1. No category

WHY DID IT HAPPEN? RELIGIOUS AND LAY EXPLANATIONS OF THE SPANISH 'FLU EPIDEMIC
OF 1918 IN SOUTH AFRICA
Author(s): HOWARD PHILLIPS
Source: Kronos, Vol. 12 (1987), pp. 72-92
Published by: University of Western Cape
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41056243 .
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WHY DID IT HAPPEN? RELIGIOUS AND LAY
EXPLANATIONS OF THE SPANISH
TLU EPIDEMIC OF 1918IN SO]LJTHAFRICA
HOWARD PHILLIPS
of Cape Town
University
on a darknight- they
To thehistoriangreathumandisasterscan be likesearchlights
whichwouldotherwise
remaininvisible
tothebeholder.
features
can pickoutimportant
into
to explainsuchdisasterscan provideunparalleled
insights
Contemporary
attempts
ideas aboutthefundamental
prevailing
questionof whyevilhappensin theworldandv
thus lay bare keyelementsin the 'mentalité'of the population.Howevercrude or
suchexplanationsmightbe,theycan furnish
ill-founded
valuableandsometimes
unique
intothecontemporary
mind- a person'sexplanationofdisastercan revealas
insights
muchabouthimorheras aboutthedisaster.'Underthefirst
impactofdisaster',notesan
on
'the
victims
almost
seek to explain their
millenarianism,
authority
instinctively
beliefs.'1In this responselies an unusual
predicamentin termsof pre-existing
to plumbthebasesofattitudes
and beliefswhich,undernormalconditions,
opportunity
orhidden.In thissense,theSpanish'fluepidemicof 1918was,like
remainunarticulated
theBlack Death, 'a stimulus,. . . whichexposedthenervesystemof ... society'.2
The Spanish Influenzaepidemicwas the worstnaturaldisasterin South African
In littleover6 weeksinOctober-November1918some300,000SouthAfricans
history.
(about 4-5% of thetotalpopulation)perishedas a resultofit.3
In thisarticlea rangeofpopularcontemporary
explanationsofit,bothreligiousand
someattempt
willbe madetosuggestwhattheseimply
lay,willbe examined.Thereafter,
aboutwiderattitudesand beliefsin early20thCenturySouthAfrica.
At theoutseta wordabout sourcesis necessarytoo. This articleis based on those
witha largebutrandomcollectionof
opinionswhichwererecordedat thetime,together
viewsgatheredby interviewand letterfromsurvivorsover sixtyyearslater.These
reflect
Whitemaleopinion.
sourcesdisproportionately
As was itswontintimesofdisaster,organizedreligiongavethelead to muchpopular
on thecausesoftheepidemic.As Weberargued:manis at hismostreligiousin
thinking
situationsin whichthe powerlessness,
and materialinsec.urity
of human
contingency
existenceare mostacutelyapparent.4
the
on
Religiousopinion why epidemicoccurred
1.
2.
3.
4.
M. Barkun:Disasterand theMillenium(New Havenand London, 1974),p.79.
M.W. Dois: The ComparativeCommunal Responsesto the Black Death in Muslimand Christian
Societies'in Viator,vol. 5 (1974),d.275.
H. Phillips:'Black October:The Impactof the Spanish InfluenzaEpidemicof 1918on South Africa'
(Unpub. Ph.D. thesis,UCT, 1984),ch:9.
A.D. Gilbert:Religionand Societyin IndustrialEngland(London and New York, 1976),p. 186.
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wasnotuniform,
however.Evenwithina singledenomination,
official
viewsvaried.This
was mostoftenthecase amongEnglish-speaking
least
so amongthe
denominations,
churches.Lay opinioncouchedintheologicaltermsgenerally
followed
threeAfrikaans
thesame pattern.
It is possibleto grouptheselayand religiousexplanationsintofourbroadcategories:
thosewhichattributed
theepidemicto God's directaction,eitheras punishment
i)
somedivinepurpose;
or to further
thosewhichattributed
itto humanneglectofsocialconditions
ii)
(insomecasesGod
was feltto have an indirectrolein this);
itto deliberateactionbymalevolent
individualsorgroups;
iii) thosewhichattributed
and
resultofthefighting
on theWesternFront.
iv) thosewhichsaw itas theunintended
The followingsectionsoutlinetheseexplanationsat greaterlengthand tryto throw
as wellas whattheyrevealabouttheworld-views
lighton theiroriginand implications,
of South Africansin 1918.
God's directaction
(i)
thethreeAfrikaanschurchesin South Africa,the
AmongChristiandenominations,
Dutch ReformedChurch(the D.R.C), theGereformeerde
Kerkand theNederduitse
HervormdeKerk,wereleastindoubtas to theepidemic'sorigin.'De pestilentie
wasvan
God afkomstig',
assertedtheD.R.C. 's De Kerkbode.Germsweremerelytheimmediate
cause; theFirstCause was God.5Did theplagueoflicevisitedon Pharaoh'sEgyptnot
how God could transform
demonstrate
'de nietigste
dingenin de natuur'intoa potent
ofdivinewill?Was thisnotexactlywhatHe haddonetotheinfluenza
instrument
germ,it
enquired.6Equally, the means wherebythe germshad reachedthe countrywas of
oftheHervormde
SenatorA.D. W. Wolmarans,a founding
father
secondary
importance.
Kerk,askedin his 'Open Briefto fellowChristians:
'Is 't ons niet helderen klaar dat deze plaag nietis een blote toeval,tot ons
doorKleurlingen
entroepenuitVlaanderenofOost-Afrika,maarin
overgebracht
rade Gods om Zijn volk en al de Volkerender aarde tot schuldbelijdeniste
brengen?'7
To seekthecause in humanaction,remarked
theGereformeerde
Kerk'sHet Kerkblad,
wasas misguidedas thedogwhichbitesthestonethrownat it,'zondertemerkenop hem
diede werperis'.8Therewereno twowaysaboutit,ds.J.D. Kestell,theModeratorofthe
- itwas a 'Godsbezoeking'.9
OrangeFree State D.R.C, told hiscongregation
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
De Kerkbode,17/10/1918,p.992.
De Kerkbode,7/11/1918,p.1057.
De Burger,21/10/1918,p.2. Contemporaries
suspected- withgood reason- thattheepidemichadbeen
broughtto theUnion byreturning
troops.
Het Kerkblad,1/11/1918,
p.l.
InstituteforContemporary
of the OFS: PV 153 (KestellCollection),file3/1/4/30
History,University
(Preke 1918),Document14/354- 'Schets'forsermon,24/11/1918.
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werenotas sure.A few,highly-placed
OtherChristian
denominations
Anglicanclerics
butas thenextsectionofthisarticleshows,theweightof
did speakin a similarvein,10
officialAnglicanopinionin South AfricainclinedawayfromseeingGod's deliberate
the organ of the Congregational
hand in the epidemic.Only the Congregationalism
Union,was unequivocalin itsconclusionthatthe'fluwas 'of God',11and eventhenit
reversedthisviewfourmonthslater.12
Of theotheruniversalist
religions,such scantyevidenceas does existsuggeststhat
Hindussawtheepidemicas an indicationofdivinewrath,13
whileMuslimsseemto have
as the Takdier [Will] of Allah'.14The leadingJewish
acceptedit unquestioningly
in Cape Town,Rev. A.P. Bender,was as unwilling
minister
to probe,feelingthatitwas
uselesstospeculateaboutcausesandorigins.'Letus frankly
confessthatsuchknowledge
forus',hetolda memorialservicefor'fluvictims;'itis too highforus to
istoo wonderful
attainuntoit'.15
Amonglaymen,however,therewas no shortageof thosewho wereconvincedthat
God had senttheepidemic.In thelightoftheviewoftheAfrikaanschurches,itis not
common in the columns of Dutch/
surprisingthat this opinion was particularly
Afrikaans
and periodicals.A country
ofDe VrienddesVolks
newspapers
correspondent
voicedwhatwas in themindsof manywhenhe solemnlywarned:
'Zoekenwij toggeentweederlei
oorzaak als de Hand des Almagtigeons slaaten
alzo dòendezijnwoordin vervulling
brengt.'16
It is noticeabletoo,thatwhentheepidemicwasdebatedintheHouse ofAssembly,
itwas
only AfrikanerM.L.A.s (both Governmentand Opposition)who expressedsuch a
view.17
To thehistorian,
themostvaluableaspectof theseexplanationsis thatnotonlydid
God as thesourceoftheepidemic,buttheyalso triedtoexplainwhyHe had
theyidentify
sent it. In nearlyeverycase it was interpreted
as punishment
forsin - a bout of
seemsa commonconcomitantof disasterand an ideal opportunity
for
soul-searching
TheNews-letter,
November1918,Statement
and KurumanDiocesan
byDean ofGrahamstown;
Kimberley
Magazine,no. 29, p.5; SpringsParishMessenger,November1918,ArticletitledThe WiderAspect'.
11. The Congregationalist,
NovemberDecember19 18, p.3.
12. The Congregationalist,
March 1919,p.1.
13. LibraryofParliament,
citedas 1EC),vol.
Cape Town:InfluenzaEpidemicCommissionEvidence(hereafter
1. file3: Evidencebv Mr Navanah.d.31: Diamond Fields Advertiser.
3/12/1918.d.7.
14. Interview
withMr.A. Bava. (Transcripts
ofall interviews
citedinthisarticleareintheauthor'spossession.)
In his paperon thereactionsof Cape Muslimsto thesmallpoxepidemicsof the 19thCentury,Achmat
Davidsstressesthattothemdiseasewasquitesimplyan affliction
imposedbyGod. He does notsuggestthat
theyspeculatedon whyHe had sentit.(A. Davids: The RevoltoftheMalays'inC. Saunderset al. (eds.):
Studiesin theHistoryof Cape Town,vol. 5 (Cape Town, 1984),pp.50n,61, 65-66.)
15. In Memoriam.MemorialServiceforMembersoftheJewishCommunity
whodiedduringtheEpidemic.
Held in the Great Synagogue,Cape Town, 24/11/1918(Cape Town, 1918),p.6. Nevertheless,
some
of Bender'scongregation
members
fastedduringtheepidemic,inthehopethatthiswouldsave themfrom
whattheybelievedhad beensentas a punishment
forsin (Interview
withMrs.J. Stern).
16. De Vrienddes Volks,18/11/1918,
Articletitled'Siekteen Dood - Reitz'.
17. DebatesoftheHouse ofAssemblyoftheUnionofSouthAfricaas reported
intheCape Times,vol.4, p.35,
col. 2; p. 45, col. 1; p.51,cols. 1,3.
10.
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todenouncea rangeofpracticesofwhichtheydisapprove
thoseinpositionsofauthority
A catalogueofthesesinsprovidesan indicationofthoseactionswhichsome
strongly.18
Thesehighlight
SouthAfricansheldto be so evilas to warrantGod's directpunishment.
disquiet,social anxietyand even guilt,
part of what underlaymuch contemporary
whatparticular
Theyalso helptoidentify
especiallyamongAfrikaners.
groupsperceived
to themand theyassistinthedefinition
ofprevailing
as thegreatestthreats
conceptions
of punishment.
of God bysettingout whatHe was believedto finddeserving
to sin in generaltermsonly,thesins
Apartfromthoseexplanationswhichreferred
can be groupedunderfourheadings:socialand moral;specifically
mentioned
religious;
to WorldWar I.
political;and thosepertaining
differ
The socialand moralsinsspecified
littlefromthoseidentified
manytimesbefore
selfishness,21
(and since)in Christiancircles.Theyincludedimmorality,19
dishonesty,20
worldlinessand materialism.25
In
shamelessbehaviour,22
drunkenness,23,
avarice,24
De Burgerpointedout howthepresenceofthousandsofvisiting
troopshad
particular,
inthecountry's
Thegeneralmoralconditionwas
seriouslyincreasedimmorality
ports.26
- amongtheyoung.Sinceit
low,especially- as one dominéenotedinDe Kerkbode27
was thisverygroupthathad beenhardesthitbythe'flu,hisimplication
was clear.
withregardto religiouslifewerealso oneswhich
For themostpart,thesinsmentioned
fromGod,28unrighteoushad longbeencondemnedbytheChristianChurch:straying
18.
19.
1
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
P. Slack: 'Disease and thesocial historian'in TimesLiterarySupplement,
8/3/1974,p.234.
De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,p.1032; 7/11/1918,p.1057; 23/1/1919,p.88; De Burger,7/11/1918,p.3;
Handelingenvan de 12deSynodeder N.H. of G.K. van Zuid Afrika,1919,p.255.
De Kerkbode,24/10/1918,p. 1012;23/1/1919,p.88.
De Kerkbode,7/11/1918,
November1918,Statement
p. 1057;The News-letter,
byDean ofGrahamstown;
November1918,ArticletitledThe WiderAspect'.
SpringsParishMessenger,
Handelingenvan de 12deSynode . . . 1919,p.255.
De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,p.1032;7/11/1918,p.1057;23/1/1919,p.88.
De Kerkbode, 31/10/1918,p.1032; 7/11/1918,p.1057; The Star, 24/10/1918,p.ll (Letter from
unidentified
correspondent).
De Kerkbode, 31/10/1918,p.1032; 7/11/1918,p.1057; 26/12/1918,p.1242; 23/1/1919,p.88; De
Christelike
Strever,December1918,p. 12; De Burger,22/10/1918,Editorial;Die Volksblad,3/12/1918,
LindleyReport.
De Burger,22/10/1918,Editorial;31/10/1918,
Editorial.
De Kerkbode,23/1/1919,
p.88.
De Kerkbode,24/10/1918,p. 1006;De Wekker,November1918,p. 1; Die Ebenezer,1/11/1918,p. 15;De
1918,p.130; De Burger,19/11/1918,
Koningsbode,November-December
p.6 (Letterfrom'Een PetrusvillerO;25/11/1918,p.4 (LetterfromK.B.); Die Volksblad,26/11/1918,(LetterfromH.B. de Witt);
3/12/1918,(Lindleyreport).
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unbeliefand superstition,31
indifference,
hubris,32
ness,29
neglectand laxity,30
perfuncnot attendingChurch35and desecratingthe
torinessin worship,33blasphemy,34
science'was somethingnew,however.To De Kerkbodethe
Sabbath.36'Worshipping
various'scientific'
explanationswhichhad been advancedto accountfortheepidemic
wereclassicexamplesofthevanityandconceitwhicharosewhenhumanbeingsthought
theyknewbetterthanGod and placedScienceabove Him.'Nu spreektmenvan kiemen
enachterbuurten,'
itlamented,'enhetisuitde modeen onwetenschappeenvuilestraten
lijkom van zondente spreken'.God, it wenton, demanded
'dat wij geen anderegodenvóór Zijn aangezichthebbenzullen,en o, wat voor
die zij dienenen waarvoorzij leven!In de
godenhebbende menschenkinderen,
laatstetijden,zegtonsde Apostel,zal de antichrist
erzijnenhijzal inGods tempel
zittenen als God ziehlatenaanbi^lden.De laatstetijdenzijnop ons,ende mensch
metzijn vernuft
en wetenschapen matérialisme
verheft
zieh als 't doei van zijn
bestaan.HijzelfiszijnGod. Wijlevenvooronszelven,engehoorzamenalleenons
gevoelen onze gedachtenen onzenwil.'37
Giventhe'traditional'
characterofall theabove sinssavethelast,itis notsurprising
that
was theconclusionthatthe
theywereregardedas punishablebyGod. Less predictable
divisionin Afrikaner
rankssincetheSouthAfricanPartysplitand theRebellionwas a
reasonfordivinewrath.This suggestsa deeply-felt
unease about thisstateof affairs
whichworriedmanyAfrikaners
who feltsucha situationshouldnotexist.'Voorwaar
ons landgaan swaargeteister
onderdie veleplae',sigheda correspondent
in De Burger,
'maar ook geen wonder,wanthoe heersdie bitterheid
en verdeeldheid
nie onderons
29.
De Volkstem,8/11/1918,p.6 (LetterfromDJ. van der Merwe);SpringsParishMessenger,November
1918,ArticletitledThe WiderAspect'.
30. De Kerkbode,24/10/1918,p.1012; 31/10/1918,pp.1031-2;7/11/1918,p.1057; 12/12/1918,p.l 191;
26/12/1918,p.1242;De Christelike
Strever,November1918,pp.2,8; December1918,p.12; Gereformeerd
Maandblad,November1918,p. 148;De Burger,22/10/1918,Editorial;24/10/1918,p.4 (LetterfromJ.H.
Hanekom);31/10/1918,Editorial;25/11/1918,p.4(LetterfromK.B.); Die Volksblad,3/12/1918,p.2;The
Star,24/10/1918,p.l 1 (Letterfromunidentified
correspondent);
SpringsParishMessenger,November
1918,ArticletitledThe WiderAspect'.
31. De Kerkbode,7/11/1918,p.1057.
32. De Kerkbode,7/11/1918,p.1057;De Christelike
Strever,November1918,p.2; December1918,p.7; De
Goede Hoop, 15/1/1919,
p.269; Die Volksblad,3/12/1918,p.2; De Koningsbode,November-December
1918,p.108; Die Huisgenoot,February1919,p.644.
JJ. De Kerkbode,¿1/11/1918,pp.1110-1111; De Burger,22/10/1918,Editorial;Ons Vaderland,19/11/1918,
p.5 (LetterfromH.F. Meyer).
34. De Vrienddes Volks,21/11/1918,Articleentitled'De SchrikDes Heeren'.
35. De Kerkbode,7/11/1918,p.1057; De ChristelikeStrever,December 1918, p.12. (Letterfrom'Jong
Die Volksblad,3/12/1918,p.2.
Afrikaner*);
36. De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,p.1032;7/11/1918,p.1057;De Christelike
Strever,December1918,p. 12;Ons
Vaderland,1/11/1918,p.4 (LetterfromA.F.); Onze Courant,7/11/1918,p.2 (Letterfrom'Een Mede
ZondaarO.
37. De Kerkbode,17/10/1918,pp.992-3.
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verdien?'38
De Kerkbodewas shockedat
volk,en wie sal ontkendat ons die kastijding
how:
'Men verwenscht
envervloekt
enbelastert
elkaar!Men oordeeltenveroordeelt
en
voor
Men
elkender
kuilen!
men
en
heeft
men
de
schrijft, spreekt
graaft
drukpers
Zou dat allesniettotGod roepen?'39
om de haat te vermeerderen.
this1>roedertwis'
totheNationalistOns Vaderland
all too clearly,
twoletters
Illustrating
suggestedthat,justas Israelhad beenpunishedwhenithad had a wickedruler,so South
Africahad to payforitspresentshamefulleaders.However,addedthewriters,
a remedy
next
to
hand
the
close
election.40
general
lay
Nor was thisbitteranimosityconfinedto politicsalone - it had been allowedto
forall thisdissension,
penetratethechurchand dailylifetoo.41It was as chastisement
GeneralBotha,thePrimeMinister,
warnedsome,thattheepidemichad been sent.42
inhisviewitwas notmerely
therancouramongAfrikaners
wentevenfurther:
whichwas
SouthAfricans.He
beingpunished,butalso thediscordbetweenEnglishand Afrikaans
thathe believedthat:
toldreporters
willproveto be oneofthemeanssentbyGod inorderto soberus by
'thisvisitation
to clearoutmisunderstanding,
so thateverything
maylead alongthe
punishment;
and
a
road of greateraffection,
tolerance,co-operation,
trulyunitednational
existencein mattersspiritualas wellas political'.43
Thefourthtypeofsinwhichwas believedto havearousedGod's angerrelatedto World
natureofthesinvariedaccordingto theeyeofthebeholder.
War I. Heretheparticular
saw theepidemicas a rebuketo thosewho arrogantly
Some D.R.C, ministers
thought
theabilityto kill.'Is 't nietals ofde
that,withall hisnewweapons,man had perfected
door een verzondigdewetenschapuitgedacht!'
Alwetendespotmetal de moordtuigen
KerkeninZuidGereformeerde
askedthechairmanofthejoint Raad derNederduitse
maarGod Zijnetienduizenden!'44
Afrika.'De menschheeftzijneduizendenverslagen,
On the otherhand,a National PartyM.L.A., Rev. E.J.J.van der Horst,saw the
in warswhichdid notconcern
epidemicas God's lessonthat'we shouldnotinterfere
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
De Burger,10/12/1918,
p.3.
De Kerkbode,17/10/1918,p.993.
uns Vaderland,3/12/1918,p.6(LetterîromA. Vechtwhowas N.P. Secretary
m Lydenburg);19/11/1918,
p.3 (LetterfromO.T. van Niekerk).
De Burger,19/11/1918,p.6(Letterfrom'Een Petrusviller');
25/11/1918,p.4 (LetterfromK.B.); De Vriend
des Volks, 16/12/1918,
Fouriesburgreport.
De Burger,24/10/1918,p.4 (LetterfromJ.H. Hanekom);7/11/1918,p.3; De Volkstem29/11/1918,p.5
(LetterfromW. Hattingh);De Goede Hoop, 15/11/1918,pp.163-4;De Kerkbode,17/10/1918,
p.994;
31/10/1918,pp.1032-1034;7/11/1918,p.1057; De ChristelikeStrever,December 1918, p.7; Die
Huiseenoot,February1919,d.644.
Cape Times,25/11/1918,p.7.
vanden Raad derNed. Geref.Kerkenin Zuid Afrika,1919,p.37.
Handelingenvande ZesteVergadering
For a similaropinion,see CollierCollection:LetterfromJ. Sperber,11/5/1972.(Copies of all South
Africanlettersin theCollierCollectionare in theauthor'spossession).
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us'.45The pro-NationalParty Onze Courantwas even more specific:in its blind
it wrote,the Government
had turnedits back on basic Christian
'oorlogsugtigheid',
the
and
real
interests
and
ridden
roughshodover'die beginselvan
country's
precepts
van die Opperwese'.As a result,'Vandaag [sic] woed die
nasionaliteite,'n instelling
die uitvloeiselvan die oorlogen hierheengebrengdeurdie oorlogmakers,
pestilensie,
onderons volk. Dit is Gods oordeel.'46At theotherend of thespectrum,
one superflu
believed
that
the
was
a
epidemic
byGod to
patrioticAnglicanclergyman
prompting
inthecause ofrighteousness
and makebiggersacrifices
'to rescuethe
be moreenergetic
worldfromthebrutality
oftheHun'.47
From a ratherdifferent
perspective,otherSouth Africansfeltthat perhapsthe
was
a
divine
means
ofendingthedevastating
war.'Maybe He sentitto make
epidemic
andkilling',
reflected
an elderlysurvivor
Englandand Germany
stopfighting
yearslater,
'and theydid soon afterwards!'48
addingcorroboratively,
To nota fewpeoplethecoincidenceofthedevastating
war
epidemicand thisterrible
was morethanchance- itwasa signofdeeperthingsafoot.De Kerkbodewasnotalone
whenit made thisverypoint:
'Indien 't aardbevingenalleen waren,of indien't hongersnoodalleen was, of
oorlog alleen,of een pestziektealleen- we zouden misschiennog rechtgehad
hebbentetwijfelen.
Doch al dezedingentegelijkhunverschijning
makende!En in
En
zulkeen schriklijken
de
erin
wereld
Wie dürftnu
betrokken!
gaansche
graad!
Er is ietsaan 't komen.Ja,Jezusis aan 't komen. . . Verklaarde
nog twijfelen?
bijzonderhedenvan Christuswederkomstzoaals gij wilt, dit kunt gij niet
deze pestilentie
is één van de vingerwijzingen
daarheen.'49
ontkennen,
Het Kerkbladidentified
theflu epidemicas theFourthHorsemanof theApocalypse,
while
insideand outsidethe church,cited biblicalpassagesin
both
Death,50
others,
'
supportof theircontentionthat this pestilenceheraldedthe Second Coming.51
"Maranatha!de herekomt"mag wel grondtoonzijn van onze overdenkingen
in deze
D.R.C, theologian.52
tijd',declareda distinguished
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
yz.
Debates of the House of Assembly ...
as reported in the Cape Times, vol. 4, p. 5 1, col. 3.
Onze Courant,4/11/1918,Editorial.
SpringsParishMessenger,November1918,ArticleentitledThe WiderAspect'.
Interview
withMrs.G. Gafiel-Cader.See too CollierCollection:LetterfromMr. F. Appolis,May 1972.
De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,pp.1032-33.
Het Kerkblad,15/10/1918.pp.1-2.
De Christelike
December1918,p.4; April1919,p.2; De Koningsbode,
November-December
Strever,
1918,
p. 108; GenadeenWaarheid,January19 19, p.2; OnsVaderland,1/11/19 18,p.2(LetterfromJ.vanZanten);
19/11/1918,p.3 (LetterfromF.H. Geyser); De Huisvriend,17/11/1918,p.129; 1/12/1918,p.137;
8/12/1918.P.141; LetterfromDr. CF. Juritzto Rev. John Kingon,3/11/1918(copy in author's
possession).
Uereiormeerd
Maandblad,November1918,p.160.
78
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For JohannaBrandt,an Afrikaner
visionarywho, in 1916,had predicteda great
theinfluenzaepidemicwas incontrovertible
plague as thepreludeto the Millenium,53
To
at herthen,itwas an
of
the
her
thosewhohadscoffed
of
all
accuracy
prophecy.
proof
unanswerable
reply.EarlyinNovember1918shepointedthisoutina letterto thepress:
'Vervuldisde woorddatdiejaar 19 18 dieKeerpuntsou weesindiegeskiedenis
van
die wereld,vervulddeur die uitsendingvan die Boodskap van Waarskuwing,
van die eerstevan die sewe plage
Genade en Verlossing,en deurdie uitgieting
waarindie toornGods geëindigsal wees/54
whichurged
Lengthyextractsfromthisletterwerequotedinnewspaperadvertisements
thepublicto buya copyoftheneweditionofher,Die Millenium,'voorditte laat is'.55
But,she added, the'fluwas only'Die BeginDer Smarte. . . Dit is maar een klein
waarindie mensehuiletongesal kauwvan pyn
voorlopervan die plageen pestilensies
tofollowbeforeChristreturned
toliveamong
vs
Much
worse
was
16
1
10,
1).'56
(Openb.
fewwho had survived:on 7 Decemberevenmorepeoplewoulddie than
therighteous
Thisprediction,
hadsuccumbedintheinfluenzaepidemic.57
alongwithgruesomestories
about the'Black Plague' in Cape Town,promptedmanyparentsto wiretheirchildren
at Stellenbosch
to returnhomeat once.58In theevent,theonlyunusualnatural
studying
inthefirst
weekofDecemberwasa partialeclipseofthesun,lateonthe3rd.59
occurrence
seem to have been far less
Outside Afrikaner
circles,millenarianinterpretations
common.Apartfromone reference
deacon,60otherchurches
by a Congregationalist
have
to
shunned
such
explicitlyapocalypticexplanations,thougha quarterly
appear
titledThe MidnightCry,a magazine'devotedto Evangelismand . . . GloriousHope of
theReturnoftheLordJesusChrist',didstartpublicationinJohannesburg
earlyin 1919,
undertheeditorshipoftheAnglicanRev. ErnestBaker.61It wasjoined in 1920byds.
A.G. du Toit'sZiet Hij Komt!
Thereis reasonto believethatamongAfricanChristianstheepidemicalso aroused
ideas - forinstance,the movementin the Ciskeiled by the prophetess
millenarian.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
J. Brandt:The Millenium- A PropheticForecast(n.p., 1918).Accordingto theprefaceof theEnglish
version,thisbookletwas to appear in Dutch, Afrikaans,Xhosa, Sesuto, Zulu, German,Frenchand
vol. IV (Durban and Pretoria,
Russian.On JohannaBrandt,see DictionaryofSouthAfricanBiography,
theseerwhomadehisnameduringtheAnglo-BoerWar,isalso reputed
198 1), p.55. 'Siener'vanRensburg,
to have predictedthe flu epidemic,but withoutthe millenarianconnotations(S. Botha: Profeeten
1940),pp.59-60,98-9). An
Krygsman- Die Lewensverhaalvan Sienervan Rensburg(Johannesburg,
theepidemictoo (B. Sundkler:Zulu Zion and some
Africanprophet,AmosMbata,is said to haveforetold
thecontextwas millenarian
or notis notindicated.
Swazi Zionists(London, 1976),p.60); whether
De Noord-Westelyke
Nationalist,22/11/1918.
Die Volksblad,22/11/1918.
De Noord-Westelyke
Nationalist,22/11/19 18.
Die Ebenezer,1/12/1918,p.22; The Cape, 22/11/1918,p.3.
The Cape, 22/11/1918,p.3.
The Star,3/12/1918,p.9.
The Congregationalist,
November-December
1918,p.24.
neither
thefirstnorthesecondnumberofthisjournalhas survivedinlibrary
collectionsin
Unfortunately,
South Africa.
79
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- buta dearthofdocumentation
Nonteta62
makesa fullerstatement
Whati$
difficult.
likely,however,is thattheepidemicwas one of severalnaturaldisastersand diseases
whichgainedEnochMgijima'smillenarian
Israelitemovement
Itwas
a largefollowing.63
followersof Mgijimawho weremassacredat Bulhoekin 1921.
(ii) Human neglectof social conditions
ofpopularexplanations
The secondbroadcategory
attributed
thedecimation
causedby
theepidemicto whatThe Frienddescribedas 'man'sdisregardoftheDivineor Natural
In particular,
thebeliefwas widelyexpressedthat,as
laws of healthand cleanliness'.64
one reporter
putit,'. . . we arereapingtheconsequencesofallowingslumsinourmidst.
. . . '65Muchprominence
Theseslumsarea hot-bedofinfection
wasgivenbythepressto
accountsof the dank,insanitaryand overcrowdedlivingconditionsencounteredby
intheirvisitsto slumareas.In mostcases theseconditionswerereported
relief-workers
as beingcloselyassociatedwitha heavyincidenceoftheflu.66Hereinlaythebasisofthis
popular explanationof the deadly effectof the epidemic,if not of its origin.The
composer,W.H. Bell,was one ofmanylaymento hold a viewthat
'We haveforgotten
thegreatlaw,a law ofNatureas wellas ofEthics,thatwe are
ourbrother's
keeper,and Naturehas turnedround,as shealwayswill,and given
forour neglectofherlaws/67
us a soundtrashing
businessand professionalcircles,such views were
Especiallyin English-speaking
common,reflecting
exposureto currentscientificideas and a beliefin individual
Urbanslumsand poor medicalorganisation
had provided'greatscope
responsibility.68
to thespreadofdisease',declaredtheorganofSouthAfricanindustry,
IndustrialSouth
Africa.Such conditionswere
'thenaturalconsequencesof neglecting
thelaws of Natureand thepreceptsof
Science.It is uselessshutting
oureyesto theblamewhichattachestoeach ofus as
an individualunitofthecommunity
... No humanmeansmustbe neglectedto
preventdread disease fromfindinga footholdin our country.It is to be
thatwe livein the 20thcentury,
remembered
theage of scienceand enlightenment.'69
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
R.R. Edgar:The FifthSeal: EnochMgijima,theIsraelitesand theBulhoekMassacre,1921'(Unpublished
Ph.D. thesis,University
ofCalifornia,1977),pp.154-5.Edgarrefers
toanothermillenarian
movement
with
flu connectionson p.152.
Ibid.,pp.55-56.
The Friend,8/11/1918,Editorial.
The Star, 11/10/1918.'
See Phillips:'BlackOctober',ch. 2, p.66,ch. 3, p.108and ch. 4, p.136.
The Cape, 1/11/1918,
p.13.
On thedevelopment
ofthisviewpointin Britain,see A. D. Gilbert:The MakingofPost-Christian
Britain
(London and New'York,1980),pp.58-61,64; and A. Wohl:EndangeredLives:PublicHealthin Victorian
Britain(London, 1983),p.6.
IndustrialSouthAfrica,November1918,p.520.
80
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Similarideas were at the core of the explanationsofferedby most clergymenof
denominations.Writingto a friendin England, the Anglican
English-speaking
Archbishopof Cape Town complained:
'Peoplespeakofit[theepidemic]as an "ActofGod",a legalphrase,I know,butit
intoan altogether
seemsto metoputthematter
wronglight.The Enemywhosows
founda congenialsoil in theslumshere.'70
tarescertainly
thecause ofthe
on theRand was moreexplicitwhenheidentified
An Anglicanminister
but
as
or
devil-made
if
the
'man-made
like,
you
through agencyofman;not
epidemic
Insofaras therewas an officialAnglican
God-made as so many seem to think'.71
viewpointon theepidemic,itwas expoundedbytheBishopofGeorgewhosearticleon
thissubjectinhisdiocesanmagazinewasreprinted
bythenationalChurchChronicle.He
madeitclearthathe did 'notbelieve. . . thatGod has senttheinfluenzabecause He is
to punishus'. The reasonforthedevastating
of
effect
angrywithus,andhas determined
theepidemiclay in thefactthat
'certainconditions. . . laid downbytheCreatoras necessary
to ourhealth,have
it maybe, or,whatis morelikely,in ignorance. . . We
beenneglected,
wilfully,
areouralliesincontending
knowalreadythatfreshair,cleanliness,
nourishment,
withthisdisease,and thaton theotherhand,foulair,dirt,poor and insufficient
inthehouseholdsofthousandsofpeoplein
entrenched
food,areenemiesstrongly
thiscountry. . . [W]e who toleratesuchconditionsare guiltybeforeGod and
humanity. . ,n2
thatministers
ofotherEnglish-speaking
It waswithinsucha framework
denominations
as totheextentofGod'sinvolvement.
explainedtheepidemictoo,althoughtheydiffered
man'sneglect;73
theSouth
hintedat a moredirectrolebyGod inpunishing
Presbyterians
The CatholicMagazine,after
AfricanBaptistdidnotreferto Himat all initsaccount.74
monthsof vacillation,eventuallyattributed
theoutbreakto an undefined'Nature',75
and heartily
whilethe Congregationalist
finallyturnedits back on its initialstance76
that'ignorance
andneglect,
notGod,areresponsible
endorsedan articleemphasising
for
disease'.77Rev. JohnDube, an AmericanBoard MissionChurchCongregationalist,78
wentfurther,
by God, of a
assertingthatthe flu was the naturalresult,permitted
70.
7 1.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
Witwatersrand
Library,Historicaland LiteraryPapersDivision:AB 186(ArchbishopW.M.
University
CarterLetters),Carterto Lord Wenlock,All SaintsDay, 1918.
Benoniand DistrictParishNotes,November19 18, p.3.
ChurchChronicle,28/11/1918,pp.456-7. The originalappeared in the George Diocesan Magazine,
November1918,pp.6-8.
St Andrew'sPresbyterian
ChurchRecord,November1918,p.86.
SouthAfricanBaptist,November1918,pp.4-5.
CatholicMagazineforSouthAfrica,June1919,p.281.
See p.74 above.
The Congregationalist,
is on p.1.
March 1919,p.5. The editorialendorsement
On Dube, see DictionaryofSouthAfricanBiography,
vol. Ill (Cape Town, 1977),p.242;S. Marks:The
ofDependence:JohnL. Dube ofNatal'inJournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,vol. 1,no. 2
Ambiguities
(1975),pp.162-180.
81
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This view he enunciatedrepeatedlyto the African
decadentand immorallifestyle.
fortheNativemind
readersofhisHangeläse Natal,sinceitwas 'a matterofimportance
andnotbe misledbythetwaddleso oftenfoundforbeguilingpeople'.79
to seethistruth,
WithintheMethodistChurcharticulated
opinionembracedall theviewssetoutinthe
ministerwho declaredthatneglectof slum
last paragraph:fromthe Johannesburg
curseupon them,80
to themore
conditionshad called down a 'withering,
destroying'
of God, was
measuredresolutionof a DistrictSynod that'thiscalamity,permitted
due to thesocialconditionsamidwhichvastnumbersofthepeoplearecompelled
largely
to live . . .'81For itspart,theofficialMethodistChurchmandid notdirectlymention
God initsexplanation,merely
or
statingthatNaturehad beenassailedbyan 'incidental,
. . . wouldhaveprovedtobe littlemore
accidental'sicknesswhich,t>utforovercrowding
visitationofinfluenza'.82
thanan ordinary
For all theirvariations,each of theabove interpretations
to achievethe
was trying
beliefin an omnipotent
samegoal: to reconcilea traditional
God withthediscoveries
of
scienceand medicineduringthepreceding
century.
Nor did thisgreatdebate remainmerelyacademic,for,actingon medicaladvice,
numerouslocal authoritiesdecided to tryto preventall indoor public gatherings,
churchservices.Theyhopedthatthiswouldstopthefluspreadingevenmore
including
rapidly.
the uncertainty
in the mindsof manyClergymen's
responsesvaried,reflecting
theiropinionas tothecause oftheepidemic- whentheteachingsoffaithand
whatever
of sciencecame intoconflictovera matterwidelysupposedto concernlifeand death.
hadthefewest
doubts:itwasplainlyunchristian,
D.R.C, ministers
declared
Predictably,
De Kerkbode,'om,waarmenonderde beproevende
en kastijdende
handGods verkeert,
de gezamenlijketoenaderingvan de gemeentedes Heeren te verhinderen'.83
Most
infavourofcontinuing
either
Anglicanclericsalsoexpressedthemselves
regularservices,
becauseitwas,'a timewhenpeoplearelookingtotheirreligion
forhelpandcomfort'84
or
becausenotto do so 'wouldbe surrendering
everyprinciplethatis mostpreciousand
- and in thisAnglicans
Some clergymen
discardingGOD as uselessin suchtimes'.85
werenotalone - triedto resolvetheirdilemmabyshortening
servicesor holdingthem
otherscarriedon withtheirservicesregardless,
out-of-doors;86
pointingto the non79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
Ilanga lase Natal, 22/11/1918.For further
expressionsof this opinion,see editionsof 18/10/1918,
29/11/1918,6/12/1918.
Rand Daily Mail,29/10/1918.
Daily Dispatch,3/2/1919,p.7.
MethodistChurchman,
21/10/1918,pp.1,5.
De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,p. 1034.
Cape Times,25/10/1918,p.5 (LetterfromArchbishopCarter).
Benoniand DistrictParishNotes,November1918,p.5. For an equallyvigorousopinionsee The NewsNovember1918,p.303.
letter,
November1918,Articles
titledThe Epidemicand
Cape Times,26/10/19 18, p.4; SpringsParishMessenger,
ChurchServices'and 'Sicknessand Faith';A.F. Louw: My EersteNeëntigJaar(Cape Town, 1958?),p.199;
South AfricanLibrary,ManuscriptsDepartment:MSC 18 (Pocock FamilyPapers), Box 21, W.F.H.
Pocock Letterbook,1918-21,p.673; Interviews
withMrs. A. Ketkar,Mrs. Rockmanand Mr. S. Stone;
Letterto authorfromMrs. B.E. Rennie,5/11/1981.
82
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In holdingtheir
such as bars,shops and market-places.87
closureof gathering-places
inCape Townlaidspecialemphasison theneedto
servicesas usual,Methodistministers
witha chancefor
providetheircongregants
'detachmentfromthe presentdistress,and thatcomfortand inspirationfor
further
another
duty. . . Manypeopleat thisjuncturefeeltheneedofbreathing
ifonlyfora briefspace',
atmosphere,
theydeclared.88
- alongwitha numberofministers
Methodistselsewhere89
ofsmallerdenominations
call to haltservices.Few of thesejustified
in Cape Town90- did heedtheauthorities'
theirdecision,beyondciting'theinterests
ofpublichealth'91
orprudenceand necessity.92
OnlyRev. FrederickConquer,theCongregationalist
chaplainto the Mayor of Cape
hearguedina letter
oftheologicalmodernism,
Town,wentfurther,
when,witha flourish
to theCape Times:
'On generalgrounds,ifthechurchesare to openforpublicassembly,I failto see
Whatever
ecclesiastics
whyweshoulddiscriminate
againstthetheatres.
maythink
aboutournewly-made
thereis no essential
acquaintance,thebacilluscatarrhalis,
betweena congregationassembledforpublicworshipand a crowd
difference
of a film.'93
gatheredto witnessthescreening
Therecan be littledoubtthatDe Kerkbodewatnotalone in thedismayitexpressedat
Conquer's letter.Comparedwithhisviews,itsaid,itsbeliefintheprimacyofthespiritual
overthephysical'is echterouderwetsch
en onwetenschappelijk';
yet,itconcludedafter
weighingup the two,'geslotenekerkenvullenons metgrootervreesdan de bacillus
catarrhalis,. . . ^4
ApartfromtheLadybrandcase inÌ919,95thereis no evidencethatlocal authorities
triedto force White ministersto suspend theirindoor serviceswhere theywere
tocontinue.However,thereis reasonto believethattheywerenotas tolerant
determined
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
Cape Times,26/10/1918,p.8 (LetterfromRev. A.H. Hodges); De Kerkbode,14/11/1918,p.1082;The
oftheWitwatersrand
Friend,20/5/1919,p.6; University
Library,Historicaland Literary
PapersDivision:
AB 487/9íLetterbookof BishoDSidwelli.d.382.
Cape Times,26/10/1918,p.8 (LetterfromRev. A.H. Hodges).
The Friend,20/5/1919,p.6.
Cape Times,19/10/1918,pp.3,6; 25/10/1918,p.4; 26/10/1918,p.4.
Cape Times,26/10/1918,p.8 (LetterfromRev. F. Conquer).
The Friend,20/5/1919,p.6.
Cape Times,26/10/1918,p.8(LetterfromRev.F. Conquer).So radicala lineupsettheMayor,eventhough
he had issuedtheoriginalrequestforservicesto be suspended.In an angryletterto Conquerhe reproved
himforsigninghimself'Mayor'sChaplain',thereby
thathisviewhad theCouncil'sapprovaland
implying
withtheotherclergy'(Cape Archives:
placingtheMayor'inpossibleconflict
3/CT,vol.3/5/1/1/16,
p.85).
De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,p.1035.
See Phillips:'BlackOctober',ch. 11, pp.390-1.
83
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who wereofa likemind.96
to
ofAfricanministers
Probablytheirgeneraldisinclination
enforcesuspensionstemmedfroma lack ofconvictionthatsciencehad explainedthe
theconfusion
withinthemedical
epidemicmoreadequatelythanreligionhad.Certainly
did notinspireconfidence.
Rev. F.C. Kolbe probablyexpressedmorethan
profession
whenhebeganhisarticleon theepidemicintheCatholicMagazineas
Catholicthinking
follows:
'
"Master,thepeople mustbe verywicked,whenGod punishesthemso hard."
So said an old Malay womanto thepresentwriterduringtheworstdays ofthe
terrible
epidemic,. . .
The plainmanwhorealisestheimpotenceofsciencein[the]faceofa catastrophe
ofthiskind,and whohasa realfaithintheProvidenceofGod anda knowledgeof
themoralconditionofmodernsociety,
is inclinedtoagreewiththeMalaywoman,
Mahommedanthoughshe be'97
individuals
(iii) Deliberateactionby malevolent
groups/
which
fortheepidemictoill-willed
assignresponsibility
Popularexplanations
peopleare
aboutexisting
attitudes
to othersand beliefsand prejudicesabout
revealing
particularly
them- as has beennotedwithregardto popularattribution
ofblameforthe1831-32
choleraepidemicinBritain,'thescapegoatis neverchosenatrandom,butforreasonsof
logic'.98
The crudestlogicwas thatof thosesuper-patriots
who,afterfouryearsof intense
anti-German
propaganda,werequitepreparedto see in thedevastating
epidemicyet
anotherexampleof German'frightfulness'.
'Spanishinfluenzais nota suitablename.
Germanplague is more accurate,'the local M.O.H. and DistrictSurgeontold the
whilethe Cape Times,relyingon
UitenhageTimes at the heightof the epidemic,99
'froma highmedicalauthority
information
. . . thatSpanishinfluenzamaybe directly
tracedto the use of poison gas by the Germans',100
concludedthatherewas
bitterly
anotherpenaltywhichcivilisation
has topayfortheprostitution
ofGerman
'apparently
scienceto theserviceof theDevil'.101
That suchopinionswerenotthepeculiarpreserveofjingoisticdoctorsand leaderis borneout byotherreports.The Friendstatedthatit had receivednumerous
writers
96.
Umtatato various
Cape Archives:1/UTA, vol. 6/1/2 18, file28,v. 8, CircularfromResidentMagistrate,
Umtatato A. Mtengane,9/
ministers,
with
22/10/1918;ResidentMagistrate,
12/1918.Reportofinterview
M. Dlamini with regardto eventsin Swaziland (in letterto authorfromProfessorH.W. Turner,
17/5/1979).
97. CatholicMagazineforSouthAfrica,November1918,p.495.Foranotherexampleofdoubtsaboutscience's
see De Vrienddes Volks,31/10/1918,Editorial.
abilityto explaineverything,
98. M. Durey:The ReturnofthePlague - BritishSocietyand theCholera1831-32(Dublin. 1979Ì.d.156.
99. UitenhageTimes,16/10/1918.
100. Cape Times,7/10/1918,p.5.
1,01. Ibid.,Editorial.
84
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lettersconcerning'the Kaiser'sallegedsharein or authorshipof thiscalamity';102
the
TranskeianGazettereportedsimilarviewsamongAfricansin theKentaniDistrict,103
whilea Pretoriadoctorpassed on to a journalista contortedversionof thesame,as
relatedto herbyan old Indianwoman.104
madeit
Though,in theend,common-sense
dismisssuch explanations,the MethodistChurchmanexemplifiedthis widespread
readinessto believetheveryworstoftheGermanswhenitadmittedthatitfelt,'. . . the
Germanswould,iftheycould, introducedisease germsin all the Alliedcountriesif
therewas anychanceoftheirwinningthewar'.105
An eight-year
old girltookno
thereby
chances:she worea camphorbag aroundherneck'to keepofftheGermans'.106
theGovernment's
Giventhepressrevelationsconcerning
failureto preventtheflu
then
South
Africa
it
and
is not surprising
thatin
entering
spreadingcountry-wide,107
someofthosequarterswheresuspicionoftheGovernment's
everyactionwas rife,the
to itsdeliberatemalevolence.In theTransvaal,forinstance,
an
epidemicwas attributed
womantolda relief-worker:
Afrikaner
'. . . hullehet'n telegram
gestuuruitKaapstadaan Botha,om tevrawatgedaan
met 'n skeepsladingsoldate wat lij aan die kakie-pes.En Botha het terug
geantwoord:"laathuílos, dat dital die nasionalisteuitroei"!'108
From a stronglyNationalistconstituency
in theO.F.S. a correspondent
of theproDe Vrienddes Volkscomplainedhow locals 'schrift
Government
alles aan Bothatoe.
Bothais oorzaak van de wereldpest. . . Het is Bothavooren na hetgebed . . . '109An
editorialin thisnewspapertendays laterlamentedthefactthat,"n Verstandelike
en
zedelikepestilentewaartrond onderons, 'n neigingom ten kostevan waarheiden
de tegenstander
zwartte maken'.110
redelikheid
To some AfricanssuchenmityamongWhiteswas trifling
whencomparedwiththe
antipathywhichtheybelievedWhitesbore towardsthem.To themtheepidemicwas
'connectedwiththeschoolsestablishedbythewhitepeople'111or,worsestill,itwas an
102. The Friend,8/11/1918,Editorial.For moreopinionsofthissort,see Kimberley
EveningStar,9/11/1918,
p.8; 2/10/1965,Magazine section,p.ll; Farm,Road and Seaside - The
p.6; Cape Argus,1/11/1918,
South AfricanCaterer,October1918,p.9; Architect,
Builderand Engineer,1/11/1918,p. 19; Woman's
Outlook, November1918,p.6; South AfricanNursingRecord,November1918,p.22; South African
MSC 18(Pocock FamilyPapers),Box 21,W.F.H. Pocock Letterbook
Library,ManuscriptsDepartment:
withSisterDiympla.
1918-1921,p.670; Letterto authorfromMr. H. Stuurman,12/11/1980;Interview
103. TranskeianGazette,31/10/1918,
'KentaniNotes'.Forfurther
examplesofsuchviewsamongruralAfricans
seeSt Matthew'sCollegeMagazine,SpecialSupplement
Number,12/11/1918,p.2;SouthAfricanLibrary,
MSC 15(J.X.Merriman
Letter576fromM. ApthorptoJ.X.
ManuscriptsDepartment:
Correspondence),
withMr. P. Ndaba.
Merriman,
9/11/1918;Interview
104. TheFriend,29/U/1918,p.5.
105.
106.
107.
108.
MethodistChurchman,
21/10/1918,p.l.
CollierCollection:LetterfromMr. E.J. Read, 5/5/1972.
See Phillips:'Black October',ch. 2; pp.27-28and ch. 6, pp.198-200.
De Volkstem,
seeDe Noord-Westelyke
3/12/19 18, p. 11. hora variationon thisinterpretation,
Nationalist,
8/11/1918, p.3.
109. De Vrienddes Volks,19/12/1918,p.2.
110. De Vrienddes Volks,30/12/1918,Editorial.
111. Cape of Good Hope: ReportoftheSuperintendent-General
of Educationfor1919,C.P.^O,
85
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
p.42.
to killoffthepeople'.112
'actionoftheGovernment
in theVictoriaEast
Relief-workers
districthad foundthemselves
precededby a local, announcing'thatthisdiseasewas a
A Transvaal
deviceof theEuropeansto finishofftheNativeracesof South Africa'.113
twist:theinfluenzaepidemic,he was
missionaryreporteda versionwitha significant
of Africans,'particularly
in
told,was a judgementon Whitesfortheirharshtreatment
It is important
not increasingtheirwages'.114
to note,however,thatbeliefsof White
animosityto Africanswerenotlimitedto SouthAfrica;theywerecommonincolonial
Africa,especiallyduringepidemics.115
Other Africanssought an explanation for the epidemic withina traditional
framework.
Thisgenerally
ascribedmisfortunes
to an ancestorpunishing
a descendant
forsomebreachofcustomora 'witch'/
'wizard'whowasa humanwithevilintent
bornof
anger,envyor selfishness.116
Extantsourcespointtothelatteras themostcommonly
acceptedexplanationamong
17butthismaybe theresultofother
intheTranskeiduringtheepidemic,1
non-Christians
interpretations
havingleftevenlessevidenceforthehistoriansixtyyearslater.Neverto a 'witch'/
'wizard'ismostilluminating
andwas not
theless,theevidenceofattribution
withoutsignificant
consequencesat variouslevels.
In his Annual Reportfor 1918,the Commissionerof Police, TranskeiDivision,
reportedthat:
... thewitch-doctor
has been moreactivethanin previousyears.The recent
InfluenzaEpidemicravagedtheNativesand in theirignorancetheyascribedthe
to variouscausesand reasons,blamingfriends
visitations
and relatives
forhaving
caused theillnessand deathofthosenearand dearto them.
Therehas beenan increaseof Smelling-Out
cases and a resultant
increasein the
numberofcrimesofviolencereported,
also mainlydue to thewitch-doctor.'
He illustratedthisincreasewitha typicalcase: the flu epidemichad killedseveral
ofa kraalnearLusikisikiwheretherehad beenone ortwodeathsearlierinthe
residents
year.At thattimewitch-finders
('isanusi') had named a kraal head, Msila, as being
112. IEC, vol. 1,file4: Evidenceof Rev. J. Henderson,p.3. See too F. Schimlek:Mariannhill(Mariannhill,
1950),p.211.
113. ChristianExpress,2/12/1918,p. 185. For similaropinionssee St. Matthew'sCollegeMagazine,Special
withRev. E.E. Mahabane.
SupplementNumber,12/11/1918,
p.2; Interview
114. Presbyterian
Churchman,
January1919,p.7.
115. P. Curtinet al.: AfricanHistory(Bostonand Toronto,1978),p.554. For an exampleof theSpanishflu
inNyasaland,see De Koningsbode,August1919,p.156;Cape Times,15/11/1919,p. 11.
beingso attributed
116. P. Bohannan:AfricanOutline(Harmondsworth,
Africa'sThreeReligions(2nd
1966),p.210;G. Parrinder:
edition,London, 1976),p.65; W.D. Hammond-Tooke(ed.): The Bantu-SpeakingPeoples of Southern
Africa(2ndedition,London,1974),pp.335-6,359; P. Mayer:'Witches'inM. Marwick(ed.): Witchcraft
and
Sorcery(Harmondsworth,
1970),pp.53,63; G.W. Hartwig:'Social Consequencesof EpidemicDiseases:
The Nineteenth
Centuryin EasternAfrica'inG.W. Hartwigand K.D. Patterson(eds.): Disease in African
History(Durham,N.C., 1978),pp.36-37.
117. This appearsto have beenso elsewherein Africatoo - see,forexample,J. Iliffe:A ModernHistoryof
Tanganyika(Cambridge,1979),p.270.
86
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butothershad disagreedand no actionhad beentaken.Now, fludeathsin
responsible,
thesame kraalhad decidedthesurvivors
to deal withMsila once and forall.
They attackedhiskraalearlyin theevening,killedhim,cuthiswifeand infant
two boysaged 15 and 17,
childso badlythattheydied thefollowingmorning,
were
.
.
,'118
wounded,
respectively, seriously
ofTabankulu;119
in bothcases,witchTwo similarcases wereheardbythemagistrate
findershad named a friendor relativeof the 'fluvictimas responsiblefordeath.
is veryrampantin Pondoland',themagistrate
'Witchcraft
'. . . and thereis
commented,
hardlya singleheathenmarriedwomanwhodoes notsooneror laterundergotherites
and ceremoniesof"twaaing"i.e. graduationintheoccultartofa witch-doctor
or witch
finder(isanusi).The recentSpanish Influenzaepidemichas been the cause of these
and
peoplebeingverymuchinrequestand oftheirbeingthecause ofmuchpersecution
trouble'.120
So greatwastheincreaseinritualnamingof'witches'/
'wizards'aftertheepidemicthat
in 1919requestedthatthewitchcraft
theOfficialConference
ofTranskeianMagistrates
clauses in the relevantAct be tightenedup.121This was supportedby the Solicitorthat:
Generalof theEasternCape who mentioned
from"smelling
out"have
'Many cases of homicideand seriousassaultresulting
the
outbreak
in
after
of
influenza
the
cometo mynoticerecently
native
especially
. . . '122
territories
to theTranskeianPenal Code in
This combinedpressureresultedin an amendment
November 1919 which laid down stifferpenaltiesfor those convictedof 'witch123Moreover,theincreaseinritualnamingwasalso onefactorinbringing
tothe
finding'.
of
the
medical
attention
facilities
NativeAffairs
Department's
urgency providing
proper
official
inAfricanareas- as a seniorDepartmental
argued,'itisimpossibletostampout
ofreceiving
and similarpracticesuntilthenativesare givenan opportunity
witchcraft
Europeanmedicalaid'.124
118. Cape Archives:CMT 3/872,file638.31,AnnualReportofTranskeiDivisionofS.A. Policefor1918,p.4
SouthAfricanPolice for1918,U.G. 2-70, pp.48-9.)
(also in ReportoftheCommissioner,
119. Cape Archives:CMT 3/942,file820, Recordsofcases,The Kingvs Tiki and The Kingvs Tshunqwana.
Bothofthesecases wenton appeal to theSupremeCourt.Thesejudgmentsare in CentralArchives:JUS
276,file2/474/19.
120. Cape Archives:CMT 3/942,file820, Recordof case, The Kingvs Tiki,p.3. See too Territorial
News,
19/12/1918;Daily Dispatch,5/11/1918,p.7 (Letterfrom'A TranskeiResident^and 20/11/1918,p.10.
TranskeitoSecretary
forNativeAffairs.
121. Cane Archives:CMT 3/942.file820.ChiefMagistrate
14/6/1919.
to SecretaryforNativeAffairs,
122. Cape Archives:CMT 3/942,file820, Solicitor-General,
Grahamstown
forNativeAffairs
to ChiefMagistrateTranskei,28/7/1919.
18/7/1919,enclosedin Secretary
no.
123. UnionofSouthAfricaGovernment
Gazette,vol. XXXVIII, no. 1013,5/12/1919,p.441,Proclamation
164.
124. Cape Archives:CMT 3/653,file97, IdenticalMinutefromG.A. Godley,29/4/1919.
87
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resultof WorldWar I
(iv) Unintended
references
The frequent
to WorldWar I incontemporary
explanationsoftheepidemic
forthebloodywarfarein Europemadea deep impression
arenotsurprising,
on South
ofitspopulationwasactively
involved.The
Africa,eventhoughonlya smallproportion
fiercely
patrioticUnionistand SouthAfricanPartypresscarrieddetailedreportsofthe
whilefilmsandnewsreels
drovehomethesamemessage:a warofunprecedented
fighting,
was beingwaged,withhorrific
newweaponsbeingemployed
magnitudeand ferocity
almostat random.
Itwastheindiscriminate
useofpoisongas whicharousedthesuspicionsoftheDistrict
thethroatand lungs.
SurgeonofEast London,for,liketheSpanishflu,ittoo affected
He toldtheInfluenzaEpidemicCommissionthathewouldliketo knowmoreaboutthe
excludingthem,as a possible
gasesusedin FlandersandsincespreadworldwideT>efore
ofthelateInfluenzapandemic'.125
virulence
causeoftheextreme
Some suchexplanation
tookrootat a popularleveltoo. In 1978an old labourerexplained,
'Daardie siektemoesgekomhetmetdie besoedelingvan die lug ... [Die] 1914
oorloghetdie lug ... baie besoedel... al diebomsengoeters. . . travel[sic]met
die wind. . . '126
In Cape Town somepeopleconcludedthattheexhaustsmokefroma local aeroplane
as itflewoverthePeninsula.127
had producedthesameeffect
that
Alternatively,
amongmanyotherlaymenthebeliefwas(and remains)widespread
the 'fluepidemicarose fromthe scoresof unburiedcorpsesleftdecomposingon the
battlefield.
'People said thatit was because of thewar',an old flu survivortold me.
'Soldierswerekilledand theirbodiesleftlyingaroundrotting.
Germswerepickedup
fromthis,whichcausedtheSpanishflu.'128
Eveninthe
Othersrelatedsimilarstories.129
remoterpartsof Manyikaland,SouthernRhodesia,a versionof thisexplanationwas
in 1918.'So manywerekilledinthegreatwarofthewhitepeople',local ngangas
current
(ritualexperts)explained,'thattheblood ofthedead had causedthisgreatsickness'.130
is thecontemporary
Whatall theseexplanationsreflect
senseofhorrorat whatwas
To manyitclearlywasa placewhereterrible
takingplaceon theWesternFront.131
things
werehappeningand could be expectedto happen.Whenmenso flagrantly
brokethe
laws ofhumanity
and natureeveryday,a deadlydiseasecame as no surprise.
125. IEC, vol. 1, file4: Evidenceof Dr. B. Anderson,p.l. See too De Burger,10/1/1919,
p.4; Cape Argus,
23/10/1918,p.6 (LetterfromC.D.F.).
14/10/1918,p.6 (Letterfrom'InterestedO;
withMr. J. Granger.
126. Interview
Builderand Engineer,November1918,p.43; Interview
127. Architect,
withMrs. P. Weisbecker.
withMr. D. Drever.
128. Interview
129. Letterto authorfromMrs.E. Malherbe,10/12/1982.Intereviews
withMrs.Cross; Mr. H.Z. de Villiers;
Mr. Eden; Mrs. G. Gafiel-Cader,Mrs. M. Jones; Mrs. A. Ketkar;Mrs. Scully; Mr. S. Stone. Collier
Collection:LetterfromMrs. H. Dey (née Wilmot),25/5/1972.
130. W. Sachs: Black Anger(Westport,1972),p.32.
131. On such feelingsin Britainsee J. Terraine:The Smoke and the Fire(London, 1980),pp.36-7,102; A.
Marwick:The Deluge - BritishSocietyand theFirstWorldWar(Harmondsworth,
1967),pp.227-9.
88
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'De Hemel alleen weet welke andererampenons nog te wachtenstaan van
mensendiegedurende
vierjaar inholeninde grondgeleefdhebben
terugkerende
ponderedOns Vaderlandapprehensively.132
Ideas
Underlying
severalfeaturesstandoutclearlyfromsomeofthe
At a moregenerallevelofthought,
explanationsoutlinedabove.
markedly
Firstly,in theirconceptionof God thethreeAfrikaanschurchesdiffered
fromnearlyall otherChristiandenominations.Their God was in the archetypal
- everything
sinbydirectintervention
Calvinistmould:all-seeing,
wrathful,
punishing
that happened was an expressionof His will. In contrastto this, most other
a
denominations
dailyaffairs,
envisagedGod as somewhatremovedfromhumanity's
133
the
War
He
World
1.
In
their
was
the
of
viewintensified
eyes,
by gruesomeexperiences
ofNature;these
intheworkings
ultimate
mover,thedesignerwhoselawswereimmanent
thisconceptionwas
thehumanmindwas meantto ascertainand to follow.Underlying
an attemptto come to termswiththediscoveriesof scienceabout the make-upand
mechanismof the world.This was aimed at achievingwhatan influential
group of
modernistAnglicanshoped would be 'a reconciliationwhichshall at once set the
and thereligious
and criticalmovement,. . . freefromtheperilofirreligion,
scientific
to newknowledge'.134
at
ofhostility
Such attempts
freefromtheimputation
movement
fundamentalist
in
their
theAfrikaans
churches
accommodation
rejected
quitespecifically
oftheflu epidemic.Not surprisingly,
theyalone proclaimeda special
interpretations
EventheGovernment
Day of Humiliationto prayfortheremovalof theepidemic.135
One columnistnotedperceptively/
jibbed at sucha step.136
to calloutthepriestsandparade
The dayis notlongpastwhena plagueoccurred,
thehost;todaytheengineerlooks sharplyto thedrains.'137
wasthepervasive
oftheepidemichighlight
A secondunderlying
idea whichexplanations
Forthemtheepidemicconstituted
senseofanxietyamongmanyAfrikaners.
yetanother
threatto theircontinuedexistenceas a 'volk',to be added to recenttraumatic
episodes
132. Ons Vaderland,29/10/1918,Editorial.
133. O. Chadwick:The SecularizationoftheEuropeanMindinthe19thCentury
(Cambridge,1977),p.262;A.
Vidler:The Churchin an Ase of Revolution(Harmondsworth,
1965),p.212.
134. QuotedinB.M.G. Reardon:ReliriousThouehtintheVictorianAse (LondonandNewYork.1980).d.434.
135. De Kerkbode,31/10/1918,pp.1025-1026;
7/11/1918,p. 1051;I. Hexham:The IronyofApartheid- The
CalvinismAgainstBritishImperialism
(New York and
StruggleforNationalIndependenceof Afrikaner
fortheendofbothWorldWarI
Toronto,198 1), p.66.The Natal D. R.C. 's specialservicewasone ofttíanks
van de N.G.K. van Natal,1919,p.9).
and oftheepidemic(Notulender48steAle. Kerkvereaderine
Administrator
136. CentralArchives:PM 1/1/238,filePM 110/35/1917,
of O.F.S. to Ministerof Interior,
ofO.F.S., 13/12/1918(also inO.F.S.
totheActingPrimeMinister
to Administrator
5/12/1918;Secretary
sub-file
inside
Archives:PAS 147,file348). Cape Archives:A583(F.S. Malan Collection),vol. 17, Untitled
filemarked'GeheimeStukke- Kabinet& Ministeriell',
Malan,
TelegramfromGeneralBothato Minister
TelegramfromF.S.Malan to GeneralBotha,14/11/1918;De Burger,31/10/1918,Editorial.
14/11/1918;
137. TranskeianGazette,26/12/1918.
89
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such as the Anglo-BoerWar withits 26 000 Afrikaner
theparty
victims,Milnerism,
Rebellion.
politicalsplitand theinternecine
Wil jij metspotgebaarvirons nog meerbij al ons swaaraf in die dieptesdruk?'
asked the fierynationalistpoet, D.F. Malherbe,in his emotion-charged
poem, 'Die
Plaag'.138In De Burger,a lesseminentpoetnotedhow- as in 1899and 1914- itwas
onceagainOctoberthathad broughtcalamityto theAfrikaner
Volk'.139
Perhapsthere
was a higherpurposebehindthisstringof disastershoped a De Vrienddes Volks
'Door lijdenen verdrukking
wordt'n volkgeboren.'140
correspondent:
Otherssaw no suchprospectinthegloomysituationfor'ons armeou volkie,wataan
sinkis', as one readerputitin De Burger.Lifehad become
'so 'ntreurigheid:
enpestilensie;
aan allekantedreig
oorlog,droogte,hongersnood
die gevaarons,terwijldie spaansegriepduisendevan slagoffers
daagliksom ons
heenwegmaai'.141
This decimationfilledanotherwiththedeepestpessimismforthefutureand he asked
despairingly,
moetuitgeroeid
worden?
'Schijnthetnietoferwaarheidin zit,dat de Afrikaner
... De oorlogeiste26 000vrouwenenkinders,
maarhoeveelzal de ImperialePest
nemen. . . '142
The loss of so manypromisingyounglivesto whatone popularjournal called 'die
verraderlike
caused particularanguish.A poetastersummedup these
epidemie'143
sentiments
feelingly:
'Spaanse Griep,van oorseesestrand,
Wat maakjij in ons vaderland?
Het ons dan niegenoeggelij.
Virreghetons so swaarbaklei.
Baje vrouwe,kindersen mans
Is deurhonger,moord,koe'elen lans,
In die doodsvalleigejaagd,
Hul lot worddeurdie volkbeklaagd.
Spaanse Griep,jij is nog *ndolk
In die deurboordehartvan 'n volk,
138. Die Huisgenoot,February1919,p.644. Malherbehad losta youngdaughterin theepidemic(Union of
SouthAfrica:Reportof UnderSecretaryforEducationfor1918,PartII, U.G. 8-*20,p.12).
139. De Burger,19/11/1918,
p.3.
140. De Vrienddes Volks, 25/11/1918,Excelsiorreport.For similarinterpretations
in the wake of the
Anglo-BoerWar, see I. Hexham: The Irony of Apartheid,pp.69-70;T.D. Moodie: The Rise of
Afrikanerdom
(Berkeley,1975),pp.36-ß7.
141. De Burger,25/11/1918,p.4 (LetterfromK.B.).
142. Ons Vaderland,19/11/1918,p.3 (LetterfromO.T. van Niekerk).See too Ons Vaderland,1/11/1918,
p.6
(LetterfromD.S. vandenBerg)and8/11/1918,p.6(LetterfromP.J.H.Steyn);De Burger,
6/12/1918,p.2.
143. Die Brandwag,November1918,p.162.
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Wie s'n wondeglad niewilheel,
Wanthuiverliesis al te veel; . . .
Spaanse Griep,gaattogwegvan hier,
Wantas jij nou noglangerduur,
Dan blijdaar oor,slegshieren daar,
Van ons uitgemoorde
volk 'n paar/144
Withsuchapprehensions
aboutthesurvivaloftheAfrikaner
Volk'in theair,itis little
wonderthatonce the'fluepidemicand thedivisiveissueof WorldWar I had passed,
Afrikaners'determination
to secure theirown futuregatheredpace.145Nor is it
givensuch a background,thatJohannaBrandt'smillenarianprophecies
surprising,
shouldhave attracted
so muchnoticeamongAfrikaners.146
It is widelyheldthat
'Millenarianmovements
almostalwaysoccurintimesofupheaval,inthewakeof
culturecontact,economicdislocation,revolution,
war,and naturalcatastrophe
. . . Millenarianmovementsdo not flourishduringperiodsthatare otherwise
stable;a catalystis required.'147
millenarian
movements
By thesame token,post-epidemic
amongAfricansdoubtless
pointto thepresenceof acutesocial distressand"anxietyamongthem,arisingfroma
stringofcalamitiessinceUnion,suchas theoutbreakofEast Coast Feverin 1912,the
1913 Land Act, the rapid wartimerise in pricesand taxes, the severedroughtsof
19 14-19 16,thefloodsof19 16-19 17 andthesinking
ofthe'Mendi'in 19 17.148
Thisturmoil
thefludisastercompoundedand/orcrystallised.
A missionary
ina district
the
bordering
Transkeiwas toldbyone ofhis Africancongregants
earlyin 1919:
'It is as if the Plagues of Egyptare upon us. Firstthe awfulWar, thenthis
pestilenceand nowboils,and theneardreadofa famine,theseasonis so against
all cropsand fruits.'149
144. Ons Vaderland,1/11/1918,p.8.
145. See Phillips:'BlackOctober',ch. 11, pp.408-411.
146. See p.79 above. The Afrikaansversionof Die Milleniumwentthroughat least threeeditionsin 191«
(theSouth AfricanLibraryhas a copy marked'3de druk,1918',dated5/11/1918).
147. M. Barkun:Disasterand theMillenium,p.45. For similaropinions,see K. Burridge:New Heaven New
Earth(Oxford,1980),pp.3,128-9;D.B. Barrett:Schismand Renewalin Africa(Nairobi,1968),pp.92-94;
J.F.C. Harrison:The Second Coming(London and Henley,1979),pp.218-220;I. Hexham:'Afrikaner
Nationalism1902-1914'in P. Warwickand S.B. Spies (eds.): The SouthAfricanWar - The Anglo-Boer
War 1899-1902(Harlow,1980),pp.390-391.
148. T.R.H. Davenport:SouthAfrica- A ModernHistory(Johannesburg,
1977),pp.176-179;M. Wilsonand
L.M. Thompson(eds.): OxfordHistoryof SouthAfrica,vol. 2 (Oxford,1971),p. 13 1; P.L. Bonner:The
1920 Black Mineworkers'
Strike:a Preliminary
Account'in B. Bozzoli (ed.): Labour, Townshipsand
Protest(Johannesburg,
1979),pp.279-282;P.L. Bonner:The TransvaalNativeCongress1917-1920'in S.
Marksand R. Rathbone(eds): Industrialisation
and Social Changein South Africa(London and New
York,1982),p.270;G. Shepperson:Tthiopianism:Past and Present'in C.G. Baèta (ed.): Christianity
in
Tropical Africa(Oxford,1968),pp.253-254;D.D.T. Jabavu: 'Native Unrest'in D.D.T. Jabavu: The
SegregationFallacyand OtherPapers(Lovedale, 1928) pp.76,8 1; R. Bloch:The HighCostofLiving:The
PortElizabeth"Disturbances"
ofOctober1920'in AfricaPerspective,
no. 19 ( 1981).d.40.
149. ChristianExpress,1/4/1919,p.60.
91
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to statements
The similarity
is striking,
in
a correspondence
by Afrikaners
suggesting
theirstructural
positionin SouthAfricansocietywhichwentbeyondtheimpactofthe
epidemicon them.
In sum,not onlydid the Spanish flu epidemicitselfexacerbateexistingtravailin
SouthAfricansociety;itsveryintensity
pushedthistravailtothesurfaceandcauseditto
ofideas and
be expressed.Its rolein whatRoux describesas the'considerableferment
... inthedecadefollowing
notions,politicaland otherwise. . . stirring
upontheendof
theFirstWorldWar'150
shouldnotbe disregarded.
The purelypsychologicalshadow
whichitcastin SouthAfricawas long.Therearemorethana fewhintsofwhatLanger,
to the aftermathof the Black Death, identifiedas 'a mass emotional
referring
and common
disturbance,based on a feelingof helplessexposure,disorientation,
guilt'.»5i
150. £. Roux: TimeLongerthanRope (Madison and London, 1966),p. 135.For a similarobservation,
see P.
Walshe:The RiseofAfricanNationalismin SouthAfrica(London, 1971),p.71. It has beensuggestedthat
inIndia(V. Smith:OxfordHistoryofIndia(3rdedition,Oxford,1958),
the'fluepidemichadsuchan effect
D.782).
in AmericanHistoricalReview,vol.63, no. 2 (January1958),p.299.
151. W.L. Langer:The NextAssignment'
92
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