread and
profound, permeating even the most basic data and affecting the entire data collection process
(ADB, RETA, 2009). When agencies are assigned the responsibility to collect data, this
responsibility should include data collection in accordance with recognized standards. Due to
lack of proper funding, trained manpower the Data collecting agencies fail to maintain the
quality of data. To improve the data quality, the NWRD team prepared a draft „Guidelines on
NWRD Spatial Data Quality‟ and „Time Series Data Quality Control Guideline‟ during NWMP
project. But this document has not finalized yet. According to the National Water Policy,
WARPO is responsible for updating the NWMP every five years. In preparing the 2001
NWMP, data was checked for completeness and consistency for the period 1966-1995. About
15 more years of data have been collected and needs checking.
Drawbacks in Data Storage and Archiving
The current situation is that large quantities of data are spread over many different
organizations. A common theme throughout these organizations is the absence of sound
backup and archiving policies for the electronic data that they retain and the corresponding
failure to adapt their backup and archiving systems to new infrastructure that is introduced as
the computer technologies evolve. In part this problem also results from insufficient financing
Problems in Dissemination
According to the Water Resources Planning Act 1992, WARPO is responsible for collecting,
analyzing and disseminating water resources related information. According to The National
Water Policy, 1999 (NWPo), WARPO has the mandate to create, maintain and update the
NWRD. According to data dissemination policy of WARPO, for research student the
discounting rate is 80%. It means that only 20% cost of the data is taken from research Student.
For research Organization, this cost is 50% of the total cost. Data is fully free for data providing
agencies. And for others, the data is provided with full cost (Source: WARPO). But the
dissemination is not web enabled. Director General (DG) of WARPO is the ultimate authority
for disseminating the data. Dissemination procedure takes lot of time for getting data from
WARPO. WARPO Board of Directors (BoD) approved the Data Dissemination Policy of
WARPO in the 13th meeting held in September 29, 2013 where BOD recommended for
extensive consultation of Data Dissemination Policy among the stakeholders. BoD also
recommended for separate pricing policy for consultancy field. It is notable that, The
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Government of Bangladesh hasn‟t approved the dissemination policy still now. Regarding the
dissemination policy, the stakeholder consultation is not satisfactory at all.
In sufficient Staffing
At present, the IT section of WARPO is responsible for maintaining the NWRD database. One
Principle Scientific Officer (PSO), one Senior Scientific Officer (SSO) and one Scientific Officer
(SO) exist in this section. In fact, the staffing is quite inadequate for maintain the database.
Absence of Revenue budget
Budgetary allocations for data procurement are irregular and generally inadequate in WARPO.
After creation of NWRD, the database is updating by project basis. Few updated task were done
during ICZM project in 2003 to 2005. From 2009, the updated task is continued by WMIP project.
Lack of Permanent office building
WARPO has no permanent Office building. The availability of permanent purpose built
premises would facilitate the work of WARPO on a number of fronts but particularly in
relation to managing the database system. The matter of hope that, the permanent office
building is being built on 72 green road during the budgetary year 2013-2014. The present
rented building may be shift in new places in December 2015.
Gaps in Monitoring and Information system
Apart from BWDB and LGED, most agencies involved in implementing the National Water
Management Plan do not readily share their data with WARPO. Implementation status of the
NWMP is an important aspect of updating this Plan. Monitoring and Implementation status of
NWMP is not satisfactory by WARPO.
Drawbacks in MOUs Between WARPO and Other Agencies
WARPO has signed Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with Bangladesh Water
Development Board (BWDB), Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), Joint River
Commission (JRC), Physical Infrastructure Division of the Planning Commission, Char
Development and Settlement Project of BWDB, and the Center for Environmental and
Geographic Information Services (CEGIS). These MOUs mostly concern data sharing
arrangements. While the MOUs do provide the basis for intent of action, they are weak in
terms of providing any measure of authority to WARPO if the counterpart agency fails to take
the actions that were agreed to.
Lack of Stakeholder consultation
Although Draft Development Strategy Annex –K in NWMP, RETA project, NWMP suggested
WARPO to arrange enormous consultation with stakeholder related to data management
issue, but unfortunately this task had been done quite few.
Absence of new layers in NWRD.
Although by WMIP project the few data layers are incorporating in NWRD, but still the
following data layers are not available in NWRD and these data layers are demanded by the
users from the establishing of NWRD in 1998-2001. These data layers have been collected by
questionnaire survey, user demand and literature review. The listed data layers are as follows:

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Flood Extent data for different year with different depth
Standing Water bodies
Soil Moisture content in whole Bangladesh
Surface Water salinity in Coastal region in Bangladesh
Surface Water Temperature of Coastal region in Bangladesh
Surface water Abstraction
Thana-wise Irrigation Water Requirement
Water use by Thana and by sector
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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Relative Sea level rise in Bangladesh
National Piezometric Centre
Climate change and damage related data
World Heritage site
Mangrove forest species
Aquatic Species
Biodiversity in Sundarbans
Marine pollution prevention
Coral ecosystem and coastal polder
Information of Shipping industries
Information of ship breaking industries
Fish, Shrimp, Dry fish processing Industries
Earthquake damage information
Major tourist spot
Bio gas information
Wetland information
River Discharge to Bay of Bengal
Information of shallow and Deep aquifer
Damage due to different natural disaster
Source of drinking water
Information of Natural Ecological park
Information of SAARK agricultural Centre
Catchment delineation in Mouza level
Rice variety Vs, Yield
Polder information
Heavy metal concentration in river water
Information on endangered species
Administrative unit of forest department
Coastal Forest land
Water Quality parameter
Contour Map
Coastal Geomorphology
Inaccessibility of few data layers
Some data layers in NWRD such as Forest land (District 64), Forest location (LGED), Forest
Location 1984, Forest range of Sundarbans 1998, Wildlife sanctuaries and Natural park,
Regional Arsenic survey 1998, Regional Arsenic survey 1998 with locations etc. are
inaccessible. Therefore the demand of data users is not fulfilled.
Unavailability of updated data
Although the data layers are updating by WMIP project, but still now (March, 2014) the
most of the hydro-meteorological data are beyond 2009. WMIP project will be end on June,
2014. Within this little time, it is very difficult to update all the data layers specially the
Hydro-meteorological data.
Additional data layers
At
present
there
are
478
data
layers
are
available
in
NWRD
(http://www.warpo.gov.bd/pdf/nwrd_Data_list.pdf, access in March 2004). It is a question
that, should it be contain all the 478 data layers or more in NWRD. We think that few base data
such as rail stations, freight commodities, rail network etc. and few Socio- Economic data such
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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as parameters of disease and Health 1995, 1996, 1997 etc. need not stay in NWRD. To main
huge layers of NWRD is a time consuming and at the same time is a matter of cost. It is not
credit of NWRD to contain all the near related of Water Resources data, but it is important to
maintain NWRD with updated data. Extensive stakeholder consultation is required for
finalizing the data layers of NWRD.
SWOT ANALYSIS
Strength point of NWRD


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

NWRD is the largest geo-spatial database in the country.
Centralized database
Contains more than 450 layers of spatial and temporal datasets.
The growing acceptance of GIS technology in different organizations has led to the
availability of a substantial amount of spatial data on various themes produced in different
GIS platforms.
NWRD is one of the tools for Integrated Water Resources Management.
Weak point of NWRD


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Shortage in manpower
Lack of updated Technology
Budgetary constraint for maintaining NWRD
Less care has given comparatively other sector.
In sufficient legal framework
Fewer co-operations from data collecting agencies.
Opportunity of NWRD




Useful tool for Collaborative research and Development Project
Extensive use for student and researchers
Series of B.Sc. M.Sc. & PhD thesis are possible by using NWRD.
Useful for Publication and Seminar.
Threat for NWRD


If the Dissemination system is not easier for NWRD and if updated data are not available
in NWRD, the users will fell no more interest for using NWRD.
Due to lack of budget, technology, manpower in WARPO, the other Organizations such as
CEGIS, IWM etc. may create database for utilizing their own resources.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Water Resources Management Plan for Bangladesh is urgently required to meet the great
challenges of resolving diverse problems and issue in water sector. NWRD is an effective tool
for managing the water related problems of Bangladesh. Hence all the data in NWRD should
be authentic or reliable, compatible and readily accessible. After detail analysis it has shown
that lot of drawback are existing in NWRD. WARPO has to take initiative for resolving these
drawbacks. Major recommendation for updating NWRD can be summarized below:
Allocation of Revenue budget
First of all, WARPO has to maintain the revenue budget in every year for maintaining and
updating of NWRD. Cost of data collection, field visit, technology for update the data will be
meet up by revenue budget as well as project cost.
Incorporate new technology and fill up the vacant post
Updated Technology has to be incorporated for suitable management of WARPO. At the same
time the vacant post has to fill up immediately. It is true that, the existing set up in IT section of
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WARPO is not enough for maintaining NWRD. Therefore, manpower can be managed by
outsourced.
Extensive Stakeholder Consultation
WARPO, in accordance with direction of Bangladesh Water Act- 2013, NWPo- 1999, Water
Resources Planning Act-1992, NWMP-DDS-2001, has to arrange extensive consultation among
the stakeholder for data management issue. However, the Data dissemination policy has to be
brought Under Act.
Web enabled NWRD and linkage with other database
NWRD has to be brought fully web enabled, so that the user can purchase their data
electronically. It is a debatable issue that, the data should be free for public use or not. We
recommend that the data should free based on purpose and departmental principle. Actually,
the Government of Bangladesh has to set up role for using the data. NWRC have to take role in
this regard. NWRD should have linkage with Megna Estuary Study (MES), Coastal
Embankment and rehabilitation Program (CERP) database; so that it can be more web enabled.
NWRD can be auto updated by linkage with Primary Data Collecting Agencies
Quality Control
Quality of data has to maintain strictly. All the Data Collecting agencies have to follow the
Quality control guideline („Guidelines on NWRD Spatial Data Quality‟ and „Time Series Data
Quality Control Guideline‟) designed by WARPO. WARPO has to take initiative for the
extensive publication for these quality control guide line
Strengthening of Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring and Evaluation of Database has to maintain regularly by WARPO.
Functioning of Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) and More MoU with other
Organizatons
Existing MoUs have to be finalized and More MoU is needed with other organizations. In fact,
the MoUs have to be brought under legal framework.
Incorporating new layers and updated data
New data layers that have been discussed in previous chapter have to be incorporated as a
routine work. Also WARPO has to take care about the updated data. As mentioned earlier, for
doing this, revenue budget is must along with project budget.
Permanent Office Building for WARPO
From the creation of WARPO there is no permanent office building of it. IT has shifted more
than six times in different places. Many data have been lost for these activities. Permanent
office building is very much necessary for proper archiving and storage of data.
More advance study and systematic analysis
This study has been done based on analytical framework and questionnaire survey. For more
advance study, extensive consultation with primary data collecting agencies is needed.
Comparative analysis can be done with other database system with neighboring country such
as in India and China etc. Also this data base can be compared with ISO standard. Extensive
analysis is needed by using NWRD tools from WARPO. In depth analysis of existing data with
meta data for all data layers are needed as well.
CONCLUSION
NWRD is a planning tool and management instrument for effective implementation of IWRM
in Bangladesh. Therefore data should be updated and authentic in NWRD. It is the largest
geospatial database in the country. After creation of NWRD, this database is playing vital role
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Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 3, No 2 (2014)
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for water resources planning, development and management in Bangladesh. Not only in water
sector, but also in other sector such as in agriculture, fisheries, environment, this database is
contributing a lot. Still there is a lot gaps in this database. For proper functioning of NWRD,
these drawbacks have to be removed. As WARPO is the ownership of NWRD, therefore he has
to take decision for its maintenance and update. Government (such as NWRC) has to take vital
role in this regard. Although the gaps in NWRD, by containing more than 450 layers, it is the
central database in Water Sector Bangladesh and a asset not only for WARPO but also in other
sector who deals in Water Resources project in Bangladesh.
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Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) in 2001. M. Engg. Project, Department of Water
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