1. health and fitness
2. disease

INDUSTRY FACT SHEETS
RELATED TO THE DENIAL
OF SHIPMENTS OF
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Produced by the IAEA’s
International Steering Committee
On The Denials Of Shipments Of
Radioactive Material
IAEA Headquarters, Vienna
June 2007
[PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK]
INDUSTRY FACT SHEETS RELATED TO THE DENIAL OF SHIPMENTS
OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
This booklet contains fact sheets that have been developed and produced by members
of the International Steering Committee on the Denial of Shipments of Radioactive
Material. It is intended that these fact sheets will communicate to service providers
and the public about the need for the transport of radioactive materials that are
commonly used in everyday life.
Radioactive materials need to be transported for use in public health and industry and
for production of nuclear power. Transport of radioactive material is governed by
national and international regulations which are based on the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material
(Publication Safety Standards Series No. TS-R-1). The Regulations are developed by
experts from the Member States of IAEA and ensure high standards of safety.
However, recently there were increasing numbers of instances of denial and delay of
shipment of radioactive material even when complying with regulations.
In particular, delays in and denials of shipments of radioactive material for medical
use can result in hardships to patients undergoing diagnosis and treatment with
radioactive material and to others, who rely on products sterilized by radiation. There
continues to be an urgent need for a universally accepted approach to solving this
problem. Efforts made by the Agency to address the issue indicate that the main
reasons of the refusals include:
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Apprehension and negative perception on the part of carriers and public
authorities about radiation. This is due, in part, to lack of information, awareness
and understanding.
Concerns about extent and cost of training. This is because the carriers have been
under the impression that extensive training had to be given to those involved in
transport, in particular, their personnel who manage and handle radioactive
material. It is not necessarily so. For this purpose, expert consultants have devised
a half day training programme each for cargo personnel, handlers and managers
and for public officials.
Multiplicity of regulations and regulators within a State and lack of harmonisation
between nations. There is limited interaction among the various regulatory
authorities within a given State. This situation can cause duplicative, overlapping
or even contradictory regulatory requirements and actions.
Lack of awareness and public outreach about (a) the need to use and transport
radioactive material and (b) the safety standards in practice.
As a result Member States of the IAEA through its Board of Governors and its
General Conference have asked the Agency to take proactive action to address the
issue of denial.
In response the IAEA has formed an International Steering Committee on the Denial
of Shipments of Radioactive Material. The Committee serves as a mechanism to
facilitate the coordination of a comprehensive international work plan of activities
conducted by the Members of the Committee related to delays and denials of
shipments of radioactive material. At its first meeting in November 2007, The
Steering Committee developed and adopted an Action Plan, which includes the
actions to be taken, the member who would take the action and the date by which the
action would be accomplished.
The Action Plan is based on six areas of work:
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Awareness, including a method of recording sustainability problems in transport
of radioactive material to make International Organisations and Member States
aware of the events, their consequences, the underlying issues and their resolution,
as well as the high level of standards that Regulations provide during transport;
Training to improve the understanding of service providers and other major
stakeholders so that they find it easier to comply with class 7 regulations and their
concerns may be allayed;
Communication to improve transparency among service providers, regulatory
authorities and the public;
Lobbying for marketing, outreach and promotion of industries requiring transport
of radioactive material and for promoting a positive image of use of radioactive
material;
Economic to identify and reduce economic burdens causing sustainability
problems; and
Harmonisation of international requirements where industry should notify (in the
form of a generic denials report) the UN Agency where differences of
interpretation, or additional requirements, result in denial with a view to
encouraging discussion amongst member states.
The fact sheets meet one of the actions in the Communication Work Area of the
Action Plan.
If you have any questions about these facts sheets, you can contact the person listed
on the individual fact sheet. For questions on the Steering Committee and other IAEA
actions related to denials of shipments of radioactive materials, please contact Mr. M.
Wangler ([email protected]), Mr. N. Bruno ([email protected]) or Mr. Y. Zhao
([email protected]).
We are also asking for your comments on the presentation format, content and
usefulness of the fact sheets. Please submit your comments to any of the individuals
listed above. We would very much appreciate your comments.
DEVELOPED BY ISSPA-NORDION
Nuclear Medicine Radioisotopes
What is nuclear medicine?
Nuclear medicine imaging is unique because it provides doctors with information
about both structure and function of the human body. It is a way to gather
medical information that would otherwise be unavailable, require surgery, or
necessitate more expensive diagnostic tests. Nuclear medicine imaging
procedures often identify abnormalities very early in the progress of a disease –
long before many medical problems are apparent with other diagnostic tests.
Nuclear medicine uses very small amounts of radioactive materials
(radiopharmaceuticals) to diagnose and treat disease. Radiopharmaceuticals are
introduced into the patient’s body by injection, swallowing or inhalation. The
pharmaceutical part of the radiopharmaceutical is designed to go to a specific
place in the body where there could be a disease or an abnormality. The
radioactive part of the radiopharmaceutical that emits radiation, known as gamma
rays (similar to x-rays), is then detected using a special camera called a gamma
camera. In treatment, the radiopharmaceuticals go directly to the organ being
treated. Some of the radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine include technetium99m, iodine-131, iodine-123, and xenon-133.
Every day over 85,000 nuclear medicine procedures are performed around the
world and all of them are dependant upon a ready and reliable supply of
specialized radioisotopes with short half-lives that must be delivered and utilized
within a very specific timeframe.
Radioisotope production
Nuclear Reactor Based Isotopes
The primary radioactive isotope used in the majority of nuclear medicine
procedures around the world is technetium-99m. Technetium-99m is produced
from molybdenum-99. The molybdenum used to produce the technetium for these
procedures comes from only a small number of research reactors around the
world capable of producing this isotope.
As with any radioactive isotope, molybdenum-99 has a half life. The half-life for
molybdenum-99 is 66 hours which means that 66 hours after the product is
removed from the reactor, only half of the active isotope is left. Given the short
half-life, speed and efficiency in processing, transporting, and using the product
are of the essence.
The product must first be removed from the reactor, processed to remove certain
impurities, packaged in approved shipping containers and shipped to the
radiochemical processing facility. Final processing involves purifying the product,
testing for activity and quality, dissolving into a solution, packaging in approved
shipping containers and shipping to the radiopharmaceutical manufacturer. At the
radiopharmaceutical manufacturing facility the molybdenum is used to produce
technetium generators that are then shipped to radiopharmacies for use in nuclear
medicine procedures. Given the short half-life of molybdenum and the fact that
the product must be shipped around the globe to supply world demand, air
transportation is the only option available.
Any limitations imposed on transporting molybdenum-99 that elongate the critical
path from reactor to end-user will reduce the amount of product available for
nuclear medicine procedures and cause patients to go without diagnoses from a
technique that has no equivalent.
Cyclotron Based Isotopes
One of the most commonly used cyclotron-produced isotopes is iodine-123.
Iodine-123 is used for thyroid and cardiac imaging. Due to its short half-life of
13.2 hours, speed and efficient transportation are vital to patients receiving the
benefit of iodine-123. From that point in time, when the target is removed from
the cyclotron beam to be purified, tested, packed in authorized shipping
containers and shipped, to that point in time when it is administered to a patient,
is only a matter of a few hours. All of this must be done in careful synchronicity
with the flight times of carriers so that the flight leaves almost immediately after
the precious cargo is loaded. The product arrives at a radiopharmaceutical
company, radiopharmacy or hospital to be utilized by patients the same day. Any
delay in the transportation process will wreak havoc with everyone down the
supply chain, especially the patient whose diagnosis is delayed and must be
rescheduled.
Applications
Diagnostic Imaging
Nuclear medicine can diagnose many different types of diseases. It can be used
to identify abnormal lesions deep in the body without exploratory surgery. The
procedures can also determine whether or not certain organs are functioning
normally. For example, nuclear medicine can determine whether or not the heart
can pump adequately, if the brain is receiving an adequate blood supply, and if
the brain cells are functioning properly or not. Nuclear medicine can determine
whether or not the kidneys are functioning normally, and whether the stomach is
emptying properly. It can determine a patient’s blood volume, lung function,
vitamin absorption, and bone density. Nuclear medicine can locate a bone
fracture before it can be seen on an x-ray.
It can identify sites of seizures (epilepsy), Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s
disease. Nuclear medicine can find cancers, determine whether they are
responding to treatment, and determine if infected bones will heal.
After a heart attack, nuclear medicine procedures can assess the damage to the
heart. It can also tell physicians how well newly transplanted organs are
functioning.
The most important isotope in nuclear medicine imaging is by far technetium-99m.
Technetium-99m (and in turn molybdenum-99) is used in over 80% of the more
than 32 million nuclear medicine procedures conducted around the world each
year. The primary application of technetium-99 is in the area of cardiology. From
the evaluation of myocardial perfusion and cell viability to the evaluation of
cardiac performance, nuclear medicine procedures provide a non-invasive look at
critical physiological information that is unavailable from other techniques. Over
50% of nuclear medicine imaging procedures are cardiac related.
Therapy
One of the most common nuclear medicine therapies involves the use of iodine131 to treat hyperthyroidism. Thousands of patients a year receive this
treatment. The thyroid glands have a natural affinity for iodine, which makes the
thyroid a prime candidate for iodine-131 therapeutic procedures. When
chemically bound to other specific compounds, iodine-131 can be focused on
other parts of the body including the kidney, and is used for diagnosis and
treatment of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Due to its radioactive nature, iodine-131
can be used both for diagnostic imaging and therapy making it a cornerstone
isotope in nuclear medicine procedures. Approximately 250,000 I-131 procedures
are administered in the United States annually. Nuclear medicine therapies are
continuing to grow with the primary focus being oncology applications, in an effort
to destroy malignant tumor cells.
Summary
The importance of nuclear medicine in diagnosing and treating heart disease,
cancer and neurological disorders is well understood and valued by physicians and
patients. In fact, due to the physiological nature and basis of nuclear medicine, it
has the ability to diagnose conditions that no other technique can. This incredible
and irreplaceable tool can only work effectively if the nuclear medicine products
are available when and where required, each and every day. Given the limited
number of sources for radioisotopes globally, access to reliable and efficient
transportation is critical to the future of the entire discipline, and to the millions of
patients who rely on them around the world .
Common Reactor Based Isotope Half-Lives
Isotope
Molybdenum 99
Technetium 99m
Half-Life
66 hours
6.007 hours
Xenon 133
Iodine 131
5.243 days
8.02 days
Iodine 125
59.4 days
Iridium 192
73.83 days
Yttrium 90
64.10 hours
Applications
Parent of Technetium-99m, Technetium generators
Imaging – brain, heart, lungs, bones, thyroid,
kidneys
Imaging – lungs, brain, liver
Therapy – hyperthyroidism, lymphoid tumours,
graves disease, prostate cancer. Imaging –
tumours, thyroid.
Imaging – bone (osteoporosis), Therapy – brain
cancer, prostate cancer.
Therapy – implanted “seeds” for prostate, brain,
breast gynecological cancers.
Therapy – internal radiation therapy for liver
cancer, Hodgkin’s disease, breast cancer, arthritis.
Common Cyclotron Based Isotope Half-Lives
Isotope
Iodine 123
Thallium 201
Indium 111
Gallium 67
Palladium 103
Copper 64
Half-Life
13.2 hours
3.04 days
2.80 days
Applications
Imaging – brain, thyroid, kidney, myocardial.
Imaging – heart.
Imaging – transplant rejection, infections, white
blood cell imaging.
3.26 days
Imaging – abdominal infections, Hodgkin's/nonHodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue infections,
osteomyelitis.
16.99 days
Therapy – prostate cancer treatment.
12.701 hours Imaging – brain, heart.
Developed by ISSPA-NORDION
Cobalt – 60
Criticality of Cobalt-60 for Terminal Sterilization of Single-Use and Disposable
Medical Devices
Facts about the market
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The current global medical device market stands at $160B, growing at 5%
annually
50% of medical devices are manufactured in the US
Globally, 45% of all single-use medical devices are sterilized with gamma
irradiation where Cobalt-60 is the source of gamma energy. This
represents 200 million cubic feet of product annually
There are 160 full-scale irradiation facilities in the world, with a total
installed base of 300 MCi
Approximately 80% of the installed cobalt is used for sterilization of
medical devices
Examples of products that use gamma sterilization
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Surgical drapes
Gowns
Gloves
Gauze
Surgical dressings
Specimen containers
Sterile clean-room garments.
Syringes
Needles
Blood collection tubes
Intravenous sets
Parenteral sets
HIV and other blood assay
testing plates
Collection swabs
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Microwell plates
Serological pipettes
Culture media devices
Ophthalmic solutions
Oxygenators
Cannulas
Catheters
Dialyzers
Staples (removable)
Suturing and stapling devices
Lancets
Surgical procedure trays and
custom kits
Endotherapy devices for
gynecologic, ophthalmic,
general, or plastic surgery
Gamma technology
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In use for more than 40 years
Safe, simple, effective and reliable
Uses Cobalt-60 as energy source (12.5% decay per year)
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High penetration for treatment of higher density products
Flexible equipment and process to treat a wide variety of products
Not compatible with some materials
Exemplary transport and use safety and security record
Cobalt-60
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A radioactive form of non-radioactive cobalt-59 which is a naturally
occurring element that is also often used in alloys with other metals
Cobalt-59 is made radioactive in certain nuclear reactors, such as those
used to produce electricity
For gamma sterilization purposes, cobalt-60 is in the form of slugs that
are fitted into stainless steel pencils
The double encapsulation process allows the gamma energy to be used
while ensuring that the products being sterilized never come into contact
with the radioactive cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 is treated in accordance with strict regulatory requirements to
ensure safe transport and use of this material
Cobalt-60 is a non-fissile material that cannot explode or catch on fire
Other applications using Cobalt-60
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External beam therapy equipment for cancer treatment
Food irradiation for pathogen reduction and disinfestation
Research (stem cell, drug discovery, space and defense etc.)
Sterilization of non-medical products such as cosmetic ingredients, food
packaging materials, labware
Effective and efficient transport
The importance of this radioisotope to health care, both directly and indirectly,
and to consumers is self-evident. The limited number of suppliers of Cobalt-60
and the fact that the vast majority of countries that use Cobalt-60 import it
necessitates an effective and efficient transportation process around the world.
Any delay in transport will adversely affect the industry, and therefore, provision
of healthcare. Industry, government, and the transportation supply chain must
continue to work closely and effectively to ensure this critical radioisotope is
available when required.
TANTALUM-NIOBIUM INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER
Rue Washington 40
1050 Brussels, Belgium
Tel.:
+32 2 649 51 58
Fax:
+32 2 649 64 47
e-mail: [email protected]
AISBL
Fact Sheet on Tin Slag
What tin slag is
This material is a secondary source of the metal
tantalum. Tantalum is not radioactive and is nontoxic. It is used in many ways in our everyday
lives, improving technology and material
performance.
Its many applications include
electronics, medicine, engineering, industry and
energy generation.
What it is used for
The tantalum metal is mainly used in electronics,
to make a part called a capacitor. It allows the
capacitors to be very small and is ideal for high
technology uses, including digital cameras and
video cameras, mobile phones and PDAs,
laptops and DVD viewers, data storage devices.
These capacitors are also in car electronics such
as anti-lock braking (ABS), wheel traction control,
airbag inflation, engine management and fuel
economy.
Medical uses include heart
pacemakers, implanted auto-defibrillators and
hearing aids.
In addition to electronics, tantalum is also used in
medicine to make human body inserts and bone
replacements.
The body readily accepts
tantalum, without any adverse reaction.
In
industry, tantalum promotes better efficiency in jet
engines and steam turbines for energy
generation. There are many other uses, for
example in drilling tools, powerful lenses, sound
filters and semi-conductor chips. Tantalum also
resists acids very well (similarly to glass) and
allows corrosive environments to be handled
safely with a longer life-span for equipment.
The transport of tin slag
Most tin slag comes from Malaysia and Thailand.
Some also comes from Australia, China and
some African countries.
The tin slag needs to be transported to reach
industries which are capable of processing the
material and extracting the tantalum metal. This
can not be done at the tin slag producers. These
processor industries are mainly in Germany,
U.S.A., China, Kazakhstan, Russia and Estonia.
The distances and quantities involved mean that
tin slag needs to be transported almost
exclusively by sea. This is typically done in 20’
sea-land containers, each one holding up to 20
tonnes of tin slag.
The radioactivity issue
The tin slag material also contains small
quantities of thorium and uranium which can not
be removed until the material is processed.
Thorium and uranium are naturally occurring
radioactive elements which are present in rocks
and soil all around the world.
The amount of thorium and uranium in tin slag is
sometimes lower than the minimum level for
control set by regulating authorities. Therefore
such tin slag can safely be transported as general
cargo. Most tin slag is just over the exemption
limit set by regulating authorities, which means it
is termed Class 7. This means that particular
rules need to be followed for the transport of this
material and thanks to these rules the material
can still be transported safely.
The Denial of Shipment problem
Class 7 tin slag can be transported safely, yet
companies shipping Class 7 tin slag are
experiencing serious difficulties that amount to
denial of shipment. Every effort should be made
to allow and assist the movement of these
essential materials.
Further reading
For further details on how to determine if a
shipment of tin slag should be treated as Class 7
or not, please contact the T.I.C. at:
http://www.tanb.org/contact.html
For information on the rules to follow, please see
the “Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material” on this IAEA web page:
http://www-ns.iaea.org/tech-areas/radiationsafety/transport.htm#2
If you wish to discuss this with your country’s
regulatory authority, then see the “List of National
Competent Authorities” on the above IAEA web
page for contact details.
TANTALUM-NIOBIUM INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER
Rue Washington 40
1050 Brussels, Belgium
Tel.:
+32 2 649 51 58
Fax:
+32 2 649 64 47
e-mail: [email protected]
AISBL
Fact Sheet on Tantalite
What tantalite is
This is a mineral and the main source of the
metal tantalum. Tantalum is not radioactive and
is non-toxic. It is used in many ways in our
everyday lives, improving technology and
material performance.
Its many applications
include electronics, medicine, engineering,
industry and energy generation.
What it is used for
The tantalum metal is mainly used in electronics,
to make a part called a capacitor. It allows the
capacitors to be very small and is ideal for high
technology uses, including digital cameras and
video cameras, mobile phones and PDAs,
laptops and DVD viewers, data storage devices.
These capacitors are also in car electronics such
as anti-lock braking (ABS), wheel traction control,
airbag inflation, engine management and fuel
economy.
Medical uses include heart
pacemakers, implanted auto-defibrillators and
hearing aids.
In addition to electronics, tantalum is also used in
medicine to make human body inserts and bone
replacements.
The body readily accepts
tantalum, without any adverse reaction.
In
industry, tantalum promotes better efficiency in jet
engines and steam turbines for energy
generation. There are many other uses, for
example in drilling tools, powerful lenses, sound
filters and semi-conductor chips. Tantalum also
resists acids very well (similarly to glass) and
allows corrosive environments to be handled
safely with a longer life-span for equipment.
The transport of tantalite
Most tantalite comes from Australia. Some also
comes from Brazil, Canada, Mozambique, China,
Ethiopia and many other African countries.
The tantalite needs to be transported to reach
industries which are capable of processing the
mineral and extracting the tantalum metal. This
can not be done at the mines. These processor
industries are mainly in Germany, U.S.A., China,
Kazakhstan and Estonia.
The distances and quantities involved mean that
tantalite almost always needs to be transported
by sea. This is typically done in 20’ sea-land
containers, each one holding up to 20 tonnes of
tantalite.
The radioactivity issue
The tantalite mineral also contains small
quantities of thorium and uranium which can not
be removed until the mineral is processed.
Thorium and uranium are naturally occurring
radioactive elements which are present in rocks
and soil all around the world.
The amount of thorium and uranium in tantalite is
sometimes lower than the minimum level for
control set by regulating authorities. Therefore
such tantalite can safely be transported as
general cargo. Most tantalite is just over the
exemption limit set by regulating authorities,
which means it is termed Class 7. This means
that particular rules need to be followed for the
transport of this material and thanks to these
rules the material can still be transported safely.
The Denial of Shipment problem
Class 7 tantalite can be transported safely, yet
companies shipping Class 7 tantalite are
experiencing serious difficulties that amount to
denial of shipment. Every effort should be made
to allow and assist the movement of these
essential materials.
Further reading
For further details on how to determine if a
shipment of tantalite should be treated as Class 7
or not, please contact the T.I.C. at:
http://www.tanb.org/contact.html
For information on the rules to follow, please see
the “Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material” on this IAEA web page:
http://www-ns.iaea.org/tech-areas/radiationsafety/transport.htm#2
If you wish to discuss this with your country’s
regulatory authority, then see the “List of National
Competent Authorities” on the above IAEA web
page for contact details.
Enriched UF6: a material
essential for the fabrication
of nuclear fuel
Enrichment: a key step in the transformation of uranium.
Uranium needs to be converted to a gas, uranium
hexafluoride (UF6), in order to be enriched through the
process of centrifugation or gaseous diffusion.
Enrichment must occur before nuclear fuel can be fabricated.
This process consists of modifying the isotopic composition of
natural uranium to facilitate the fission phenomenon that
generates heat and then electricity.
Natural uranium is made of two isotopes: uranium-238 (U238) and uranium-235 (U-235). Only U-235 is fissile and can
be used in nuclear reactors to produce electricity. Natural
uranium contains only 0.7% of U-235, which is not enough for
the fuel to react properly in the reactor. Therefore, an isotopic separation process is necessary to increase the
proportion of the U-235 isotope, typically three to five percent, in relation to U-238 in natural uranium.
Gaseous diffusion: In a vessel containing a mixture of two gases, molecules of the gas with lower molecular
weight (U-235) travel faster and strike the walls of the vessel more frequently than do the molecules of the gas
with higher molecular weight. The semi-permeable walls of the vessel allow more of the lighter molecules to flow
through the wall than the heavier molecules. The gas that escapes the vessel is thus enriched in the lighter
isotope.
Centrifugation: The heavier U-238 is pushed by the rotation speed (centrifugal force) toward the outside of the
vessel, and U-235 stays close to the center where it can be retrieved. U-235 concentrates over many successive
centrifuges.
AREVA enriches uranium using gaseous diffusion at its EURODIF Production plant, located on the Tricastin
nuclear site at in southern France. AREVA is currently building a new centrifuge plant there called GB 2.
Conditioning of enriched UF6 for transportation
UF6 is transported as a crystallized solid under vacuum in very robust metallic cylinders
(30B type cylinders). These cylinders are locked in an airtight overpack, of UX30 type,
before being sent to the customer. The overpack ensures thermal shielding and a
stronger resistance of the package.
Proprieties of enriched uranium
Physical properties
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Crystallizes at ambient temperature (solid form)
•
•
Transforms to liquid form and then to gas when heated
Risk of the cylinder bursting in case of extended fire
Radiological properties
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Radioactive material of low specific activity
•
Nuclear criticality risk in presence of water
Chemical properties
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Very corrosive
•
UF6 reacts if exposed to water (or to air humidity and hydrocarbonated materials such as oil); in case of
•
Production of hydrogen fluoride (HF), a colourless gas heavier than air, very irritating and toxic, and of
contact with water, UF6 produces a gas that can lead to a bursting of the cylinder.
powder of uranium oxyfluoride (UO2F2), toxic and soluble in water.
© TN International 2007
[THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK]
Draft Fact Sheet (developed by the Uranium Industry Framework Transport Working Group)
Safe and Effective Transport of Uranium
Uranium
Uranium as a pure metal was first separated from the host rock form in 1841. It is a
common substance found virtually everywhere throughout the earth’s crust. Trace
amounts of uranium occur in almost everything living. Found in rocks, soil, stream
sediments, rivers and oceans; traces can also be found in food as well as in the
human body. It contributes to what is termed natural background radiation. The
chemical symbol is U. Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive material and is
described as uranium oxide concentrate (UOC or U3O8).
Use
Uranium was first recognised as a
n energy source in 1904, used as a fuel in 1942 and was first used for commercial
electricity generation in 1956. Currently 16% of the world’s energy is generated from
uranium in nuclear reactors.
Fuel Cycle
Uranium ore is mined via underground, open pit or in situ leaching methods. The end
product of the mining stage is UOC. This is the form in which uranium is packed,
shipped to a conversion facility and sold. Before it can be used in a reactor for
electricity generation, it must undergo a series of processes to produce a useable
fuel. At the conversion facility UOC is converted into a gas, uranium hexafluoride
(UF6), which enables it to be enriched. At the enrichment facility UF6 is enriched from
its natural level of 0.7 to 3-4. After enrichment, the UF6 is converted to uranium
dioxide (U02) which is formed into fuel pellets. These fuel pellets are placed inside
thin metal tubes which are assembled in bundles to become the fuel elements for the
core of the reactor.
Safeguards
The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) is the worldwide agency which
regulates the nuclear industry. Australian Uranium can only be sold to countries
which are signatories to the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT), and which allow
international inspection to verify that it is only used for peaceful purposes. Customer
countries for Australia’s uranium must also have bilateral safeguards agreements
with Australia.
Packaging
UOC is packaged in sealed 205 litre steel drums. Each drum has a tight fitting lid.
Each lid is secured to the drum by means of a steel locking ring that is clamped by a
locking ring bolt. Drums filled with UOC are stowed securely to international
standards, within 20 foot ISO sea freight containers by means of a webbed Kevlarbased strapping system, commercially known as “CORDSTRAP”
Packed
container
Securing of
top row of
drums
This packaging method is preferred and complies with the requirements of the
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) code and IMO/ILO/UN ECE
Guidelines for Packing of Cargo Transport Units. This packaging method has been
formally approved by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA).
The packed containers are placarded, inspected and sealed with consecutively
numbered bolt-type seals affixed to the door of each container at the mine site.
Containers remain sealed throughout the journey from mine to final overseas point of
delivery. Seal numbers are checked for integrity at each transhipment and discharge
point.
The Transport Index (TI) applied to shipments of UOC from Australia is normally the
default value in TS-T-1 and the IMDG code, or an agreed TI accepted by AMSA. The
reason for this approach is it offers a greater margin of safety as these values are
higher than any TI that would have been applied had the measured values been
used. While this would appear to be a disadvantage to the shipper it does provide
certainty when booking a ship as all the containers consigned can be carried.
As a safeguard all containers are still measured and if the agreed TI value is exceed
then the maximum default value as prescribed in the IMDG code and TS-R-1 will be
applied.
Transport
UOC is transported worldwide by road, rail and sea. It is classed as a dangerous
good under the Australian Dangerous Goods Code (Class 7) and UN number
UN2912. The proper shipping name is ‘Radioactive Material, Low Specific Activity
(LSA-1) Non-Fissile or Fissile - Excepted.
Within Australia, the transportation of UOC by road or rail from mine site to
intermodal export facilities is regulated in accordance with Australian Government,
State, and Territory legislation as well as international standards. The Code of
Practice for Safe Transport of Radioactive Material 2001 is based on the revised
1996 edition of the IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive material
(TS-R-1), issued in 2000, and forms the basis of domestic road and rail regulation.
2
Sea transport of UOC is regulated according to international standards. The IMDG
code currently incorporates the provisions of the 2003 edition of TS-R-1 but the
provision of the 2005 edition of TS-R-1 are being incorporated in the next edition. All
recent editions of TS-R-1 can be downloaded from:
http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/documents/default.asp
The code requires that each container packed with UOC shall bear a UN2912
Radioactive Class 7 placard and a Radioactive Category III Yellow placard affixed in
a vertical orientation to each side wall and each end wall of the container. Specific
documentation, manifesting the load details, is carried in the driver’s cabin of each
vehicle.
DG placarding
on UOC
containers
Transport Plan
Each producer/shippers of UOC based in Australia has prepared an individual
Transport Plan that specifically focuses on the numerous activities and
responsibilities that need to be addressed and covered by all parties and individuals
involved in the transportation of UOC containers from their mine site to the applicable
export shipping port or terminal.
Permit to Transport Nuclear Material
In Australia, all parties involved in production, transport or storage of UOC are
required to obtain either a “Permit to Possess Nuclear Material” or a "Permit to
Transport Nuclear Material" from the Australian Safeguards and Non Proliferation
Office (ASNO). The permit to possess details the responsibilities of the storage
provider. The permit to transport details the route and method of transportation as
well as the responsibilities of the transport provider. Each permit holder is
responsible for security and control of the UOC, maintaining documentation and
records for UOC shipments, and notifying ASNO of any changes in conditions or
incidents relating to their storage or carriage of UOC.
3
Radiation Protection, First Aid and Safety Measures
UOC has slight chemical toxicity, is weakly radioactive and is only a hazard if inhaled
or ingested in large volumes over a sustained period. Provided precautions are taken
to avoid inhalation or ingestion it will not present a health hazard to people handling
it. Skin contact should be avoided and personal hygiene is important. UOC in its
oxide form is both chemically and physically stable, naturally decaying over a long
period of time by emitting radiation. It cannot undergo a chain reaction as in weapon
grade uranium.
Occupational radiation received during the transportation of low level
UOC is a factor of the time spent working around the material and the
intensity of radiation emitted by the material.
The total time involved handling or transporting the UOC containers
combined with the very low levels of radiation emitted by the UOC
itself therefore severely reduces the probability of receiving any
hazardous exposure from the material in the normal course of events.
Indeed, exposure from this source is well below the regulatory limit for
transport workers.
So, provided sensible precautions are taken to minimise exposure
when handling, transporting or storing UOC materials there will be no
risk to health.
If a spillage of UOC does occur, the main health consideration will be
to prevent yourself and others from breathing in any UOC dust. The
likelihood of this occurring is low due to the density of the material and
the drum packing and stowage methods employed within the packed
container. However it makes good practical sense, irrespective of the
size of any spillage, to always remember you must wear a dust mask
and gloves.
These safety precautions are similar to the expectations and
standards required by handlers of other dangerous goods and
hazardous materials.
4
What is the risk
to YOU?
Radiation – Sealed and open containers
Precautions:
A = Reduce and limit
time spent in close
proximity
B = Expect normal
background radiation
levels
C = Expect normal
background radiation
levels
Dust – Inhalation and ingestion
Precautions:
A = Wear dust mask
B = Minimise time
C = No dust
spent
Note: Person B being downwind should wear a dust mask
Wash hands and clothes
Wear dust mask if downwind
5
UOC produced and
packed in drums at Mine
UOC packed securely in
20’ Shipping Containers
UOC Containers placarded,
inspected and loaded on trucks
UOC documentation
produced for transport
from Mine Site to Wharf
or Rail Terminal
UOC transported to Rail
UOC loaded on rail
UOC arrives at
destination and
unloaded onto trucks
and transported to
Container storage
facility
Shipper produces
documentation for
Shipping Line, AMSA
and ASNO
UOC transported to
Wharf
UOC loaded on vessel,
Shipping Line provides
Bills of Lading to
Shipper
Shipper completes
remaining
documentation for
ASNO and conversion
facility
UOC discharged at
transhipment port and
nd
reloaded on 2 vessel
UOC discharged at
discharge port and rerd
shipped on 3 vessel
UOC discharged final
overseas Port
UOC collected at Port
and loaded on trucks or
rail
UOC delivered to
Conversion Facility
Shipper completes
remaining
documentation for
ASNO
6
W O R L D N U C L E A R T R A N S P O RT I N S T I T U T E
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Transport
Front End Materials
fact sheet
no.3
Dedicated to the safe, efficient and
reliable transport of radioactive materials
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Transport
Front End Materials
Introduction
Nuclear power currently supplies around 16% of the
world’s demand for electricity making clean, carbon-free,
affordable energy available to people the world over.
The majority of these reactors are either pressurised water
reactors or boiling water reactors and in both cases the
primary fuel is enriched uranium oxide. The fuel core for
these light water reactors typically contains many fuel
assemblies consisting of sealed fuel rods each filled
with uranium dioxide pellets.
To sustain this important source of energy it is essential
that nuclear fuel cycle materials continue to be transported
internationally both safely and efficiently. The transport
of nuclear materials is strictly regulated and has an
outstanding safety record spanning over several decades.
Nuclear fuel cycle transports are commonly designated as
either front end or back end. The front end covers all the
operations from the mining of uranium to the manufacture
of new fuel assemblies for loading into the reactors,
i.e. the transport of uranium ore concentrates to uranium
hexafluoride conversion facilities, from conversion facilities
to enrichment plants, from enrichment plants to fuel
fabricators and from fuel fabricators to the various nuclear
power plants. The back end covers all the operations
concerned with the spent fuel which leaves the reactors,
i.e. the shipment of spent fuel elements from nuclear
power plants to reprocessing facilities for recycling, and
the subsequent transport of the products of reprocessing.
Alternatively, if the once-through option is chosen, the
spent fuel is transported to interim storage facilities
pending its final disposal.
This fact sheet covers the transport of front end materials;
the transport of back end materials is the subject of WNTI
Fact Sheet No. 4.
1
2
3
What are front end materials
and how are they transported?
Mining to produce uranium
ore concentrate
The raw material to make nuclear fuel is uranium ore,
the main sources of which are found in North America,
Australia, South Africa and Eastern Europe. The ore typically
contains about 1.5% uranium but some deposits are much
richer. The ore is first ground and purified using chemical
and physical processes to yield a dry powder of natural
uranium oxide known as uranium ore concentrate, or UOC.
The historical name for UOC was “yellowcake” because
the early concentrates were typically yellow in colour.
UOC is a low specific activity material and the radiological
hazard is very low. It is normally transported in sealed 200
litre drums (an Industrial Package) in standard sea (ISO)
freight containers. These can be transported by road, rail
or sea, and in many cases a combination of modes of
transport is used. The UOC is transported to conversion
plants for manufacture into uranium hexafluoride (Hex).
Conversion of uranium ore
concentrate to uranium hexafluoride
UOC is transported worldwide from the mining areas
to conversion plants that are located in North America,
Europe and Russia. It is first chemically purified and then
converted by a series of chemical processes into natural
Hex, which is the form required for the following
enrichment stage. The natural Hex produced from the
conversion of UOC is a very important intermediate in
the manufacture of new reactor fuel. There is a very
large commercial trading in it that involves
international transport.
In the production process, large cylindrical steel transport
cylinders some 1.25m (48”) in diameter, each holding up
to 12.5 tonnes of materials are filled directly with Hex
which can be liquid or gaseous depending on the
manufacturing process. The Hex then solidifies inside the
cylinder on cooling to room temperature. In storage and
during transport the Hex material inside the cylinders is in
a solid form. Natural Hex is also stored in these cylinders
prior to being transported to an enrichment plant.
Hex is routinely transported by road, rail or sea, or more
commonly, by a combination of modes. Hex cylinders
are transported using trailers, rail wagons or standard
ISO flat rack containers.
Although Hex is a low specific activity material there would be
a chemical hazard in the unlikely event of a release because it
produces toxic by-products on reaction with moist air.
4
5
Enrichment of uranium hexafluoride
The valuable isotope of uranium that splits (fissions)
in a nuclear reactor is U-235, but only around 0.7% of
naturally occurring uranium is U-235. This is increased
to the level required, about 3-5% for light water reactors,
either by a gaseous diffusion process or in gas centrifuges.
Commercial enrichment plants are in operation in the
USA, Western Europe and Russia, which gives rise to
international transport of Hex between conversion
and enrichment plants.
Enriched Hex is transported in smaller universal cylinders.
These cylinders are some 76cm (30”) in diameter and are
loaded in overpacks so that the packaging is resistant to
crashes, fires, immersion and prevents chain reactions.
The loaded overpacks are generally transported using ISO
flat rack containers for transport to fuel fabrication plants.
Depleted Hex, the residual product from the enrichment
process, has the same physical and chemical properties
as natural Hex and is transported using the same type
of cylinders.
Fuel fabrication
Uranium dioxide powder derived from Hex of less than
5% enrichment is also a low specific activity material.
The enriched Hex is first converted into uranium dioxide
powder which is then processed into pellets by pressing
and sintering. The pellets are stacked into zirconium alloy
tubes that are then made up into fuel assemblies for
transport from the fabrication plant to the reactor site.
Fuel fabrication plants are located in many countries
across the world.
The fuel assemblies are typically about 4m (12’) long. They
are transported in specially designed robust steel packages.
The design and configuration of packages during transport
guarantees that a nuclear chain reaction cannot occur.
6
Regulations for nuclear
fuel cycle transport
Enriched front end materials, i.e. enriched Hex, uranium
dioxide powder and new fuel assemblies are fissile. The
potential hazard associated with these materials is an
unwanted chain reaction. For this reason the packages
are subjected to tests to guarantee that criticality could
not occur under all accident conditions which could be
realistically envisaged in transport, including crashes,
fires and submergence.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Regulations
for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material set the basis
for nuclear fuel cycle material transport. The basic concept
is that safety is vested in the package that has to provide
shielding to protect people, property and the environment
against the effects of radiation, to prevent chain reactions and
also to provide protection against dispersion of the contents.
In addition, it is important to reduce radiation doses to
workers and the public as far as reasonably achievable
by adopting the best practices at the operating level.
Experience in nuclear
materials transport
The IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive
Material have provided a sound basis for the design of
equipment and procedures for the safe and efficient
transport of radioactive material. No sector of the transport
industry is more highly regulated and incidentally, no sector
of the transport industry has a better safety record. In over
45 years there has never been a single incident which has
resulted in significant radiological damage to man or the
environment. This is due in part to the strict regulatory
regime; but credit is due also to the professionalism of
those entities performing packaging
and transport activities.
The Regulations provide for five different primary
packages; designated as Excepted, Industrial, Type A,
Type B and Type C, and criteria are set for design based on
the nature of the radioactive materials they are to contain
(see WNTI Fact Sheet No. 2). The Regulations prescribe
additional criteria for packages containing fissile material,
i.e. material that can support a nuclear chain reaction. The
Regulations also prescribe the appropriate test procedures.
This graded approach to packaging whereby the package
integrity is related to the potential hazard - the more
hazardous the material the tougher the package - is
important for safe and efficient commercial nuclear
fuel cycle transport operations. Road, rail and sea are
all commonly used for nuclear fuel cycle materials.
IAEA tests for front end packages
UOC is a benign material and the potential hazard is low.
Packages for UOC are required to maintain their integrity
during normal transport conditions and are designed to
withstand a series of tests simulating these conditions,
e.g. a water spray, a free drop, a stacking test and
a puncture test to reproduce the kind of treatment
packages may be subjected to during normal transport.
Hex is different in so far as it is a solid which can give off a
toxic vapour. The steel cylinders used as packages for natural
and depleted Hex are internationally standardised and are
subjected to a pressure test which they must withstand
without leakage and unacceptable stress. In addition, they
have to be evaluated against a thermal test requirement.
Photographs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
8
9
8
9
Uranium ore
Uranium ore processed and turned into
powder – “yellowcake”
Drums of uranium ore concentrate
48” Hex cylinders
30” Hex cylinders with overpacks
Uranium fuel assembly
Preparing drums of uranium ore
concentrate for transport
Tie-down for fresh fuel transport
Road transport of front end materials
JUNE 2006
W O R L D N U C L E A R T R A N S P O RT I N S T I T U T E
REMO HOUSE
310-312 REGENT STREET
LONDON W1B 3AX
UNITED KINGDOM
TEL: +44 (0)20 7580 1144
FA X : + 4 4 ( 0 ) 2 0 7 5 8 0 5 3 6 5
W E B : W W W. W N T I . C O . U K
W O R L D N U C L E A R T R A N S P O RT I N S T I T U T E
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Transport
Back End Materials
fact sheet
no.4
Dedicated to the safe, efficient and
reliable transport of radioactive materials
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Transport
Back End Materials
Introduction
Today, nuclear power provides approximately 16% of
global electricity making affordable, clean, carbon-free
energy available to millions of people the world over. The
use of nuclear reactors to produce electricity has required
a wide range of radioactive material transports over several
decades. These transports have supported all stages of the
nuclear fuel cycle from uranium mining, to fuel processing
and transport to reactor sites, to fuel reprocessing for
recycling and spent fuel storage.
The transport of radioactive materials is strictly governed
by an established system of international regulations and
their adoption has led to an impressive record of safety. In
over 45 years there has never been a significant incident
involving the release of radioactive material.
Nuclear fuel cycle transports are commonly designated as
either front end or back end. The front end covers all the
operations from the mining of uranium to the manufacture
of new fuel assemblies for loading into the reactors, i.e.
the transport of uranium ore concentrates to uranium
hexafluoride conversion facilities, from conversion facilities
to enrichment plants, from enrichment plants to fuel
fabricators and from fuel fabricators to the various nuclear
power plants. The back end covers all the operations
concerned with the spent fuel which leaves the reactors,
including the shipment of spent fuel elements from nuclear
power plants to reprocessing facilities for recycling, and the
subsequent transport of the products of reprocessing.
Alternatively, if the once-through option is chosen, the
spent fuel is transported to temporary storage facilities
pending its final disposal.
This fact sheet covers the transport of back end materials.
The transport of front end materials is the subject of
WNTI Fact Sheet No.3.
1
2
3
What are back end materials?
Fuel used in a nuclear power plant generates electricity for
three to five years. After this time it becomes less efficient
and needs to be replaced. This spent fuel still contains
96% of the original uranium, but also about 3% of waste
products, and 1% of plutonium. At this stage, spent fuel
can either be sent for storage pending final disposal,
or reprocessed to recover the uranium and plutonium.
The residual uranium can be recycled. The plutonium
which is produced in the reactor is fissile, i.e. it can support
a nuclear chain reaction. It can be combined with uranium
to produce Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel. The waste products
are transformed into a solid insoluble glass form by a
vitrification process and stored pending final disposal, for
instance into a deep geological repository.
Why are back end materials
transported?
Once spent fuel is removed from the nuclear reactor it can
be stored temporarily at the power plant site, shipped to
temporary storage off-site, or shipped to reprocessing
plants. Shipments to interim storage facilities are normally
domestic while shipments to reprocessing sites are also
international.
A number of countries including Japan, Germany,
Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Russia,
India and the United Kingdom reprocess a portion of their
spent fuel. The main commercial reprocessing/recycling
facilities are based in France and the United Kingdom.
Countries which send their spent fuel to France or the
United Kingdom for reprocessing retain ownership of all
the products, including any waste products, which must
be returned to them. After shipment to the country
of origin, the waste is stored for eventual disposal.
Plutonium returned as MOX fuel is loaded into
reactors for electricity production.
Shipment of back end materials on an industrial scale
commenced in the early 1960s when nuclear power
started to become an important source of electricity in
several countries worldwide. Spent fuel was the first of
the back end products to be transported. Later, plutonium
was returned to the country of origin, initially as plutonium
powder and latterly as MOX fuel. The first shipment of
vitrified high-level waste took place in 1995 and many
shipments of this type have since taken place, by sea
and by rail.
4
5
How is this material transported?
Stringent, comprehensive and
universally recognised regulations
The transport of back end material, as with all other
radioactive material transport, is carefully regulated to
protect people, property and the environment. The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Regulations
for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material were first
published in 1961 and have been revised regularly to
keep pace with scientific and technological developments.
Today, the IAEA Regulations have been adopted or used
as a basis for regulations in more than 60 Member States.
Further, the principal organisations having responsibility
for transport by land, sea, air and inland water have
incorporated the IAEA Regulations into their own
Regulations. In addition, the United Nations Model
Regulations for the Transport of Dangerous Goods have
always referred to the IAEA Regulations. As a result, the
Regulations apply to transports of radioactive material
almost anywhere in the world.
Back end materials are essentially
solid products
The solid nature of the products – spent fuel, MOX fuel,
and vitrified high-level waste – is one of the most
important safety factors. The materials are characterised
by longterm stability and low solubility in water and would
stay contained in a solid form after any accident. Spent
fuel and MOX fuel are both made of hard ceramic pellets
that are contained in zirconium alloy metal tubes (fuel
rods). The difference lies in the content; spent fuel
contains uranium (96%), plutonium (1%) and fission
products (3%) and is highly radioactive, while MOX fuel is
made of uranium and plutonium oxides and has a low
level of radioactivity. In the case of vitrified high-level
waste, the vitrification process allows the fission products
to be incorporated into a molten glass which is then
poured into a stainless steel canister, where it solidifies.
As a result, the fission products are immobilised and the
highly radioactive vitrified product is protected
by the stainless steel canister.
6
Back end materials are transported
in dedicated packages
In accordance with the IAEA Regulations, spent fuel, MOX
fuel, and vitrified high-level waste are transported in specially
designed transport packagings known as flasks or casks
(termed as Type B packages in the Regulations). They are
specially designed for the particular radioactive material they
contain, they provide protection to people, property, and the
environment against radiation and are designed to withstand
severe accidents. Type B packages range from drum-size to
truck-size, but are always highly resistant and heavily shielded.
10
11
Safety demonstrations
Several demonstration tests have been carried out to show
the large safety margin and robustness of Type B packages.
For example, engineers and scientists at Sandia National
Laboratories 1 conducted a wide range of tests in the
1970s and 1980s on Type B packages. These tests
included truck impact tests at 98 and 138 km/h in which
truck trailers carrying packages were impacted into 3 metre
thick concrete barriers, and a diesel locomotive crashed
into a Type B package at 131 km/h at a simulated rail
crossing. 2 Similarly the UK Central Electricity Generating
Board conducted a public demonstration in 1984 in which
a 140 tonne train travelling at 164 km/h was driven into
a Type B package. 3 Post-crash assessments showed that
packages suffered only superficial damage and would not
have released their contents. Although spectacular, these
demonstration tests were not as severe as the IAEA series
of tests summarised above. This shows the IAEA series
of tests are conservatively representative of real
world accidents.
Packages have to meet stringent tests
The philosophy of the IAEA Regulations is that safety is
ensured by the packaging no matter what mode of
transport is used. Under these Regulations the packaging
design has to meet a series of rigorous impact, fire and
immersion tests, notably:
■ two drop tests – a 9 metre drop onto an unyielding
surface and a 1 metre drop onto a steel punch bar;
possibly repeated in worst-case drop angles;
■ a subsequent fire test in which the package is subjected
0
to a fully engulfing fire of 800 C for 30 minutes;
■ immersion test where the cask is then subjected to
conditions equivalent to 15 metre submersion for
8 hours. For casks designed for the more highly
radioactive materials there is an enhanced immersion
test of 200 metres for 1 hour.
Sea transport: specialist vessels
These tests ensure that packages can withstand transport
accidents involving crashes, fires or submergence which
can be realistically envisaged and, in the case of fissile
materials, ensure that no chain reaction can ever occur.
National competent authorities must certify the Type B
package. Once the packaging design has been approved,
it can be used for surface transport by truck, train or ship.
In the case of sea transport of back end materials,
the ship design adds to the safety provided by the
transport packaging. In 1993, the IMO introduced the
voluntary Code for the Safe Carriage of Irradiated Nuclear
Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes in
Flasks on Board Ships (INF Code), complementing the IAEA
Regulations. These complementary provisions mainly cover
ship design, construction and equipment. The INF Code
was adopted in 1999 and made mandatory in January
2001. It has introduced advanced safety features for ships
carrying spent fuel, MOX fuel or vitrified high-level waste.
The basic design for ships complying with the highest
safety rating of the INF Code (known as INF3) is a double
hull construction around the cargo areas with impact
resistant structures between hulls, and duplication and
separation of all essential systems to provide high reliability
and accident survivability. Over the past 25 years, INF3
type ships have been used to transport back end materials
between Europe and Japan.
Regulations have also been introduced for the transport
of back end radioactive materials by air in packages,
designated as Type C. The requirements for a Type C
package include additional tests to ensure that it can
maintain its integrity under air accident conditions.
This type of package has not yet been developed.
7
8
9
12
Safety features of INF3 Class ship
Satellite navigation
and communication
Twin radars
Reinforced hatch
covers
Twin
propellers
and rudders
Main
electricity
generators
Independent
engines and
gearboxes
Collision
reinforcement
(20mm plate)
Secondary
collision
bulkhead
Emergency
generator
Forward
generating
room
Bow
thruster
Salvage
towing
brackets
Primary
collision
bulkhead
Specialised transport companies
The facts speak for themselves
Experienced and specialised transport companies have
safely and routinely transported back end materials on an
industrial scale since the 1960s. These companies have
well developed transport systems and carefully manage
back end transports around the world following required
safety procedures. As an example, comprehensive and
effective emergency response plans are in place,
incorporating emergency arrangements for all modes of
transport. These are routinely tested to ensure that public
health and the environment are well protected in the
unlikely event of an incident.
The international transport of nuclear fuel cycle materials
has played an essential role in bringing the benefits of
nuclear power to people the world over. These transports
have supported all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle including
uranium mining, fuel manufacture, fuel reprocessing, spent
fuel management and waste storage. The transport of fuel
cycle materials is strictly regulated ensuring nuclear fuel
cycle transport can be carried out safely, not only under
normal conditions but under all accident conditions of
transport which can be realistically envisaged. In over 45
years there has never been a significant incident involving
the release of radioactive material.
References
1 Sandia National Laboratories is a national security laboratory operated for the
USA Department of Energy by the Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin
Company (responsible for performing a wide variety of energy research and
development projects)
2
“We Crash, Burn and Crush”; A History of Packaging at Sandia National
Laboratories 1978 – 1997, C.J. Mora and P.McConnell, The 12th
International Conference on Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive
Material (PATRAM 98), p1616
3
“Transporting Spent Nuclear Fuel: An Overview”, USA Department of
Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, March 1986, p.14
Photographs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Rail transport of spent fuel in UK
Road transport of spent fuel in Japan
INF 3 Class ship, Mutsu-Ogawara Port, Japan
MOX fuel pellet
MOX fuel assembly
MOX fuel cask unloading operation
Advanced computer methods are used to design transport casks
IAEA drop test
IAEA fire test
Unloading operations
INF3 Class ship
Loading cask of vitrified high-level waste into ship’s hold
JUNE 2006
W O R L D N U C L E A R T R A N S P O RT I N S T I T U T E
REMO HOUSE
310-312 REGENT STREET
LONDON W1B 3AX
UNITED KINGDOM
TEL: +44 (0)20 7580 1144
FA X : + 4 4 ( 0 ) 2 0 7 5 8 0 5 3 6 5
W E B : W W W. W N T I . C O . U K
.
.
.
.
.
IFALPA
The Global Voice of Pilots
06DGCBILL002
B.I.L.L.
Dangerous Goods
July 2005
Denial of Shipments of
Radioactive Material
In recent years, there has been an increase in
the number of denials of shipments of radioactive material by airlines, airports, pilots and
states. In many cases, the reasons include the
fear of negative publicity in case of an incident
or accident, additional burdens by state regulations, and additional training costs. The denials
also may result from the discovery of regulatory
violations.
Denials, and the resulting delay in transport, are
capable of posing problems for hospitals,
patients and suppliers of radiopharmaceuticals.
These radiopharmaceuticals are often used for
diagnosis and treatment, including the treatment of cancer.
In many cases, these substances can only be
IFALPA BILLs
Briefing Information and Learning Leaflets (BILLs) are specifically designed to provide pilots with information of interest
that falls within the portfolios of IFALPA’s various Technical
Committees The intention is to produce information in plain
language about the develppment of new standards, technologies, processes and proceedures
transported by air because of their short halflives. Any delay may render them useless.
IFALPA Dangerous Goods Committee
Position
The IFALPA Dangerous Goods Committee supports the transport of all classes of dangerous
goods, including radioactive material, as long as
this transport is strictly conducted according to
the ICAO Annex 18 and the associated Technical
Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous
Goods by Air.
In consideration of whether a denial is appropriate or not, it must be made clear that safety is
always the overriding factor and that other
issues never have priority.
For information regarding IFALPA’s DG Committee
contact:
Valerie Godfrey
Technical Officer
[email protected]
Tel: +44 1932 571711
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