1. business and industrial
2. business operations
3. management
4. project management

Why was Earned Value Management
important to the Swedish Government
in the Gripen project?
Sven Antvik
[email protected]
Earned Value Around the World
CPM Spring Conference
2001-05-22--24
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
1
Why was Earned Value Management
important to the Swedish Government
in the Gripen project?
1
2
3
4
5
Introduction
The Gripen Project
Managing the Gripen project at FMV*
Conclusions
Concluding remarks
* FMV = Försvarets Materielverk (Defence Materiel Administration)
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
2
Gripen at a road base in Sweden
Photo: Ulf Fabiansson/Saab
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
3
Gripen at a road base in Sweden
Photo: Johnny Lindahl/Saab
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
4
1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Swedish Parliament decision in 1982
Full Scale Development began in 1982
Supersonic multi-role military aircraft
Need for firm project control expressed
Management interest from political level
Government decision 1982 on management
First and largest EV application in Sweden
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
5
2 The Gripen project
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aircraft, weapons, support equipment
A complex global multi-project
Subcontracts in many countries
Significant US content (" 30 %)
Swedish Industry Group JAS (IG JAS)
Largest contract: FMV - IG JAS
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
6
IG JAS major subcontracts
(examples)
•
•
•
•
•
Engine
Escape system
Fuel System
Hydraulic system
Automatic Gun
- Volvo & GE
US
- Martin Baker UK
- Intertechnique France
- Lucas
UK
- Mauser
Germany
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
7
Major subcontracts in the Gripen
Major Systems
Secondary Power System
Escape System
Fuel System
Martin-Baker Aircraft
Intertechnique SA (F)
Electronic
Company Ltd (GB)
Display System
Ericsson Saab
Environmental
Avionics AB (S)
Control System
Sundstrand Aerospace
Power Systems (USA)
Dowty Aerospace Wolverhampton (GB)
Lucas Aerospace (GB)
Hymatic Engineering
Company Ltd (GB)
Radar
Ericsson Microwave
Systems AB (S)
Air Data
Computer
Servos
Ericsson Saab Engine
Avionics AB (S) Volvo Aero Corporation (S)
General Electric (USA)
Nord-Micro SA (D)
1
39 ( AA
) SL 3364 A(P) 9903 6
Systems Computer Gun
Ericsson Microwave
Systems AB (S)
Flight Control System
Saab AB (S)
Mauser-Werke
Oberndorf
Waffensysteme GmbH (D)
Landing Gear
APPH Ltd (GB)
Hydraulic System
Dowty Aerospace
Hydraulics Ltd (GB)
34
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
8
Management in the customer chain
•
•
•
•
An 18 year project at the start in 1982
Annual ”total project reports” required
FMV integrated information into one report
Reports from FMV Project Management
Group forwarded upwards to Government
• Annual report to parliament in budget bill
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
9
The customer chain in the Gripen project
Swedish Parliament
Swedish Government
Swedish Armed Forces
Defence Materiel Administration
Other contractors
IG JAS
Other contractors
Subcontractors
Subcontractors
Subcontractors
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
10
3
The Gripen project at FMV
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reasons for Earned Value
EV measured in a simple way
EVM in the single seat Gripen
EVM in the two-seater Gripen
EVM in the Gripen project
EVM at FMV
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
11
Reasons for Earned Value
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gripen - a large and complex project
FSD and first 30 aircraft ordered in 1982
Need for early project insight by FMV
Relate technical, schedule & cost information
EVM an early warning tool
EV requested by customer
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
12
EV measured in a simple way
• Low cost EV procedure developed
• The simple way in three steps
1 Average schedule performance
2 Follow time-line to BCWS-curve
3 Use this ”BCWP” as an estimate
• See next slide for graphical example
• Used by FMV during development
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
13
Earned Value - A simple way
Time
now
3
Budget
Earned Value
2
1
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
14
EVM in the single seat Gripen
• WBS defined 1982 in the contract
• WBS used to integrate cost & schedule info
• Actual costs converted to base price level
– Inflation & different currencies
• The box of uncertainty developed in 1987
• Communication tool with Government
– E.g. Prime Minister & Secretary of Defence
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
15
The box of uncertainty, Nov 17 1987
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
16
EVM in the two-seater Gripen
•
•
•
•
•
•
Developed after single seat version
EVM training before the contract was signed
Developed during the 1990´s
EVM used by FMV & IG JAS project managers
Defined milestones with schedule incentive
EVM actively used as dialogue instrument between
customer FMV and the contractor IG JAS
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
17
Earned Value Management Gripen 39B
NU-linje Q974
T o m 1997-12-31
1,500
}
}
BCWS
BCWP
1,000
ACWP
500
0
0
0
(SOW 98-02-17 /39B_974.PRE)
923
924
931
932
933
934
941
942
943
944
951
952
953
954
961
962
963 964
971
972
973
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
974
981
18
982
EVM in the Gripen project
• Standard colours by FMV for Gripen 1982
– BCWS - Blue, ACWP - Red, BCWP - Green
• Positive report from Swedish GAO in 1996
• Further development by IG JAS in 2000
– The box can now be generated from computer
– Text comments generated directly into reports
– Improvement of man - machine interface
• Management use of EVM most important
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
19
Positive report from
Swedish GAO in 1996
”The Earned Value analysis gave FMV a
good command of the development of the
project already at an early project stage.
Industry has pointed out that FMV had a
better integrated view of schedule, cost and
technical performance in many aspects than
industry had themselves.”
Riksrevisionsverket 1996:27, page 95, Translation by the presenter
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
20
Further development by IG JAS
(computer generated graphics and text, demonstration example)
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
21
Earned Value at FMV today
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Positive experiences from Gripen project
Used on the largest Gripen contracts
International conferences 1997 - 2000
EV in regular reports from IG JAS to FMV
Policy decisions on EVM in FMV
Avareness of project management need
EVM implementation activities going on
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
22
4
•
•
•
•
•
Conclusions
EV - can present overall picture in one graph
EV - used to define management requirements
EV - a powerful tool for communication
EV - easy to understand for all actors
EV - a project management best practice
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
23
5 Concluding remarks
• Why was EVM important to the Government ?
• EVM was important because
–
–
–
–
–
Basis for early project control requirements
Integration of technical, schedule & cost information
FMV & Government got an early warning
Valuable for management communication
Could be applied in a simple way
Sven Antvik, Earned Value Around the World, College of Performance Management, May 22-24, 2001
24
Why was Earned Value Management important to
the Swedish Government in the Gripen project?
Sven Antvik, PMP, PhD-candidate
Royal Institute of Technology and Swedish National Defence College, Sweden
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes how Earned Value Management was important to the Swedish Government in the Gripen
project. In June 1982 the Swedish Parliament decided to start full-scale development of the Gripen project for
the Swedish Armed Forces. The Gripen is a supersonic multi-role, single engine military aircraft. The need for
firm project control was clearly expressed from the political level already at the very beginning of the Gripen
project. It is often mentioned in official records from the early 1980´s.
The go-ahead decision by the Swedish Parliament in June 4, 1982 was expressed in terms of technical
specifications, schedule and total project cost. In July 8, 1982 the Swedish Government took a special decision
concerning the management and control of the project. The decisions taken by the Parliament and the
Government meant that the military authorities had to develop and implement new policies and procedures to
manage the Gripen project.
Earned Value was intended as an important new tool for the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration
(Försvarets Materielverk = FMV) in the management of the Gripen project. The Gripen project is a large global
multi-project with subcontractors in many different countries. Earned Value Management gave top management
within FMV valuable insight into the overall situation of the project. This information was used when informing
the Swedish Armed Forces and the Swedish Government about the progress of the project.
Managing global multi-project gives the project management unique tasks to handle. One example for the
Gripen project was to manage the project budget and actual cost during the whole project period starting the
fiscal year 1982/1983 and ending the fiscal year 1999/2000. Another example can be found in that a number of
different currencies must be converted into one common, in this case the Swedish “krona”, currency unit. When
comparing actual costs with budgeted costs, the effects of inflation in different countries and resulting
fluctuations in exchange rates over time must be handled. New procedures were developed to compare actual
costs with the budgeted costs in the base price level of February 1981.
THE GRIPEN PROJECT
The Swedish Gripen project is, to a larger extent than earlier Swedish military aeroplane projects, depending on
subcontractors. One reason for this is to reduce the development costs. For FMV the Gripen project includes the
aeroplane, the platform, as well as weapons that are normally sold directly to governments. Among the range of
equipment included in the project is e.g., radio systems also used in other Swedish military aircraft.
The largest contract between FMV and the industry is the aeroplane contract signed with the Swedish Industry
Group JAS (IG JAS). IG JAS is formed by large Swedish industries, i.e. SAAB, VOLVO, ERICSSON and
CELSIUS now part of SAAB. IG JAS has subcontracts with different companies that provide major subsystems
for the aircraft. The exhibit shows major systems in the Gripen aircraft. Examples are the engine from Volvo
Aero Corporation in Sweden and General Electric in USA; the escape system from Martin Baker in Great
Britain; the fuel system from Intertechnique in France; the hydraulic system from Lucas Aerospace in Great
Britain and the automatic gun from Mauser-Werke in Germany. IG JAS, which is the prime contractor for the
aeroplane to the customer FMV, manages these major systems.
Major Systems
Secondary Power System
Electronic
Display System
Escape System
Fuel System
Martin-Baker Aircraft
Company Ltd (GB)
Intertechnique SA (F)
Ericsson Saab
Avionics AB (S)
Sundstrand Aerospace
Power Systems (USA)
Dowty Aerospace Wolverhampton (GB)
Lucas Aerospace (GB)
Environmental
Control System
Hymatic Engineering
Company Ltd (GB)
Radar
Ericsson Microwave
Systems AB (S)
Air Data
Computer
Servos
Engine
Ericsson Saab
Avionics AB (S) Volvo Aero Corporation (S)
General Electric (USA)
Nord-Micro SA (D)
39 (AA) SL 3364A (P) 990316
Systems Computer Gun
Ericsson Microwave
Systems AB (S)
Flight Control System
Mauser-Werke
Oberndorf
Waffensysteme GmbH (D)
Saab AB (S)
Landing Gear
Hydraulic System
Dowty Aerospace
Hydraulics Ltd (GB)
APPH Ltd (GB)
34
Exhibit 1. Major systems in the Gripen aircraft (from IG JAS 1999)
The customer chain in the Gripen project
The Swedish Parliament, “Riksdagen” in Swedish, is the public body that passes laws and decides on taxes and
the use of public funds. The Swedish Government, “Regeringen”, executes the decisions by the Parliament. The
Försvarsmakten”, is the authority responsible for the military defence. The Swedish
Defence Materiel Administration, “Försvarets Materielverk” (FMV), is the authority responsible for
procurement of arms and other equipment for the Swedish Armed Forces.
The customer chain in this global multi-project starts with the Swedish Parliament and continues via the
Swedish Government and the Swedish Armed Forces to the Defence Materiel Administration (FMV). This is
the governmental part of the customer chain. FMV has contracts with industry. The largest contract is the
contract with the Industry Group JAS (IG JAS). A major subcontractor to IG JAS is for example General
Electric with their part of the engine. Antvik in 1999 (Antvik 1999) describes the customer chain in the Gripen
project in Swedish.
Swedish Parliament
Swedish Government
Swedish Armed Forces
Defence Materiel Administration
Other contractors
Subcontractors
IG JAS
Other contractors
Subcontractors
Subcontractors
Exhibit 2. The customer chain (from Antvik 1999)
Exhibit 2 shows the customer chain from the Swedish Parliament to the participating industries. The Parliament
took the major go-ahead decision on the Gripen project in early June 1982. After decisions in the customer chain
FMV signed the contract with IG JAS on June 30, 1982.
The Government decision on the management of the Gripen included a requirement for annual project reports
after each and every fiscal year. The project started in 1982 and this part of the project was to end in the year
2000. Thus a period of eighteen years was the basis for reporting the project. Based on reports and information
from contractors as well as on its own analysis, FMV integrated facts and figures into one report. This report
was then sent to the Swedish Armed Forces. From there it was forwarded to the Swedish Government. The
government in its turn reports every year to the Swedish Parliament in the annual budget bill.
The Gripen project starting in 1982 can be described as a global multi-project with one single customer, i. e. the
Swedish Government acting through one government agency, FMV.
MANAGING THE GRIPEN PROJECT AT FMV
Reasons for Earned Value in the Gripen project
The Gripen project is a very large project for the actors in Sweden. This is true for the government as well as for
the companies involved. In this large project, whether you compare it to the turnover or share capital of the
companies, it was obvious to FMV that it should be very hard for the companies to pay the money back to FMV
in case of failure. Hence it was reasonable that FMV should get insight also into the cost aspects of the contract
from the very beginning.
Thoughts regarding management of the Gripen development can be found in a report by Hökborg (Hökborg
1972) to Dr L. Stuckenbruck at University of Southern California. A book by Archibald (Archibald 1976) was
used as a source for information on project management before the start of the Gripen project.
It is very vital to be able to integrate and thus relate technical, schedule and cost information to each other in
project management. A global multi-project is no exception to this. The detailed requirements regarding project
control that were put on the Gripen project in 1982 are still unique for government projects in Sweden. These
unique requirements include the annual project report from FMV to the upper levels in the customer chain.
Since the late 1990´s new major Swedish defence projects are subject to similar requirements.
It is obvious, but may nevertheless be important to mention, that a firm fixed price contract is not in any way a
guarantee that the contractor will be able to deliver according to the signed contract.
A simplified way of measuring the Earned Value
When FMV started to use Earned Value Management on the Gripen project in 1982 a simplified, but yet
effective, procedure was used to measure the “Earned Value” or “Budgeted Cost for Work Performed” (BCWP).
The procedure can be described in tree steps that starts with "time now" and the time phased budget or, in EVMwords, “Budgeted Cost for Work Scheduled” (BCWS). This procedure was computerised by FMV in the very
beginning of the Gripen development program.
The first step in the procedure is to measure the average schedule performance expressed in time for the
different parts (= WBS elements) of the contract. The schedule difference was then plotted (1) in a diagram with
the time-phased budget for each WBS-elements. This was done for elements on level three of the Contract Work
Breakdown Structure (CWBS).
The second step is to follow the time-line from step 1 upward in the diagram until it hits the BCWS-curve. This
value from the BCWS-curve (2) was used as an estimate of the Earned Value (BCWP).
The third step means that you use this value (where the schedule line crosses the BCWS-line) as an approximate
value for Budgeted Cost for Work Performed (BCWP) or Earned Value and plot (3) it at the time-now line.
Earned Value - A simple way
Time
now
3
Budget
Earned Value
2
1
Exhibit 3: The simple three-step approach to get Earned Value (from the author).
Development of the single-seat Gripen
The contract between FMV and IG JAS was signed on June 30, 1982. The design work was done within a Work
Breakdown Structure, WBS, defined in the contract. In large multi-year contracts there is often a need to change
the contract under way. In this case the parties kept close track of all contract changes. Each of them got a
number in sequence. The contract is the baseline from which you measure performance.
The written reports from IG JAS to FMV use the contract WBS as a base for the outline. The WBS was also
used as a tool to integrate technical, schedule and cost information. In this large global multi-project there are a
number of different currencies to handle. In this case FMV used the contract budget in the agreed base price
level of February 1981 as the budget baseline, i.e. Budgeted Cost for Work Scheduled or BCWS.
When the project started FMV had never before had a similar contract to manage. Thus FMV had to develop
new policies and procedures to manage this, the largest contract with a number of different currencies. The
actual costs were first recorded in present prices and currency rates. The actual costs were then converted to the
base price level with respect to price escalation (indices) as well as changes in rates of exchange. Thus FMV
was able to compare the Actual Costs with the Budgeted Costs using comparable conditions.
For different reasons delays occurred in the development project almost from the very beginning. The box of
uncertainty was first made at FMV late in 1987. It was used as a tool to describe the project situation to senior
management, including the Swedish Secretary of Defence and the Swedish Prime Minister.
Exhibit 4: The box of uncertainty was shown to senior management (from FMV 1987)
The box of uncertainty was a useful tool that gave a good overall picture of the project in one single picture. The
lower left corner of the box reflects delay and cost overrun until today. The upper right corner of the box reflects
were the project will end if the present trends continue. The final cost outcome was in the order of magnitude
where the trend extrapolation pointed. The final schedule outcome was later, partly due to an accident with a
flight test aeroplane early in the program. According to senior management in FMV and the Secretary of
Defence in 1987 the box of uncertainty was a very valuable tool when they presented the situation in the project
to the Swedish Government. It is safe to say that the box of uncertainty can be a very valuable tool in the
management of global multi-projects.
Development of the two-seater Gripen
The development of the two-seater Gripen took place after the development of the single-seat version. Here we
briefly present the use of Earned Value in the development of the two-seater version. The development took
place during the 1990´s. The following exhibit shows the three curves for the two-seater version. The curve for
Earned Value (Budgeted Cost for Work Performed = BCWP) follows the curve for Planned Value (Budgeted
Cost for Work Scheduled = BCWS) closely. The curve for the Actual Cost (Actual Cost of Work Performed =
ACWP) is well below the curves for Earned Value and Planned Value. This means that there is a favourable
cost difference in the project.
MSEK
Prisnivå 1:a Kv. 1991(enl avtal)
Projektläge JAS 39 Gripen
IG JAS Typarbete 39B
ÖPPEN
VERSION
NU-linje Q974
T o m 1997-12-31
1,500
}
}
BCWS
BCWP
1,000
ACWP
500
IG JAS Typarbete 39 B
NU t o m
dec - 9 7
PLAN
Trend
A
Trend
B
AVTALAD FÖRKALKYL
VERKLIG KOSTNAD
VÄRDE UTFÖRT ARBETE
BUDGETAVVIKELSE
1.058,3
1.299,4
1.343
-263
EFTERSLÄPNING
KOSTNADSAVVIKELSE
-249
-241
22
0
0
-241
0
-249
-241
0,814
1,000
0,821
1,000
RELATIV KOSTNADSPREST.
0,814
RELATIV TIDSPRESTATION
0,984
0
SLUTTIDPUNKT
TOTALTID Mån
Avvikelse TOTALTID Mån
0
69
0
68,3
70,2
-0,8
1,1
(SOW 98-02-17 /39B_974.PRE)
923
924
931
932
933
934
941
942
943
944
951
952
953
954
961
962
963 964
971
972 973
974
981
982
Exhibit 5: Earned Value curves from the two-seater Gripen (from FMV 1999)
The contract between FMV and IG JAS had defined milestones with economic incentives for good schedule
performance. This increased management focus on schedule from the very beginning of the contract. Earned
Value was used as an instrument in the dialogue between the customer FMV and the contractor IG JAS. The
cost trend that was established after about two years of work remained virtually unchanged until the completion
of the contract.
Experiences from the design of the single-seat version were used as a basis for the management of the twoseater version. People, including the project managers at FMV and IG JAS, were trained in Earned Value before
the contract was signed. Hence it was natural for them to use Earned Value in their dialogue and when preparing
reports.
Further development of the box of uncertainty by IG JAS
IG JAS has made further developments of the box of uncertainty. IG JAS can now generate the box of
uncertainty by using the average Schedule Performance Index (SPI) and Cost Performance Index (CPI) as well
as SPI and CPI for a selected period, e.g. performance during the last 20 % of the time. By doing this you can
get two boxes and thus get two indications of where the project is headed with regard to cost and schedule. IG
JAS can also generate text comments directly into the graph from database in the computer. The comments
make the information much more understandable to project managers. It can be said to be a huge improvement
of the “man – machine – interface”.
The use of EVM on the Gripen project in 2000
EVM is used for the production of the Gripen. It was also included as a requirement in the lot 2-production
contract that was signed in 1992. EVM was also included in the lot 3-production contract that was signed in
1997. EVM is also included in the contracts for further development work that were signed in 1997. So far,
EVM is used on the largest contracts between FMV and IG JAS. EVM is so far used without formally
conforming to the requirements in the earlier Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria (C/SCSC) from 1967 or
more recently published standards like e.g. BS 6079 (BSI 1996) and EIA-748 (EIA 1998).
CONCLUSIONS
Control
To control a large project you must have and use proper tools to give the responsible managers and other people
the information they need to take the vital decisions. You can compare the execution of a project with a flight.
The pilot needs suitable instruments that can present the necessary information during flight. This must be done
in a way that can be understood and used by the pilot in order to make decisions during the course of the flight.
In the execution of a project you must present information about the project in a concentrated and useful way.
You must have an accounting system that meets the project management requirements.
A pilot makes a flight plan before take off. A project manager must consequently have a “flight plan” before the
“project take-off” in order to be able to compare the actual situation with the project plan. Earned Value can
present an overall picture of even very large projects in one single graph.
Time
Earned Value was used as a tool for FMV to define management requirements and information to be delivered
from the contractor before the decision to begin the project was taken. It is important to follow the schedule
from the very beginning of the project. It is also important for the customer to be able to form an opinion of its
own on technical, schedule and cost performance. The earlier you get information on possible delays the easier
it is to minimise the negative consequences. Earned Value has also had an important early role in defining
policies and procedures in the management of the Gripen project. When results and analysis from Earned Value
was seen to be relevant the method was more and more accepted inside as well as outside FMV.
Communication
Earned Value, as shown with exhibits above, has been a powerful tool for communication between customer
and contractor as well as between the customer FMV and the actors above FMV in the customer chain. The
largest benefit with Earned Value is believed to be when you have to communicate the project definition and
requirements for project control and use it as a basis for decisions.
Actors
Different actors have different perspectives. They have, however, a common interest in the project task. Earned
Value is a common language that is easy to understand. The task of the industry is to perform according to the
contract. FMV has signed the contract with IG JAS and acts in the customer role on behalf of the Swedish
Government. FMV also reports upward in the customer chain. The Swedish Armed Forces as well as the
Swedish Government and the Swedish Parliament receive information and makes decisions.
Swedish Policy
The Swedish Government, the Swedish Armed Forces and the Defence Materiel Administration (FMV) has
taken decisions to improve its project management by using earlier experiences from the Gripen project. These
earlier experiences are a firm basis for the decisions on new policies to manage the acquisition of defence
materiel. The first new annual project reports will be delivered to the Government from the Swedish Armed
Forces after the fiscal year 2000.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the case of the two Gripen contracts in this study it is safe to say that Earned Value has been a valuable tool
for communication and decisions in the Gripen project. The most important function with Earned Value may be
the role of forming requirements for integrated management of technical performance, schedule and cost. It is
thus safe to say that Earned Value Management was very important to the Swedish Government in the Gripen
project.
REFERENCES
Antvik, Sven. 1999. Control of large development projects: On the use and further development of Earned value
Management in the Gripen project at the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration. (Styrning av stora
utvecklingsprojekt: Om användning och vidareutveckling av Earned Value i JAS-projektet vid Försvarets
Materielverk.). Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology (in Swedish).
Archibald, Russell D. 1976. Managing High-Technology Programs and Projects. New York: John Wiley &
Sons Inc.
British Standards Institution (BSI). 1996. Guide to project management. London: British Standards Institution.
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). 1998. Earned Value Management Systems. Arlington, Virginia: Electronic
Industries Alliance.
Hökborg, Sven-Olof. 1972. Some thoughts regarding weapons system development. Los Angeles, California:
University of Southern California, Institute for Aerospace Safety and Management, Report to Dr L.
Stuckenbruck.