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HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR
PERFORMANCE IN
ASSESSMENT
Workshop 2
KEDIMA
13th March 2013
Yiola Papadopoulou Paraskevaides
Special Teaching Staff
Language Centre
[email protected]
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CONTENTS
 PART A -Taking notes in classroom lectures
 PART B – Good Essay Writing (The Social Science Essay)
 PART C – Group Project Organization
 PART D – Writing Lab Reports and Scientific Papers
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Taking lecture notes
There are many reasons for taking lecture notes.
 A. Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully
and test your understanding of the material.
 B. When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is
important in the text.
 C. Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the
text.
 D. The writing down of important points helps you to
remember then even before you have studied the material
formally.
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Taking lecture notes
Instructors usually give clues to what is important to take
down. Some of the more common clues are:
 A. Material written on the blackboard.
 B. Repetition
 C. Emphasis
 1. Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture.
 2. Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the
instructor spends on points and the number of examples he
or she uses.
 D. Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . "
"The third reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ")
 E. Summaries given at the end of class.
 F. Reviews given at the beginning of class.
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Taking lecture notes
Each student should develop his or her own method of taking notes, but
most students find the following suggestions helpful:
 A. Make your notes brief.
 1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a
phrase where you can use a word.
 2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.
 B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be
noted exactly:
 1. Formulas
 2. Definitions
 3. Specific facts
 C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you
distinguish major from minor points.
 D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get
the information later.
 E. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for
coordinating your notes with the text after the lecture. (You may want
to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the
page.)
 F. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.
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Saving time on note taking
Hints for saving time:
 Rewriting takes double the time: once to take the original
notes and a second to rewrite them.
 The advice is simple: DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME!
 Taking notes in shorthand:
 Though shorthand is a valuable tool for a secretary, it is
almost worthless for a student doing academic work. Notes in
shorthand cannot be studied in that form. They must first be
transcribed. The act of transcribing notes takes an inordinate
amount of time and energy but does not significantly
contribute to their mastery.
 It is far better to have taken the notes originally in regular
writing and then spend the time after that in direct study and
recitation of the notes.
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Saving time on note taking
 Do not record the lesson on a cassette tape or any other
tape. This statement can be better understood when seen in
the light of a person who has taken his/her notes in regular
writing. Immediately after taking the notes this person can
study them in five minutes before the next class as s/he
walks toward the next building, as s/he drinks his/her coffee,
or whatever.
 Furthermore, this student, in looking over his/her notes, may
decide that the notes contain only four worthwhile ideas
which s/he can highlight, relegating the rest of the lecture to
obscurity. Whereas the lecture on tape has to be listened to
in its entirety including the worthwhile points as well as the
"garbage," handwritten notes may be studied selectively. A
student who takes the easy way out - recording the lecture
on tape as he or she sits back doing nothing - will box him or
herself into inflexibility.
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Note making
 Learning to make notes effectively will help you to improve
your study and work habits and to remember important
information. Often, students are deceived into thinking that
because they understand everything that is said in class
they will therefore remember it. This is dead wrong! Write it
down.
 As you make notes, you will develop skill in selecting
important material and in discarding unimportant material.
The secret to developing this skill is practice. Check your
results constantly. Strive to improve. Notes enable you to
retain important facts and data and to develop an accurate
means of arranging necessary information.
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Note making
Here are some hints on note making.
1. Don't write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert
and attentive to the main points. Concentrate on the "meat" of
the subject and forget the trimmings.
2. Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences. If
a speaker gets sidetracked it is often possible to go back and
add further information.
3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words,
but try not to change the meaning. If you quote directly from an
author, quote correctly.
4. Think a minute about your material before you start making
notes. Don't take notes just to be taking notes! Take notes that
will be of real value to you when you look over them at a later
date.
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Note making
5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make
sense to you. Use a skeleton outline and show importance by
indenting. Leave lots of white space for later additions.
6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to
the point. Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.
7. Don't worry about missing a point.
8. Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in
order and in one place.
9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not redo) your
notes by adding extra points and spelling out unclear items.
Remember, we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you
do for the class itself.
10. Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting
memory.
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Good essay writing
The social science essay
 A basic social science essay has the following: a title, an
introduction, a main section, a conclusion, and a list of
references.
 Essays in the social sciences are distinguished by their
emphasis on the use of evidence to evaluate arguments and
the use of theory to build accounts of the social world.
 There are three golden rules of essay writing:
1.write your answer in your own words
2. answer the question that is asked
3. think about structure and social scientific skills as well as
content
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Good essay writing
Matching the answer to the question
 Advocacy questions ask you to outline and illustrate a
particular issue, topic or argument.
 Evaluation questions ask you to explore arguments for and
against competing positions and to evaluate their relative
strengths and weaknesses.
 Compare and contrast questions ask you to identify and
explore points of comparison and contrast between
competing positions.
 These basic structures should be adapted in the light of the
question and the material under discussion.
 As you develop ‘intermediate’ and ‘advanced’ skills you will
be expected to show greater confidence and ability in
deploying essay structuring skills. Your essay structures will
need to demonstrate a developing complexity and
comprehensiveness, giving due weight to relevant aspects of
the argument.
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Good essay writing
States of writing from preparation to final version:
 Make use of sources of guidance.
 Essay writing has six principal stages:
1. reading and understanding the question,
2. identifying the relevant material,
3. making an essay plan,
4. writing a first draft,
5. reviewing the first draft, maybe writing a second draft,
6. writing a final version
 Realistic time management is central to effective essay
writing.
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Good essay writing
Writing introductions
 Introductions tell the reader what your essay is about. You
may write it first to give you an idea of what you are doing, or
you may find that you can write a better introduction when
you have completed the main bulk of your essay.
 There is more than one way to write an introduction. The
approach adopted here treats the introduction as an ‘abstract’
or synopsis of key points.
 ‘Full’ introductions: identify the subject of the essay; signpost
the shape of the argument; highlight the major debates that
lie ‘behind’ the question; signpost the content of the
argument; (where necessary) define terms; (sometimes)
establish a position or look ahead to the conclusion.
 A basic short introduction should tell the reader what the
essay is about by: identifying the subject of the essay;
highlighting the major debates that lie ‘behind’ the question,
and identifying the essay’s key argument(s) or theme(s).
Good essay writing
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 An introduction written to ‘introductory’ standards should be
proficient at identifying the subject of the essay and
signposting the shape of the argument.
 An introduction written to an ‘intermediate standard should
move towards highlighting the major debates raised by the
essay question signposting the content of the argument, (if
necessary) defining terms effectively, and (if appropriate)
establishing a position.
 An introduction written to an ‘advanced’ standard should
show greater sophistication in bringing out the major debates
raised by the question, signposting the content of the
argument, (if necessary) defining terms, and (f appropriate)
establishing a position.
 Introductions should normally be between 5 and 10 per cent
of the total length of the essay.
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Good essay writing
TASK
 Below there are two examples of introduction. Read them,
discuss with the person sitting next to you and say which is
one is a strong introduction and which one is a weak.
 Topic: ‘School is a significant site in which sex/gender is
produced’. Discuss
 Introduction 1
 This essay looks at the arguments for and against the idea
that school is a significant site in which gender is produced.
The first section shows where this idea comes from and
contrasts it to the deterministic account. The second section
gives evidence in favour of the theory of Social
Constructionism.
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Good essay writing
 Introduction 2
 This essay critically explores the claim that school is a
significant site in which sex/gender is produced. The claim
derives from a broadly social constructionist position, namely
one that views sex/gender as being the product of social
meanings and practices rather than something biologically
given. The essay begins by outlining the social
constructionist critique of the biological account of
sex/gender. It then reviews recent research on gender and
schooling to explore the extent to which the social meanings
and practices that make up life in school may be seen as
producing relational forms of masculinity and femininity. In
exploring these issues, the essay endorses a broadly social
constructionist standpoint on gender and schooling, although
it also seeks to highlight a number of potential limitation to
this position, particularly as these relate to the literature’s
account of the body and social agency.
Good essay writing
 Introduction 2 is the strongest because it identifies the
subject of the essay, indicates the debate lying ‘behind’ the
question, signposts its content and establishes the author’s
position.
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Good essay writing
Writing the main section
 The argument in the main section of an essay needs to have
‘logical progression’.
 We construct logically progressing arguments in everyday
life.
 Logical progression involves: outlining a particular point of
view; giving reasons why this point of view might be correct;
and providing theoretical and empirical evidence to support
these claims.
 As you progress to more advanced undergraduate courses
you will increasingly be required to select relevant material
from a range of sources and relate this back to the individual
essay question.
 Arguments should be supported with appropriate illustrations
and evidence. Try to select a range of the most significant
examples – some are richer and more far-reaching than
others. Examples should relate back to the essay question
and engage with the argument that you are making.
Good essay writing
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 For some courses you will need to use maps, diagrams, or
numerical data. These should be used as evidence to
support your argument, but remember, they are not ‘hard
facts’.
 Social science essays often ask you to explore theoretical
arguments and use these as evidence as well as concrete
examples. As you develop your essay writing skills you will
need to show increasing confidence in exploring the
strengths and weaknesses of competing theories.
 Some theories are stronger and more convincing than others;
theories cannot necessarily be lumped together to make a
‘super theory’ – they often contradict each other. In handling
theories, social scientists need to be ‘critical’, that is, they
need to display an awareness of a theory’s weaknesses and
its strengths. However, one sign of increasing intellectual
maturity is the ability to write from ‘within’ a perspective.
 Being ‘self-reflexive’ means acknowledging your own
particular biases, for example, by indicating that you are
arguing from a specific point of view.
Good essay writing
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 Quotations and references to key texts are used: as a source
of evidence; to provide the reader with a ‘map’ of the most
important works in an area; and to give the work ‘authority’.
 Quotations should be introduced.
 Longer quotations should be written in a separate paragraph
indented at the left-hand (and sometimes right-hand)
margins. Shorter quotations can be written in the main text in
single inverted commas. Any changes should be indicated.
 Quotation and key texts highlighted in an essay should be
supported by a reference.
 As your skills develop, and certainly at intermediate standard,
you should be able to select appropriate quotations and cite
key texts in support of your argument.
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Good essay writing
Writing the main section - Summary
 One way to think of your notional reader is as someone studying the
social sciences at an equivalent level in another university. She or he
will understand basic social scientific concepts but won’t necessarily be
familiar with the area addressed in your essay. By the end of advanced
undergraduate courses you should aim to write for an ‘expert’ audience.
 The aim of good essay writing is to convey complex ideas in as clear a
form as possible.
 Paragraphs contain a topic and a series of statements explaining what
is relevant about the topic. Together these make up its ‘main idea’. A
1500-word essay will have five or six key points plus an introduction
and conclusion.
 You can give your essay a strong sense of direction by: introducing and
summarizing main sections; recapping and signposting your argument;
where useful, referring back to the question.
 Using link words and sentences ensures that your essay ‘flows’
smoothly.
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Good essay writing
Writing Conclusions
 The primary job of a conclusion is to provide a final condensed
version of your essay’s core argument and thereby to
summarize the key debates raised by the question, or provide
an overview of ‘current knowledge’ on a given topic.
 Longer conclusions should: recap the subject of the essay in
some form; recap the key stages in the argument/summarize
the key debates raised by the question; provide a final
condensed version of the argument that restates the essay’s
position on the question; (if necessary) identify absences in the
argument that could be explored in future work.
 An essay written to an ‘introductory’ standard might be expected
to provide a conclusion that demonstrates an ability to
summarize the content of the essay clearly and concisely. More
advanced essays should move towards conclusions that
emphasize sophisticated condensed versions of the core
argument, and a sophisticated understanding of the key debates
raised by the question.
 The conclusion should take up roughly 10 per cent of an essay.
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Good
essay
writing
Referencing
 To write a reference using the Harvard system you should give an
abbreviated reference in the text and full details in a list of references at
the end of the text.
 Abbreviated references in the text are written: author’s surname,
publication date, and page number(s) if applicable.
Example:
 ‘The word “race” has been, and still is, associated with ideas of
inferiority, superiority, hierarchy and persecution’ (Clarke, 2003, p.38).
Or
 Clarke (2003, p.38) argues that, as a term, ‘race’ is associated with
ideas of inferiority, superiority, hierarchy and persecution’.
 Full references at the end of the text are listed alphabetically by
author/originator.
Example:
 Clarke, S. (2003) Social Theory, Psychoanalysis and Racism,
Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan.
 Begin with the author’s surname and initial(s)
 Give the date of publication
 Give the title of work
 Give details of the place of publication and the publisher
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Good essay writing
 Book – When more than one author
Example:
 Harywood, C. and Mac an Ghaill, M. (2003) Men and Masculinities: Theory,
Research and Social Practice, Buckingham, Open University Press.
 Edited collection:
Example:
 Steinberg, D.L. and Johnson, R. (eds) (2004) Blairism and the War of
Persuasion: Labour’s Passive Revolution, London, Lawrence and Wishart.
 Electronic sources
 http://www.worldbank.org/ (accessed 10th March 2013)
 References for different publications by the same author in the same year
are distinguished using ‘a’, ‘b’, etc, convention.
 Full references at the end of the text for a single author book are written:
author’s surname and initials, publication date, title (italicized or underlined),
place of publication and publisher. Electronic references follow similar
principles as those for printed texts but must also include the date of access.
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Good essay writing
 References to chapters in edited collections, to journal and
newspaper articles, and to various other sources are given in
slightly different ways.
 Note down your reference details at the time you are finding
your material.
 Referencing is a basic academic skill and it is almost certain
that you will be expected to use references accurately on
undergraduate courses.
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Good essay writing
Plagiarism
 Plagiarism means copying someone else’s work and claiming it
as your own. Plagiarized essays will normally attract a fail
grade. Deliberate plagiarism, which constitutes cheating, may
result in disciplinary action.
 Plagiarism is often unintentional. To avoid this make sure that
you write essay notes in your own words and always put
quotations in quotation marks or indent the text; reread your
essays, looking for sudden changes in style or tone; and seek
help if you do not understand particular points to ensure that,
when writing, you can reproduce them in your own words.
 Writing to a word limit is an important academic skill: it teaches
you to condense complex material into its component parts, and
to select and communicate core arguments.
 Personal experience can be a useful source of evidence and
some courses require you to use it. However, be careful to
relate it to the course and the essay question and to
substantiate your claims.
 Essays are expected to be readable and to use conventions of
spelling, grammar and punctuation correctly.
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Group Project Organization
Many college classes will have group projects of some sort. This
can be almost anything, from conducting a research study to
creating a documentary, and can often count as a large part of the
grade in a course. It is important for the person chosen to lead this
the group to have the organizational and leadership skills to get
the job done.
Encourage Respect for Ideas
 One of the most important aspects of leading a group class project is
making it clear to all involved that everyone at the table has a voice in
the project. While there will always be one or two individuals who are
more active than others, the leader has to keep these more outspoken
members of the team from totally drowning out the others. One reason
for doing this is that it is only fair, and the other is that the quiet guy off
in the corner may be a genius your group needs to hear.
Conflict Management
 When conflicts occur over either the direction of the project or small
details (as they inevitably will), it is the job of the leader of the group to
keep this from become personal or disruptive. At the same time, conflict
can often be used to generate good ideas. The key is finding the right
balance so as to keep things humming along.
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Group Project Organization
Delegation
 As the leader, avoid the trap of carry the biggest part of the load.
Make sure you delegate tasks to each member of the team to
distribute the workload fairly. This does not mean shifting the
workload to anyone who is handy. You should instead work to
the strengths of the group, using their collective skills and
knowledge to best advantage.
Time Management
 Another vital skill for a leader of a group project is time
management. Since school projects usually have a deadline,
you have to make sure that all parts of the project are
proceeding at a pace that will meet that deadline. To do this, you
have to keep lines of communications open so you will know if
someone is falling behind. If they are, you will either have to find
a way to motivate them to greater effort, help them resolve the
difficulty slowing them or assign someone else to help them.
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Group Project Organization
Group projects
 Learning and working in groups involves shared and/or learned
values, resources, and ways of doing things. Effective groups
learn to succeed by combining these factors. Your group, and
each individual within it, will only be as effective as they are
willing to respect differences within the group.
Summary of the entire process:
At the first meeting, all participants:
1. introduce themselves with what they bring to the project, their
interests, qualifications, and even preferences in projects.
2. determine a convener and/or clerk who will keep participants
on task
This is determined by your first group process, and should
consider who would like to volunteer, experience and expertise
with the task, and even a desire to learn about group tasks
3. Determine the strategy of how often to meet in person or
through technology, where the group will meet, communicating
including email and (cell) phone information, and how to
distribute minutes and updates
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Group Project Organization
4.Summarize objectives:
Strategy: each member independently writes down one or
two main objectives of the project, then the group compares
these, extracts key words and phrases, then prioritizes
results. If agreement cannot be reached, refer the matter to
the teacher.
Group members should realize that this a procedural
situation, and not a matter for controversy or heated
argument.
5. Determine process to achieve the objectives
What is the timeline? What are the deliverables and when
are they needed?
Do you need sub-groups? project planning tools (Gantt,
Critical Path, PERT)?
What applications do you need (word processing, spread
sheets, cameras, imaging software (Photoshop),
presentation software (PowerPoint), Website, etc.
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Group Project Organization
Process stages:
1. Research discovery: library, Internet, professional associations,
experts, etc.
2. Research analysis: often in the process, difficulties appear:
consolidation and identifying key concepts and issues
mid-stream check-in, planning for gaps, requests for assistance,
etc.
3. Product development:
Development of a thesis statement, individual sections
4. Write/compile document or presentation
Opening | body | closing statement/argument
5. Bibliography
6. Review and evaluation
Product | process | participation
7. Project summary
8. Rehearsal for presentation
9. Presentation
10. Celebration
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Group Project Organization
 Interaction within the group
is based upon mutual respect and encouragement.
 Often creativity is vague.
Ideas are important to the success of the project, not
personalities.
A group's strength lies in its ability to develop ideas individuals
bring.
 Conflict can be an extension of creativity.
The group should be aware of this eventuality. Resolution of
conflict balances the end goals with mutual respect. In other
words, a group project is a cooperative, rather than a
competitive, learning experience.
 The two major objectives of a group project are:
 What is learned: factual material as well as the process
 What is produced: written paper, presentation, and/or media
project
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Group Project Organization
 Role of instructors/teachers/professors:
 Outcomes depend on the clarity of the objective(s) given by
teachers.
The group's challenge is to interpret these objectives,
and then determine how to meet them.
 Group work is only as effective as teachers or instructors
manage and guide the process.
Group projects are not informal collaborative groups.
Students must be aware of, and should be prepared for, this
group process.
Cooperative group projects should be structured so that no
individual can coast on the efforts of his/her teammates
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Group Project Organization
 Scoring:
 Rewards ideally should be intrinsic to the process,
with group members deriving their reward from their
contributions
to the group and project
 External reinforcement (grades, etc) for individuals can be
based upon improvement, as opposed to comparative,
scoring. Traditional, comparative scoring works to the
detriment of teams with low-achieving members. Evaluation
based upon improvement rewards the group for an
individual's progress. Peer, comparative evaluations can
have a negative effect on teams: low scoring members are
considered "undesirable" and drags upon performance
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Group Project Organization
 High achievers versus low achievers?
 We assume high achievers mentor or teach low achievers.
In the process of teaching others, we can learn more about
the topic.
As we tutor, even simple questions from the tutee make us
look at our subject matter freshly. As we explain, we gain a
deeper understanding of the topic. Low achievers then tutor
or teach high achievers!
 High achievers profit in cooperative learning in other ways:
leadership skills, self-esteem gains, conflict resolution skills,
and role-taking abilities which become part of the leaning
process, and betterment of the student.
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Writing Scientific Reports
 So why are you writing this research report? The practical
answer is “Because the teacher assigned it,” but that’s
classroom thinking. Generally speaking, people investigating
some scientific hypothesis have a responsibility to the rest of
the scientific world to report their findings, particularly if these
findings add to or contradict previous ideas. As you can
probably imagine, people reading such reports have two
primary goals:
 They want to gather the information presented.
 They want to know that the findings are legitimate.
 Your job as a writer, then, is to fulfill these two goals.
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Writing Scientific Reports
 What lab reports and scientific papers do:
 Persuade others
to accept or reject hypotheses by presenting data and
interpretations
 Detail data, procedures, and outcomes
for future researchers
 Become part of the accepted body of scientific
knowledge
when published unless later disproved
 Provide an archival record
for reference and document a current situation for future
comparison
Writing Scientific Reports
 Format:
The typical lab report includes:
 title,
 abstract,
 introduction,
 materials and methods,
 results,
 discussion,
 references
 literature cited
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Writing Scientific Reports
Title:
 Reflect the factual content with less than ten words in a
straightforward manner
 Use keywords researchers and search engines on the Internet
will recognize
Abstract:
 Summarize in a concise paragraph the purpose of the report,
data presented, and major conclusions in about 100 - 200
words.
Introduction:
 Define the subject of the report: "Why was this study
performed?"
 Provide background information and relevant studies: "What
knowledge already exists about this subject?"
 Outline scientific purpose(s) and/or objective(s): "What are the
specific hypotheses and the experimental design for
investigation?"
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Writing Scientific Reports
Materials and methods:
 List materials used, how were they used, and where and
when was the work done (especially important in field
studies)
 Describe special pieces of equipment and the general theory
of the analyses or assays used
 Provide enough detail for the reader to understand the
experiment without overwhelming him/her. When procedures
from a lab book or another report are followed exactly, simply
cite the work and note that details can be found there.
Writing Scientific Reports
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Results
 Concentrate on general trends and differences and not on
trivial details.
 Summarize the data from the experiments without discussing
their implications
 Organize data into tables, figures, graphs, photographs, etc.
Data in a table should not be duplicated in a graph or figure
 Title all figures and tables; include a legend explaining
symbols, abbreviations, or special methods
 Number figures and tables separately
and refer to them in the text by their number, i.e.
 Figure 1 shows that the activity....
 The activity decreases after five minutes (fig. 1)
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Writing Scientific Reports
Discussion
 Interpret the data; do not restate the results
 Relate results to existing theory and knowledge
 Explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject your
original hypotheses
 Speculate as necessary but identify it as such
 Include suggestions for improving your techniques or design,
or clarify areas of doubt for further research
References & literature cited
 Cite only references in your paper and not a general
bibliography on the topic
 Alphabetize by last name of the author
 Follow the recommended format for citations
Writing Scientific Reports
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General style
 Strive for logic and precision and avoid ambiguity, especially
with pronouns and sequences
 Keep your writing impersonal; avoid the use of the first person
(i.e. I or we)
 Use the past tense and be consistent within the report
note: "data" is plural and "datum" is singular; species is singular
and plural
 Italicize all scientific names (genus and species)
 Use the metric system of measurement and abbreviate
measurements without periods (i.e. cm kg) spell out all numbers
beginning sentences or less than 10 (i.e. "two explanations of
six factors").
 Write numbers as numerals when greater than ten (i.e. 156) or
associated with measurements (i.e. 6 mm or 2 g)
 Have a neutral person review and critique your report before
submission

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The end…
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