1. No category

Cwmaman:
Initial assessment of the potential for local
community-based renewable energy projects
Project number: 39.02
Authors: Donna March; Dr. Leonie Richardson
Client: Aman Valley Conservation Society (AVCA)
Table of contents
1 Report summary ............................................................................................. 4
2 Introduction .................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Background information .............................................................................. 7
3 Energy demand and energy efficiency........................................................... 10
3.1 Understanding energy demand .................................................................. 11
3.2 Summary and recommendations ................................................................ 14
4 The potential for renewable energy use in Cwmaman ................................... 15
4.1 Wind energy.............................................................................................. 15
4.1.1
The potential to exploit wind energy in Cwmaman ................................ 16
4.1.2
Community wind energy projects .......................................................... 22
4.1.3
Summary and recommendations ............................................................ 23
4.2 Micro-hydro energy................................................................................... 24
4.2.1
The potential to exploit micro-hydro in Cwmaman ................................ 25
4.2.2
Summary and recommendations ............................................................ 30
4.3 Other renewable energy options ................................................................ 32
4.3.1
Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal systems ......................................... 32
4.3.2
Ground and air source heat pumps ......................................................... 36
4.3.3
Biomass ................................................................................................. 37
4.3.4
Summary and recommendations ............................................................ 38
Sources of funding and further information.......................................................... 40
References ........................................................................................................... 41
Appendix 1: Wind speed data .............................................................................. 43
Appendix 2: Biodiversity information.................................................................. 44
Appendix 3: Meteorological Office data for Llwyn-on Reservoir ......................... 45
2
List of figures
Figure 1: Map of Cwmaman village and surrounding area ......................................... 9
Figure 2: Average electricity consumption (2007) ................................................... 12
Figure 3: Domestic energy use in the UK (left: energy use in an average household;
right: cost of energy in an average household .......................................................... 13
Figure 4: Energy use in the service sector (2000) ..................................................... 14
Figure 5: Map showing UK annual average wind speed ........................................... 19
Figure 6: Regional rainfall (mm) between 1971 and 2000 ........................................ 27
Figure 7: Potential site at Llanwonno Road showing intake and turbine house
locations .................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 8: Annual total horizontal irradiation for the UK .......................................... 34
List of tables
Table 1: Monthly averaged wind speed (m/s) at height of 50m ................................ 19
Table 2: Comparison of Proven wind turbines ......................................................... 20
Table 3: Criteria defining small scale hydro power .................................................. 24
Table 4: Monthly averaged insolation (kWh/m2/day) ............................................... 35
Table 5: BERR wind speed data for Cwmaman ....................................................... 43
List of plates
Plate 1 - 5: Views of the hills surrounding the village of Cwmaman ........................ 18
Plate 6 - 7: The River Aman runs close to the south of the village…………………..26
Plate 8 – 12: The stream at Llanwonno Road…………………………………..........26
3
1 Report summary
Society is increasingly aware of the twin challenges of climate change and the need
for sustainable, secure energy supplies: communities have a crucial role to play in
addressing these challenges.
This report has been produced by Science Shops Wales for the Aman Valley
Conservation Society (AVCA) with the aim of establishing broad guidelines
regarding the potential feasibility of different renewable energy technologies within
the Aman Valley.
Cwmaman is a former coal mining village near Aberdare, South Wales. The area is
gradually undergoing a process of recovery and the community has already
successfully implemented several innovative regeneration projects. AVCA is
interested in assessing the potential feasibility of different renewable energy
technologies within the valley with a view to achieving greater local sustainability.
Report highlights
The report highlights the importance of reducing overall demand for energy through
energy efficiency measures in order to realise the full benefits of renewable energy.
The more energy efficient communities are the greater the impact of renewable
energy investments: the more energy efficient a building is the smaller the renewable
energy generation system can be and consequently the smaller the cost of the system.
In addition, understanding energy demand patterns and end use can inform the
selection of renewable energy projects and appropriate technology. It can also indicate
where energy demand can be reduced and guide energy reduction and efficiency
activities.
The results of preliminary desk-based research and an initial site visit indicate the
potential to benefit from micro-hydro power, wind energy, solar as well as heat pump
technologies.
The hillsides and ridges around Cwmaman may provide a potential site for a wind
turbine, in particular on the northern boundary of the village. A better understanding
of local conditions is needed and more detailed site investigation and wind
measurements should be undertaken in order for the community to consider this
option further.
Micro-hydro is also a potential source of renewable energy with a possible site
identified on the southern edge of the village. A very preliminary estimate of
electrical power suggests 4.56 kW could be produced, although this is a conservative
figure and could be greater. Again a more detailed site investigation should be
undertaken and flow measurements obtained.
4
In both cases, in-depth studies are recommended and should include assessment of
land access rights, planning permission, connection to the grid, environmental and
other impacts, and economic viability.
Other renewable energy technologies include solar photovoltaics (PV), solar thermal
hot water panels, ground-source and air-source heat pumps, and biomass boilers. Indepth feasibility studies would need to be undertaken on a case-by-case basis.
Recommendations
Priorities suggested by this assessment are as follows:
 The proactive promotion of energy efficiency: information provision,
energy audits, installation of energy efficiency measures;
 A feasibility study of micro-hydro power generation at the Llanwonno
Road site to better evaluate the technical, legal and economic
viability of a project, to include:
o Site visit/s to obtain detailed water flow rate and head
measurements and review suitable intake and a turbine sites;
o Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to assess land/site
access, grid connection and likely cost, environmental and
other impacts;
o An indication of design power and annual energy output and
economic viability.
 A pre-feasibility study of the potential use of wind energy, in
particular assessing the suitability of a site/s identified to the north of
the village to include:
o Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to determine potential
sites and wind resource;
o Desk-based analysis to determine land ownership;
o Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to assess potential site
access, planning permission, environmental issues, energy
output and economic viability.
 Other renewable energy technologies such as solar, ground-source
and air-source heat pumps should be considered on a case-by-case
basis.
5
2 Introduction
Society is increasingly aware of the twin challenges of climate change and the need
for sustainable, secure energy supplies: the way in which our energy is produced and
our demand for energy will change in response to these challenges. Communities
have a crucial role to play in addressing these challenges.
In 2000, the UK Government set a target of 10% of electricity to be provided from
renewable energy sources by 2010 with an aspiration to double that level by 2020. In
2007 the UK agreed with other Member States of the European Union (EU) to an EUwide target of 20% of total energy consumption to come from renewable sources by
2020. The UK share of this target is 15% of the UK‟s energy from renewable sources
by 2020 (currently the UK generates around 5% from renewables). The Government
also announced a goal of cutting CO2 emissions by 60% by about 2050, with real
progress by 2020 (DTI, 2007).
Renewable energy can be defined as energy obtained from flows in the natural
environment and which can be renewed at the same rate as they are used. Renewable
energy sources include solar, wind, bio-energy, hydro-power, wave, tidal and
geothermal 1 . Renewable energy can provide secure, indigenous energy sources as
well as reducing future energy costs, combating climate change and reducing harmful
emissions. Many communities in Wales are now exploring renewable energy sources
as a means to provide sustainable, low cost energy supplies as well as local
educational, training and business opportunities. Such projects also have the potential
to generate a valuable income for communities.
This report has been produced by Science Shops Wales (SSW) for the Aman Valley
Conservation Society (AVCA). AVCA is a local association of volunteers which
seeks to promote conservation, protection and improvement of the physical and
natural environment for the benefit of the local population and area.
A study was conducted during January 2009 comprising desk-based research and a
site visit on 12th January by SSW development officers. The aim of the study was to
establish broad, preliminary guidelines for AVCA and the community of Cwmaman
regarding the potential feasibility of different renewable energy technologies within
the valley. It draws on publicly available datasets and information (wind, rainfall,
insolation) supplemented by on-site observations.
The report is structured as follows: background information for Cwmaman is
provided in Section 2 while Section 3 covers the importance of understanding energy
1
Conversely non-renewable energy are finite supplies obtained from static „stores‟ of energy that
remain underground until released by human interaction. Sources include fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and gas and nuclear fuels.
6
demand and energy efficiency. Potential renewable energy sources are outlined in
Section 4 and possible funding providers and sources of further information are listed
in Section 5. Additional relevant information is contained in appendices.
2.1
Background information
The village of Cwmaman is situated in the Cynon Valley near to Aberdare (Figure 1).
The village developed to provide houses and services for workers in the local
collieries. Prior to that the Aman Valley was a rural area and retained its traditional
character as late as 1840. The opening of the collieries in the mid Nineteenth Century
led to rapid and intense industrialisation, along with growth in population and the
number of buildings within the village.
Population and community
Cwmaman has suffered a range of problems associated with the decline of the coal
industry during the last century, including the erosion of community facilities and
organisational structures. Unemployment figures are higher than the Welsh national
average and 25.96% of the population of working age have a limiting long term
illness (Office for National Statistics, 2001).
However, the area is gradually undergoing a process of recovery and regeneration.
The area has a Communities First 2 group established in 2001 and there are a number
of active informal community groups engaged in regeneration activities. The
community has already successfully implemented several innovative projects
including the renovation of St Joseph‟s Church which included the installation of
solar photovoltaic panels, a community woodland walk and the Cwmaman Sculpture
Trail.
Geology, hydrology and biodiversity
A narrow band of enclosed farmland exists along the lower slopes of both sides of the
valley and separates the village from the upper moor land. Local geology includes
Carboniferous Upper and Middle Coal Measure Series, with seams of anthracite coal.
There is an outcrop of Millstone Grit along the northern boundary which has been
quarried in the past.
A system of rivers and streams run through and into the valley, some of which have
been channelled underground. In places, the natural flow regime has been disrupted
by historical mining activities. The River Aman is the main river flowing through the
village and is culverted in some places. Certain areas of land are poorly drained and
tend to form pools and natural wetlands.
2
Communities First is a programme established in 2002 by the Welsh Assembly Government. It aims
to address social disadvantage within communities in Wales by increasing participation and developing
capacity to make decisions and run projects locally.
7
Although, fairly degraded by past industrial activities, the valley and surrounding land
is host to a variety of natural habitats (Appendix 2) and has experienced some degree
of restoration with the closure of the mines and reduction in industrial activity.
8
Figure 1: Map of Cwmaman village and surrounding area
9
3 Energy demand and energy efficiency
In order to realise the full benefits of renewable energy sources, overall demand for
energy must be reduced. Indeed, reducing demand as well as producing energy from
renewable sources are key policy objectives not only within the UK and Europe but
world-wide.
Energy demand can be reduced through energy reduction and efficiency measures:
 Switching to more energy efficient appliances when old ones need to be replaced;
 Insulating walls, lofts and floors;
 Draught proofing doors and windows;
 Installing double glazing;
 Turning off appliances such as computers, televisions and lights, rather than
leaving them on stand-by when they are not being used.
Saving energy and managing energy more efficiently has many benefits:
 It saves money, which can then be used to support other activities/needs;
 It demonstrates good management and environmental responsibility;
 It can help lower maintenance costs and extend equipment life;
 It reduces pollution from CO2, acid rain and particulates;
 It helps to meet UK government energy and emissions reduction targets;
 It is necessary to comply with regulations and legislation;
 It helps to ensure a comfortable environment for users of a building.
The more energy efficient countries and communities are the greater the impact of
renewable energy investments: the more energy efficient a building is the smaller the
renewable energy generation system can be and consequently the smaller the cost of
the system.
An excellent example is provided by the Bro Dyfi wind energy project which includes
a Community Energy Fund (section 4.1.2). Dividends from the wind project are
invested in energy efficiency measures through the fund. This enables local people to
benefit from clean, renewable energy as well as energy conservation thus “helping
people to be comfortable while using less energy”.
It should also be noted that in the majority of cases the potential energy outputs and
cost savings of renewable energy systems quoted by manufacturers and suppliers
assume use in well insulated buildings. In addition, many grants require buildings to
meet current applicable building regulations with regard to insulation and energy
performance.
Communities therefore need to consider both energy demand as well as supply in
becoming more sustainable. A good starting point is to analyse energy use within the
10
community: households, agriculture, business, industry, schools, community facilities
and so on.
Further advice on energy efficiency can be obtained from:
 Community organisations http://www.est.org.uk/
 Public sector and not for profit organisations http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/. A
free energy survey might be available.
3.1
Understanding energy demand
A clear understanding of energy demand, whether considering an installation for
single building or a larger community project, will enable a better appreciation both of
what is needed (electrical power, space heating, water heating) as well as where the
demand comes from (households, shops, community buildings).
The village and surrounding area of Cwmaman comprises approximately 4724
residents, around 1907 households and approximately 70 small businesses 3 (Office for
National Statistics, 2001). As shown in Figure 2 below, UK household electricity
demand ranges from about 3000 kWh to 6000 kWh per year with an average demand
of 4392 kWh per year (BERR, 2008a). A school, office or community building will
use considerably more. For example, a typical community centre might use anything
from 20,000 to 30,000 kWh per year 4.
3
Data are for Aberaman South area.
4
http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/Publications/publicationdetail.htm?productid=ECG087&metaNoCache=1
11
Figure 2: Average electricity consumption (2007)
(Source: BERR, 2008)
In the average UK household approximately 85% of the total energy consumed is
used for providing space heating and hot water which amounts to approximately
17,614 kWh per year5 (Figure 3). Electricity use is split fairly evenly between lighting,
consumer electronics (such as TVs, DVD players and other „gadgets‟) and fridges and
freezers (approx. 20% each). Looking at spend: around 60% of the average
household‟s energy bill is spent on space heating and hot water (Energy Saving Trust,
2008).
5
Distribution analysis of domestic electricity and gas consumption in Great Britain,
http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file50672.pdf
12
Figure 3: Domestic energy use in the UK (left: energy use in an average household; right: cost of
energy in an average household
(Source: Energy Saving Trust)
Looking at businesses, research shows that energy consumption and use varies
between different sectors. Local businesses in the Cwmaman area 6 tend to be small
with less than 50 employees and mainly in the production, construction, retail, hotels
and restaurants (includes pubs), transport, property and business sectors. Figure 4
clearly shows the differences in energy end use between sectors.
For example, the retail sector is the major user of electricity for lighting while the
hotel and catering sector has the greatest demand for hot water. Shops vary in their
use, for example hairdressers and dry cleaners have high energy requirements (BERR,
2008b). There are also changes in consumption over time. The services sector‟s 7
electricity consumption is now double what is was in 1990 mainly due to the growth
in the use of computers and other information technology equipment, air conditioning,
medical and leisure equipment. Over half of all the energy consumed in the service
sector is for space heating, mostly in commercial offices, schools and colleges, hotels,
caterers and shops.
6
VAT based businesses
The services sector can be defined as the provision of services to businesses as well as final
consumers. It includes e.g. retail, wholesale, financial services, tourism, leisure and entertainment,
hotels, restaurants, education, social services.
7
13
Figure 4: Energy use in the service sector (2000)
(Source: BERR)
3.2
Summary and recommendations
A better understanding of energy demand and end use in Cwmaman is important in
order to realise the full benefits of renewable energy. It can inform the selection of
renewable energy projects and appropriate technology. It can also highlight where
energy demand can be reduced and guide (and promote) energy reduction and
efficiency measures.
Recommendations
The active promotion of energy efficiency and better understanding of
energy demand and end-use in Cwmaman would be beneficial and might
involve:
 Information provision, energy audits, installation of energy efficiency
measures;
 Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to make a preliminary and
approximate determination of demand and use at a community level ;
 Energy audits for individual buildings on a project-by-project basis e.g.
for specific building integrated renewable energy technologies.
14
4 The potential for renewable energy use in Cwmaman
This report focuses primarily on wind and micro-hydro energy sources. However, it
also considers solar photovoltaics (PV) and solar thermal technologies as well as
ground-source and air-source-heat-pumps. In addition it provides a brief overview of
biomass energy.
4.1
Wind energy
Wind energy will not run out, is free and plentifully available in the UK. Wind energy
brings many benefits: it can reduce emissions of harmful gasses produced by fossil
fuel power stations; improve energy security by reducing imports of fossil fuels;
create jobs. Local electricity generation can also improve energy efficiency by
reducing transmission losses.
The UK has some of the best wind resource in Europe; in fact Britain has about 40%
of Europe‟s total wind energy. The UK government has set a target of generating 10%
of our electricity from renewable energy sources by 2010 and wind energy has an
important role to play in achieving this goal.
Each unit (kilowatt hour or kWh) of electricity produced by wind energy displaces a
unit of electricity produced from fossil fuel. In the UK this tends to be from coal fired
power stations. The production of electricity from fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) results
in emissions of pollutants and green house gasses such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Typical CO2 emissions from a coalfired power station are 860 g/kWh. As a very rough guide, a typical 1000 kW (1 MW)
turbine which should produce enough energy to power around 600 homes will
displace approximately 2260 tonnes of CO2 per annum8.
Wind technology is among the most mature and cost effective renewable energy
technology currently available. Turbines are manufactured with a capacity ranging
from a few tens of watts to several megawatts and can have rotor blade diameters
from 1 meter (m) to 100 m.
Installations can be conveniently classified as small (designed to serve „on-site‟ loads
with potential to export surplus power to the grid) or large (often multi-turbine)
projects intended to export power to the grid. To give an indication of installation size,
depending on demand, wind speed and capacity:
 A typical domestic system might range from 1 to 6 kW;
 An 11 kW or 20 kW turbine might provide useful power for a school or
community type building;
8
Assuming a capacity factor of 30%. Capacity factor is the ratio of actual energy produced in a given
period compared to a hypothetical maximum i.e. running full time at the rated power.
15



250 kW to 500 kW turbines are used for larger and industrial applications;
The 500 kW turbine installed as part of the Bro Dyfi community project is
sufficient to power 200 homes (section 4.1.2);
A typical 1 MW turbine will power around 600 households.
The main elements of a typical horizontal axis turbine installation are:
 The rotor which includes the blades;
 The generator, control electronics, and gearbox;
 The structural support e.g. the mast or tower;
 A grid connection.
Turbines usually have a lifetime of 20 to 25 years (with regular service checks) or
around 120,000 hours of operation. Indicative costs for smaller installations are
£2,500 to £6000 per kW and around £1000 per kW for larger (MW) installations. Key
elements affecting installation and therefore costs include ground conditions, distance
to the electricity grid and cabling provision. Operation and maintenance costs are
normally a small part of overall project costs but can be expected to increase slightly
as a turbine ages.
4.1.1 The potential to exploit wind energy in Cwmaman
The amount of electricity generated by a wind turbine is highly reliant on the speed
and direction of the wind which in turn is affected by a number of factors including
geographic location, height of the turbine above ground level, topography, surface
roughness and nearby obstructions.
Valleys tend to lower wind speeds, while hills and ridges can increase wind speeds as
the wind is forced to flow over or around them. Urban environments, such as a town
or city, are also likely to reduce the annual energy output from a wind turbine
installation due to the impact of the buildings.
Generally speaking the ideal site for a wind turbine installation is a smooth topped hill
with clear exposure, free from too much turbulence and avoiding large obstructions
such as trees and buildings. In the UK, where generally the prevailing wind is from
the southwest, a southwest facing slope potentially could offer a suitable site. Ideally
an average annual wind speed of 6 metres per second (m/s) is required in order for a
wind project to be viable.
Potential sites and energy available
Cwmaman is situated in a narrow valley near to Aberdare (Figure 1). The village is
approximately 180 m above sea level. As shown in Figure 1 and Plates 1 to 5, it is
sheltered to the southwest and south by Mynydd y Ffaldau and Graig y Gilwern (430
16
masl9 ), to the north and northwest by a grit outcrop (Craig Fforcharnan/Cwmneol
Farm at 300 masl) and Pen Foel Aman (405 masl) and towards the east by Coed Cae
Aberaman (436 masl). The surrounding valley and ridges comprise mainly bracken,
unimproved grassland, semi-natural woodland and plantation. The village is separated
from moor land above by a narrow strip of enclosed farmland which extends along the
lower slopes of the valley. Except for the ridge to the north, all have plantation cover.
Directly observed annual wind speed and wind direction data for Cwmaman were not
obtained. The nearest weather station with wind speed data available from the
Meteorological Office is located at St Athan over 30 km away (Latitude =51.41 N;
Longitude = 03.44 W; Altitude 49 m above sea level).
The European Wind Atlas provides a broad picture of average likely wind resources
at 50 m above ground level for different topographic conditions. For most of the UK
and Ireland (including Wales) the map suggests annual mean wind speeds of 5.0 m/s
to 6.0 m/s in sheltered terrain, 6.5 m/s to 7.5 m/s in open terrain, 7.0 m/s to 8.5 m/s on
the coast, 8.0 m/s to 9.0 m/s at open sea and 10.0 m/s to 11.5 m/s on hills and ridges
(Figure 5). Such general wind speed data is quite likely to underestimate the actual
resource available.
A database providing estimates of annual mean wind speeds for the UK is available
from the Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory Reform's (BERR)
website. It provides data for 1 km squares at 10 m, 25 m or 45 m above ground level.
The data is provided using an air flow model that estimates the effect of topography
on wind speed. It does not take into account local thermally driven winds such as
mountain or valley breezes, local topography or surface roughness on a small scale
(such as walls or trees). The data can therefore only be used as a very rough guide.
Using this database and map references for five points on hills and hillsides
surrounding Cwmaman (central point ST0099) suggests an average wind speed of
6.36 m/s at 45 m above ground level. The results obtained are provided in full in
Appendix 1. Data obtained using the NASA surface meteorology and solar energy
database available online from Atmospheric Science Data Centre (NASA) indicates
an annual average wind speed of 7.80 m/s (Table 1) and a prevailing south-westerly
wind direction.
However, in order to enable proper assessment of the potential at Cwmaman, wind
speed and direction at prospective sites should be measured over several months,
ideally over a 12 month period. This site specific information can then be correlated
with historical data from the UK Meteorological Office to provide a more
comprehensive picture of wind potential at prospective sites within the valley.
9
Metres above sea level
17
Plate 1 - 5: Views of the hills surrounding the village of Cwmaman: southwest, east, west, north and southeast
18
Figure 5: Map showing UK annual average wind speed
(Source: BWEA)
Table 1: Monthly averaged wind speed (m/s) at height of 50m
Monthly Averaged Wind Speed At 50 m Above The Surface Of The Earth (m/s)
Lat 51.4 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Lon Average
3.2
10-year 9.55 8.93 8.69 7.50 6.79 6.28 6.21 6.39 7.16 8.19 8.77 9.23 7.80
Average
(Source: NASA)
19
Indicative costs and power production
Indicative costs for smaller wind turbine installations are £2,500 to £6000 per kW. An
example of costs, potential power production and payback periods10 for three Proven,
mast mounted, horizontal axis wind turbines (grid connected) are shown in Table 2. A
single 15 kW turbine could potentially supply around half of a typical community
centre‟s electricity consumption (based on an annual consumption of 30,000 kWh).
Wind turbines up to 50 kWp are supported by the government‟s Low Carbon Building
Programme (LCBP).
Table 2: Comparison of Proven wind turbines
Rated output
Cost
Power production
Payback period
2.5kW
£11,000 to £15,000
2,500-5,000 kWh
7 - 10 years
6 kW
£19,000 to £24,000
6,000-12,000 kWh
5 - 8 years
15 kW
£40,000 to £46,000
15,000-30,000 kWh
3 - 7 years
(Source: http://www.provenenergy.co.uk/windturbines_buy_our_products.php)
A wind turbine has the potential to generate surplus power when the building is not in
use and generate income. For example, Good Energy pays generators 15p/kWh for
electricity under its HomeGen Scheme 11 . This includes the Renewable Obligation
Certificates (ROCs).
The Renewable Obligation (RO) scheme is the main support available for renewable
electricity production in the UK. It places an obligation on UK electricity suppliers to
source an increasing proportion of their electricity from renewable sources. A
Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) is a „green‟ certificate issued to an
accredited generator for eligible renewable electricity generated 12 . In the example
above, Good Energy are purchasing ROCs from generators rather than buying
electricity from them.
Generators who produce enough electricity to justify the costs involved can export to
the National Grid and are entitled to apply for ROCs if their system has been
accredited by Ofgem. It is easier now for small scale generators to apply for ROCs as
they can use agents to act on their behalf e.g. EON, npower. Agents will do all the
paperwork and administer the scheme on the generator‟s behalf, usually for a fee.
Further information is available at http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file46838.pdf and
http://www.nfpa.co.uk/nfpas/trackrecord.htm .
10
Based on an ideal site and average wind speed of 5m/s
Personal communication, prices may vary
12
One ROC is issued for each megawatt hour (MWh) of eligible renewable output generated. For the
period April 2008 to March 2009 the value of a ROC was £35.76. Double ROCs are payable as of
April 2009 for electricity generated by wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) i.e. approximately £74 per
MWh.
11
20
Land access, planning, grid connection, environmental and other
impacts
A wind energy installation will require planning permission. Planning permission
should be obtained before any grant funding is accessed. Projects classified as small
scale wind developments (less than 50 MW) require permission from the Local
Planning Authority (LPA), in this case Rhondda Cynon Taff County Borough Council.
The project will also need permission from the local electricity company to connect to
the grid: the wind turbine installer/supplier will often take on this administrative task.
The power generated might be fed direct to a load such as a community building or
larger installations can be connected direct to the local distribution network (the
national grid).
There are costs associated with connecting to the grid. When serving the needs of a
building, a two-way metre is required. In larger installations important factors to
consider are distance to the nearest connection point and the required voltage. It may
be necessary to contact the local Distribution Network Operator (DNO) to assess
connection points and likely costs further. The DNO for Cwmaman is Western Power
Distribution. Under the G83/1 Grid Connection Regulations, Small Scale Embedded
Generation of up to 16 Amps per phase connected to the distribution network at low
voltage does not require consent from the DNO prior to connection. However,
notification at connection is a legal requirement. Large turbines or multiple turbine
installation are likely to exceed the 16 Amp rating and in that case consent will be
required.
Particularly in the case of larger installations 13, it is important to have legal and longterm rights and access to the required land and it is a good idea to contact prospective
land owners from the outset of a project. Based on informal telephone conversations
the surrounding hillsides of Mynydd y Ffaldau, Graig y Gilwern, Pen Foel Aman and
Coed Cae Aberaman are owned by the Forestry Commission. The grit outcrop to the
north of the village (Craig Fforcharnan/Cwmneol Farm) is privately owned. An
agreement to lease land might be required. In the first instance, depending on the scale
of a proposed project, agreements to consider might include: an Exclusivity
Agreement to allow the community time to develop a more formal and complete
project proposal; an Option to Lease Agreement to provide time to apply for and
secure planning permission.
The community may be required to and indeed should produce an Environmental
Statement. Effects such as visual impact, noise, potential ecological impacts (e.g. on
13
As opposed to smaller installations in the grounds of a building
21
birds, flora and fauna), as well as bearing on any archaeology in the area and the
historical landscape need to be considered. There are guidelines regarding the distance
between a wind turbine site and other structures such as homes and buildings, and
also roads and railways (BERR, 2007). Many areas are designated for purposes of
protecting the landscape, wildlife, ecology or archaeology e.g. National Park, Site of
Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB),
Important Bird Area, Ancient Woodland, RSPB reserves, Local Nature Reserves,
Scheduled Monuments, World Heritage Sites.
In addition, any consequences for MOD activities and installations,
telecommunications equipment, air and radar facilities are normally assessed.
4.1.2 Community wind energy projects
Local communities can benefit from wind energy projects in a number of ways:
environmentally by contributing to reductions of greenhouse gas and other emissions;
socially and financially through educational opportunities and by keeping revenue and
jobs within the community.
In larger developments, income generated locally can be reinvested locally, for
example in local energy saving measures or other regeneration projects. Combining
clean, renewable energy generation with energy saving measures can offer a practical
way to realise a community sustainable development strategy. In a traditional wind
farm business model the developer retains sole control and landowners are
compensated by means of royalties or rental payments. Community projects usually
take the form of a community-based model where full or part ownership rests with the
community or are set up as co-operatives i.e. as a jointly-owned and democraticallycontrolled legal enterprise constituted under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act.
In Wales, Bro Dyfi provides an excellent example of a larger community-owned,
community-led wind turbine project in the Dulas Valley. Bro Dyfi Community
Renewables (BCDR) is a community energy co-operative registered under the
Industrial and Provident Societies Acts established in 2001. A 75 kW turbine project
was launched in 2003. In 2006, a reconditioned 500 kW turbine was erected which is
capable of powering around 200 homes. Income from these projects is used to fund
the Community Energy Fund which focuses on energy efficiency and conservation.
Further information can
http://www.ecodyfi.org.uk .
be
found
on
the
community
website
at
The Baywind Energy Co-operative Ltd, Cumbria, was set up as an Industrial &
Provident Society 1996 along the lines of co-operative renewable energy production
models pioneered in Scandinavia. The co-op currently has over 1,300 shareholders
22
throughout the UK and abroad with preference given to local investors, so that the
community can share the economic benefits from the wind farm. Any net income is
returned to the community in the form of dividend payments.
Further information can
http://www.baywind.co.uk.
be
found
on
the
co-operative‟s
website
at
4.1.3 Summary and recommendations
An initial site visit suggests that wind may be a potential energy source at Cwmaman
and that the surrounding slopes and ridges may provide a potential site for a wind
turbine. However, the specific effects of local conditions must be better understood.
More extensive and detailed site investigation and wind measurements, ideally over
several months, should be undertaken in order for the community to consider this
option further. Other factors which need to be considered include land access rights,
planning, connection to the grid, and environmental and other impacts.
Recommendations
A pre-feasibility study could be conducted to include:
 Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to determine potential sites and
wind resource;
 Desk-based analysis to determine land ownership;
 Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to assess potential site access,
planning permission, environmental issues, energy output and
economic viability.
23
4.2
Micro-hydro energy
Hydro-power exploits the potential energy of water made available when rain (or
snow) falls on high ground and converts it into kinetic energy in order to produce
electricity. It is a valuable renewable energy source and is already an important
provider of electricity in the UK and worldwide. It is a proven, cost effective and
reliable technology.
Hydro-power installations are either run-of-river or utilise reservoirs. „Run-of-river‟
installations have no water storage, tend to have a low „head‟ 14 (often less than 10m
although not always) and the amount of power generated depends on the available
flow in the river which can vary throughout the year. The alternative design typically
uses a damn at a narrow point in a river valley to create a reservoir to store the water.
These types of installation have medium to high heads and provide much more
reliable power generation.
There is no international formally agreed definition of small scale hydro-power.
Capacity can vary from up to 5 MW in the UK to 30 MW in the USA (which is
enough to power a small town), right down to a few hundred watts. Interest in small
scale hydro is rising in many countries including the UK. This is mainly due to the
significant environmental and social impacts associated with large scale developments
and the growing interest in local rather than centralised energy production and
distribution systems.
Small scale hydro is further subdivided into mini- and micro- (and even pico-hydro)
as capacity gets smaller (Table 3). Small hydro-power installations can also be
classified by the available head. Many small scale systems are run-of-river with
heads of only a few metres. Micro-hydro can be defined as run-of-river schemes of
less than 100 kW. The energy potential in any river is dependant on the height
through which the water falls (the „head‟) and the flow rate.
Table 3: Criteria defining small scale hydro power
Typical
Power
Flow
Turbine Runner
Diameter
Micro
< 100 kW
< 0.4 m3/s
< 0.3 m
Mini
100 to 1,000 kW
0.4 to 12.8 m3/s
0.3 to 0.8 m
Small
1 to 50 MW
> 12.8 m3/s
> 0.8 m
(Source: RETScreen)
14
„Head‟ is the height of the water above a certain point (i.e. the turbine).
24
Small scale hydro systems have minimal environmental effects compared to large
schemes and can provide very cost effective and reliable clean electricity: it is very
efficient 15 (70% to 90%), has a high capacity factor 16 (around 50%) and is fairly
predictable depending on annual rainfall patterns. Small scale systems are suitable for
low-lying areas with wide rivers as well as areas with steep terrain and fast flowing
streams.
The components of a typical micro-hydro installation include:
 Intake
 Penstock
 Turbine house
 Turbine
 Generator
 Governor
 Tailrace
 Transmission cable
Indicative costs are approximately £4000 to £5000 per kW installed, so for example a
10 kW scheme might cost between £40,000 and £50,000. Seventy-five percent of
project costs are site specific and around 60% of costs are associated with the required
civil works (e.g. intake, penstock and turbine housing). However, the civil works and
some equipment can last up to 50 years or more.
As with a wind turbine, a micro hydro installation has the potential to generate an
income.
4.2.1 The potential to exploit micro-hydro in Cwmaman
There is a system of springs, small rivers and fast flowing streams running into and
through the valley. The main river is the River Aman with important inflow coming
from the Aman Fawr and Aman Fach on the slopes to the west. The Aman runs close
to the southern boundaries of the village and in some places is culverted before
eventually emerging into the River Cynon (Plates 6 and 7).
Potential sites and available energy
A potential source for micro-hydro was identified in a fast flowing stream which
begins in the hillside on Coed Cae Aberaman (towards Sychnant Spring) and runs
down to the village parallel to Llanwonno Road (Plates 8 to 10). The stream also
benefits from the remains of an existing concrete structure which could be utilised for
15
Efficiency is the ratio of useful output to input i.e. energy.
Capacity factor is the ratio of actual energy produced in a given period compared to a hypothetical
maximum i.e. running full time at the rated power.
16
25
an intake as well as a nearby potential grid connection point on Llanwonno Road (the
St. Joseph‟s Terrace sub-station ST00449928).
Plates 6 - 7: The River Aman runs close to the south of the village
Plates 8 – 12: The stream at Llanwonno Raod has several inflowing streams, the remains of a concrete
structure and a potential grid connection point
26
The potential energy available in a particular stream or river is dependant on the flow
of water (volume per second) and the available head. In order to be viable a location
must have a sufficiently high head and flow rate, which suggests an annual rainfall of
around 40cm/yr, a suitable catchment area (and if required a storage site). Rainfall
(and therefore flow) varies with the seasons. Data from the Meteorological Office
website suggests average annual rainfall in the area of 140 to 220cm (1400 to
2200mm) dispersed throughout the year (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Regional rainfall (mm) between 1971 and 2000
(Source: Meteorological Office)
Data specific to Cwmaman was not obtained. However, the Meteorological Office
was able to supply data for the nearest weather station to Cwmaman at Llwyn-on
27
Reservoir (11.7 km distant, Heading 3 degrees; Appendix 3). This indicates an annual
average rainfall of 1765.26mm and 174.31 days per year of rain >=1mm (1971 –
2000).
A visit was made to the site off Llanwonno Road which established a potential intake
point at ST0072798950 and turbine house location at ST0047699347. An
approximate total head of 37 m was calculated (Figure 7). Some provisional rough
calculations of hydro generation were made (margin of error +/- 50%).
Figure 7: Potential site at Llanwonno Road showing intake and turbine house locations
Average daily flow
Actual rainfall and run-off data for the area were not obtained. Preliminary catchment
area analysis suggests an area of 1.2 km2 to 1.5 km2 with potential dispersed average
annual rainfall of 1765 mm. However, without specific flow rate measurements and
Flow Duration Curve data, deliberately conservative figures were used (1400 mm
average annual rainfall and a catchment area of 0.75 km2) in order to account for the
potential effects of land drainage channels and built up areas. An approximate evapotranspiration value of 0.5m was assumed resulting in a run-off of 0.9 m17 from which
an Average Daily Flow (ADF) was calculated as follows:
ADF (m3/s) = (AxR)/s
17
1400 mm is 1.4 m therefore 1.4 – 0.5 m = 0.9 m
28
Where A is catchment area (m2); R is annual run-off depth (m); s is number of
seconds in a year (32x106).
ADF= (0.75x0.9)/ 32x106=0.02109375 m3/s=21.1l/s
Hydro power
Taking a head of 37 m and a flow of 21.1 litres (0.021m3/s) the potential hydro power
can be calculated using the following equation:
Hydro power (kW) = Head H (m) x Flow Q (m3/s) x 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity)
P = 37 x 0.0210 x 9.81 = 7.62 kW (2dp)
Electrical power production
Taking a typical efficiency for a micro-hydro system of 60% results in potential
electrical power production:
Electrical power (kW) = Hydro Power x System Efficiency
7.62 x 0.6 = 4.57 kW (2dp)
Annual energy capture
Flow variation data is required to predict how much electricity might potentially be
produced throughout the year (Annual Energy Capture). Flow Duration Curves or
equivalent data is not available for the site. However an estimate of annual Energy
Capture can be provided based on a conservative capacity factor of 0.41 and the
number of hours in a year (24 x 365 = 8760):
4.57 x 0.41 x 8760 = 16,413.61 kWh (2dp)
It should be noted that this figure is an estimate only and is sensitive to catchment
area and average annual rainfall. The hydro power and electrical power production
from a catchment area of 1.2 km2 and annual rainfall of 1765 mm would be
considerably more (up to 17 kW). A more accurate, detailed study of flow
measurements should be conducted, for example using the „Bucket Method‟ which is
suitable for small streams and could be carried out using the remains of the concrete
structure mentioned above.
Land access, planning, grid connection, environmental and other
impacts
A hydro-power project will require planning permission from the Local Planning
Authority (LPA) and Building Regulation Approval may be required e.g. for turbine
housing.
29
Again, it is important to have legal and long-term rights and access to the required
land for such a project and to contact relevant land owners at an early stage in order to
establish any objections and negotiate access. An informal telephone conversation
suggests that land surrounding the stream is owned by the Forestry Commission.
Some land may also be owned by Rhondda Cynon Taff County Borough Council and
private houses also have land adjoining at Llanwonno Road. It is important to secure
access to the land prior to engaging in Environment Agency application processes.
The Environment Agency (EA) should be consulted at an early stage. The EA
controls all water courses of any size in England and Wales and relevant legislation
includes the Water Resources Act 1991 and the Environment Act 1995. An
Abstraction License is required to direct water away from the main line of flow of a
river. An Impoundment License may also be required e.g. if structures are used to
impound water such as sluices or weirs. The EA should be consulted to ensure a
proposed site is suitable and to agree an acceptable operating regime (amount and
timing of water abstractions and so on).
The power generated might be fed direct to a load such as a community building, with
any excess power sold to the grid, or be connected direct to the local distribution
network. There is a nearby potential grid connection point on Llanwonno Road. As
mentioned in the previous section on wind power, there are costs associated with
connecting to the grid. Important factors to consider are distance to the nearest
connection point and the required voltage. It may be necessary to contact the local
Distribution Network Operator (DNO) to assess connection points and likely costs.
The G83/1 Grid Connection Regulations for Small Scale Embedded Generation also
apply in this case.
Many of the points raised for wind turbines regarding potential impacts are relevant
here such as distance to nearby buildings and areas designated for purposes of
protecting the landscape, wildlife, ecology or archaeology. Appropriate access to the
site during construction (and also for maintenance and decommissioning) is an
important consideration. The community may be required to and indeed should
produce an Environmental Statement in order to support planning permission and
license applications. Typically this should consider possible environmental effects on
flora, fauna, noise levels, traffic, land use, archaeology, recreation, landscape and
water quality and measures to minimise such effects.
4.2.2 Summary and recommendations
An initial visit suggests that micro-hydro may be a potential energy source at
Cwmaman and a possible site was located at Llanwonno Road. However, more
extensive and detailed site investigation and flow measurements should be undertaken
in order for the community to consider this option further. Other factors which need to
30
be considered include land access rights, planning, connection to the grid, and
environmental and other impacts.
Recommendations
A feasibility study should be conducted to better evaluate the technical,
legal and economic viability of a project, to include:
 Site visit/s to obtain detailed water flow rate and head measurements
and review suitable intake and a turbine sites;
 Desk-based analysis and site visit/s to assess land/site access, grid
connection and likely cost, environmental and other impacts;
 An indication of design power and annual energy output and economic
viability.
31
4.3
Other renewable energy options
4.3.1 Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal systems
Solar technology converts solar radiation into useful energy and comprises solar
thermal to heat water and solar photovoltaics (PV) to provide electricity.
Solar PV systems use photovoltaic cells to convert energy from the sun into electricity
to run appliances and lighting. They produce no greenhouse gases, such as CO 2 or
noise when in use, are modular, reliable and very low maintenance.
A typical grid-connected system uses electricity generated by the PV system to power
on-site loads (such as lighting or appliances within the building) and to export power
to the grid when the PV system output is greater than the on-site demand. When
demand is greater than the PV system can supply e.g. at night, the balance is drawn
from the grid.
The components of a typical (grid-connected) system include:
 The PV array (of PV panels);
 The PV array junction box;
 The inverter;
 The import / export meter;
 The connection to the grid.
Solar PV can be used on most buildings with a roof or wall that faces within 90
degrees of south (ideally between southeast and southwest) provided the panels are
not overshadowed by other buildings, large trees or other obstructions. If the panels
are overshadowed the system will generate less electricity. The proposed roof (or
wall) must be strong enough to support the weight of the panels.
The main factors which affect how much energy a PV system will generate are:
 Geographic location;
 Size of the PV installation;
 Direction the PV installation faces;
 The angle at which the panels are mounted;
 Any obstructions/shading of the panels.
Indicative costs are £4,000 - £7,000 per kWp 18 depending on the type of panel
installed, size of the system and how it is mounted.
18
Kilowatt-peak (kWp) is the peak output of a PV panel under ideal condition (i.e. laboratory
conditions of 1000w/m2; 25°C ambient temperature; air mass 1.5). So, a 1 kWp PV panel will generate
1 kW under ideal conditions. This does not necessarily reflect the power which might be generated
under average conditions.
32
As an example of possible system size and cost to supply 10% of a typical community
centre‟s electricity requirements (based on 30,000 kWh/yr), assuming that typically 1
kW of PV panels produces 850 kWh of electricity per year 19:
10% of 30,000 kWh is 3,000 kWh
3,000 kWh ÷ 850 kWh = 3.53 kWp
Therefore, approximately 4 kWp of PV panels will be required to meet 10% of the
centre‟s needs. Assuming a cost of £4,500 per kWp installed this would give a
potential capital cost of £18,000.
As with a wind turbine, a solar PV installation has the potential to generate an income.
For example, Good Energy pays renewable electricity generators 15p/kWh under its
HomeGen scheme.
It should be kept in mind that PV is likely to improve in efficiency and reduce in price
over the next three to five years. As PV has a life span of about 20 years, it might be
advantageous to watch developments and wait until more efficient and cost effective
products become available.
Solar thermal panels collect heat from the sun‟s radiation to provide hot water for
domestic, commercial and industrial buildings. Again, solar thermal systems are clean,
quiet, modular, reliable and very low maintenance. Typical costs for a typical
domestic system are around £5,000.
The components of a typical system include:
 The solar panels (or collectors) which collect heat using a fluid in a closed system
and come in two main types: flat plate systems and evacuated tube systems;
 The heat transfer system which uses the collected heat to heat water;
 The hot water storage cylinder which stores the hot water for later use.
An example of a community-based solar project already exists in Cwmaman at St.
Joseph's Church where solar PV panels provide electricity with surplus exported to
the national grid. There are numerous examples of the use of solar thermal panels to
supply hot water e.g. for kitchens and hot water circuits in Welsh schools.
In order to assess the feasibility of further exploiting solar technologies in Cwmaman,
information on local solar radiation or „sunshine‟ (also called insolation) is required.
On a clear day, the energy from „sunshine‟ on the earth can reach 1kilowatt per square
meter (kW/m2) 20. Northern Europe typically receives about 1000 kWh/m2 per year of
19
20
Personal communications with various suppliers
Incident on a horizontal surface.
33
solar energy: southern UK and most of Wales can achieve 1050 kWh/m2 to 1100
kWh/m2 per year (Figure 8). In the UK, the solar energy available varies with the
seasons: on an average day in July, the UK receives approximately 5 kWh/m2 per day,
which is enough to heat the water for a generous hot bath. While in January this could
be as little as 0.5 kWh/m2 to 0.6 kWh/m2 per day.
Actual insolation measurements for Cwmaman were not obtained. However, the PV
GIS tool available online from the Joint Research Centre (European Commission) was
used to calculate irradiation levels in the local area using Aberdare as the data point
(nearest large town, 137 metres above sea level) as shown in Chart 1. Similar results
were obtained using NASA‟s surface meteorology and solar energy data available
online from Atmospheric Science Data Centre and is shown in Table 3 (NASA).
The greatest amount of solar energy is available during the summer (and hence
capability to contribute to hot water heating and electricity generation) but a
contribution is possible throughout the year. As an example, a sufficiently sized
typical solar thermal installation in the UK could provide around 80% of the typical
domestic hot water requirement during the summer, reducing to around 20% during
the winter.
Figure 8: Annual total horizontal irradiation for the UK
(Source: Joint Research Centre)
34
Chart 1: Monthly total horizontal irradiation for Aberdare, Wales
(Source: Joint Research Centre)
Table 4: Monthly averaged insolation (kWh/m2/day)
Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident On A Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day)
Lat 51.4 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Lon Average
3.2
22-year 0.74 1.35 2.23 3.54 4.55 4.73 4.69 4.00 2.76 1.59 0.92 0.59 2.64
Average
(Source: NASA)
Important considerations
Solar thermal hot water and PV systems ideally require an unobstructed, southwest to
southeast facing roof or wall space. It is also vital that the space available is large
enough and that the roof (or wall) is strong enough to support the system.
The size of the installed system will depend on demand and the proportion of that
demand to be met by the system. Again, in both cases efficiency measures are
extremely important, for example insulating water storage tanks and pipes, „low flow‟
shower heads and taps, using energy efficient light bulbs and other electrical
appliances, and turning off appliances and lights when they are not being used.
35
4.3.2 Ground and air source heat pumps
Heat pumps can provide heating (and also cooling) for schools, community buildings,
offices, shops, and homes and can even be used in industrial applications. The
benefits of ground-source and air-source-heat-pump systems include: no combustion,
no need for flues or ventilation associated with conventional boilers, no local
pollution, long life and low maintenance costs.
Heat pumps work by moving heat from one place to another. Heat sources include
soil, air, and water. For example, a heat pump system can take low temperature heat
from a source such as the ground and deliver it at a higher temperature inside a
building e.g. for space heating or pre-heating hot water. They are very similar to
refrigerators which remove heat from the inside of a fridge and discharge it the
outside via the fins at the back.
Heat pumps can be utilised in single buildings or can service multiple dwellings as
part of small district heating schemes:
 Old St. Lawrence Church, Yerbeston, Pembrokeshire: ground source heat pump
system was installed comprising an 8 kW pump and two forty metre long
horizontal trenches;
 Crickhowell, Powys: ground source heat pump district heating scheme for 20
homes (housing association owned properties) comprising boreholes, common
plant room and distribution system.
A typical ground-source-heat-pump system comprises:
 The „ground loop‟ of pipe buried in the ground (either in a vertical boreholes or
horizontal trenches). The pipe absorbs heat from the ground via a liquid in a
closed system.
 The heat pump which has three main parts: an evaporator which absorbs the heat
in the ground loop; a compressor which raises the temperature of the refrigerant
within the heat pump; a condenser which gives up the heat to the heating
distribution system within the building.
 The distribution system e.g. a storage buffer tank and under floor heating.
Air-source-heat-pumps work on the same principles as a ground source heat pump
(evaporator, heat pump and condenser) but extract heat from the external air. They
generally require less space and can be wall or roof mounted and so are much more
suitable for urban environments. Systems can be air-to-water which distribute heat via
radiators or under floor heating or alternatively air-to-air with use fans to circulate
warm air within a building.
In establishing cost savings and reductions in environmental impacts (reduced CO 2) it
is important to consider the type of heating fuel being displaced: generally the cost
36
savings (and CO2 reductions) will be greater if electricity, coal, Liquid Petroleum Gas
(LPG) or oil is normally used for heating
Indicative costs are £1000 to £1500 per kW installed (excluding the distribution
system) although this will vary depending on the type of property, location and size of
the system. So for example an 8 kW ground-source system might cost around £8,000
to £12,00021 . Vertical boreholes tend to be more expensive than horizontal trench
installations. Air-source systems can be cheaper as they avoid the cost of digging
trenches and boreholes. There are also running costs as well as emissions associated
with such systems as electricity is required to power the heat pump. In general it is
usually more cost effective to install such systems as part of a new construction or
major refurbishment project.
Important considerations
Ground-source-heat-pumps require sufficient space both within the building for the
heat pump equipment as well as outside the building for access during construction
and for the ground source installation. This is particularly vital in the case of ground
loops in trenches. The ground also needs to be suitable for digging. In the case of
Cwmaman sufficient ground space might be an issue. Air-source-heat-pumps may
provide a viable alternative although they do require sufficient space on an external
wall (or roof) to mount the evaporator coil.
Ground-source and air-source-heat-pumps tend to work best with under floor heating
systems but can be used with radiators although these are normally different to those
used with standard boiler systems. It is possible to combine heat pumps with a
renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics (PV) in order to generate the
electricity to power the compressor and pump. Systems can also be programmed to
take advantage of cheap rate and off-peak electricity.
In both cases energy efficiency measures are extremely important in order to reduce
heat losses and therefore overall heating demand and so make systems more efficient
and cost effective.
4.3.3 Biomass
Biomass (also called bio-energy or bio-fuel) can be defined as organic matter of
recent origin and includes:
 Woody biomass i.e. forest products, untreated wood products, energy crops, short
rotation coppice (SRC) such as willow;
21
Excluding the distribution system
37

Non-woody biomass i.e. animal waste, industrial and biodegradable municipal
products from food processing and high energy crops such as rape, sugar cane,
maize.
Biomass has environmental and economic advantages. It is carbon neutral if produced
sustainably and can also reduce materials going to landfill and utilise an otherwise
wasted energy resource. However, any project also needs to consider the use of fossil
fuels and the associated emissions involved in transporting biomass to site. Biomass is
most cost-effective and sustainable when a local fuel source is available which results
in local investment and employment.
Biomass boilers can provide hot water as well as space heating. The cost of biomass
boilers varies depending on the fuel choice and level of automation required. Smallscale commercial applications usually use wood pellets or wood chips.
Important considerations
When looking at a biomass boiler system important points to consider include:
 Fuel: a reliable, preferably local, fuel supplier is essential. Boilers have strict
parameters for moisture content of fuel (as well as other properties). A reliable
source of fuel appropriate to the boiler selected is crucial;
 Space: space for the boiler and additional equipment (biomass boilers are larger
than fossil fuel equivalents), sufficient storage space is crucial (lack of space will
require more frequent deliveries and consequently higher running costs); access
/parking/room for manoeuvring at the site for delivery vehicles is often
overlooked;
 Regulations: the installation must comply with all safety and building regulations;
 Planning: if a building is listed or in an area of outstanding natural beauty
(AONB) then the Local Authority Planning Department must be consulted.
4.3.4 Summary and recommendations
Other renewable energy options which could be integrated into existing buildings
include:
 Solar PV for electricity generation
 Solar thermal, ground-source and air-source-heat pumps and biomass for hot
water and space heating.
An example of a community-based solar project already exists in Cwmaman at St.
Joseph's Church where solar PV panels provide electricity with surplus exported to
the national grid. Many other examples of community projects exist.
38
Solar thermal technology for water heating is likely to offer the best value solar
energy technology option at the moment. There is potential for air-source and groundsource-heat pumps and biomass to contribute to space heating. However, in-depth
feasibility studies should be undertaken on a case-by-case basis.
39
Sources of funding and further information
Funding
UK government support is mainly provided through Phase 2 of the Low Carbon
Buildings Programme (LCBP2). This provides grants for the installation of microgeneration renewable technologies (including wind, small hydro, ground-source-heatpumps, solar PV, solar thermal, air-source-heat-pumps, biomass) available to public
sector, not-for-profit and community-based projects. Grant criteria apply such as size
limits (50 kW of electricity and 45 kW thermal of heat as per the Energy Act 2004) as
well as benchmarks in terms of cost and CO2 savings. Applications are being accepted
now until the end of June 2009. Information can be accessed at Low Carbon
Buildings Programme http://www.lowcarbonbuildings.org.uk/home
Other potential sources of funding include:
 The community itself
 The Big Lottery Fund http://www.biglotteryfund.org.uk
 The Coalfield Regeneration Trust http://www.coalfields-regen.org.uk
 Environment Wales http://www.environment-wales.org
 The Co-operative Community Fund and Foundation http://www.cooperative.coop/ethicsinaction/communities/fundsandfoundations/
 The Ashden Trust http://www.ashdentrust.org.uk
 Many large energy utilities and technology providers can provide a source of
support for community projects.
Further information










A very useful resource of Welsh renewable energy installations is provided by the
Community Energy Network (CEN) and PLANED. This covers installations in
the county of Pembrokeshire and provides an interactive map as well as individual
case studies http://www.planed.org.uk/leaderplus/energy_map.htm
British Wind Energy Association http://www.bwea.com
Small Wind Industry Strategy http://www.smallwindindustry.org
British Hydropower Association http://www.british-hydro.org
Heat Pump Association http://www.heatpumps.org.uk
Ground Source Heat Pump Association http://www.gshp.org.uk
Solar Trade Association http://www.solar-trade.org.uk
Energy Saving Trust http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk
Carbon Trust http://www.carbontrust.co.uk
Centre for Alternative Technology http://www.cat.org.uk
40
References
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Wind
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Database
[online]
Available
from:
http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/sources/renewables/explained/wind/windsp
eed-database/page27708.html Accessed 16th January 2008.
BERR (2007) Onshore Wind Energy Planning Conditions Guidance Note, DTI Pub
10/07NP URN 06/1818.
BERR (2008a) Regional and local electricity consumption statistics for 2007 [online]
Available from: http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file49481.pdf Accessed 3rd February
2009.
BERR (2008b) Energy Consumption in the United Kingdom [online] Available from:
http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file11250.pdf Accessed 16th January 2009.
BERR,
Onshore
wind:
noise
[online]
Available
from:
http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/sources/renewables/planning/onshorewind/noise/page18728.html Accessed 29th January 2009.
Boyle, G. (2004) Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future Oxford
University Press, UK.
BWEA, UKWED [online] Available at: http://www.bwea.com/ukWed/ Accessed 16th
January 2008.
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2009.
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http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps/radday.php Accessed 18th February 2009.
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[online]
Available
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41
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42
Appendix 1: Wind speed data
Table 5: BERR wind speed data for Cwmaman
(ST0099)
(ST0000)
(ST0199)
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
5.7
4.7
3.5
5.3
5.3
5.9
6.9
6.8
7.1
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
6.1
7
6.9
6.7
6.8
6.4
6.7
6.4
5.9
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
4.7
3.5
4.2
5.3
5.9
5.2
6.8
7.1
6.9
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
5.2
4.1
2.7
4.5
4.7
5.3
6.4
6.2
6.6
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
5.6
6.6
6.5
6.3
6.4
5.8
6.3
5.9
5.2
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
4.1
2.7
3.8
4.7
5.3
4.7
6.2
6.6
6.4
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
4.5
3.3
1.9
3.6
3.8
4.6
5.8
5.5
6
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
4.8
6
5.9
5.7
5.8
5.1
5.7
5.2
4.4
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
3.3
1.9
3.4
3.8
4.6
4.1
5.5
6
5.8
(ST0098)
(ST9998)
(ST9900)
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
5.3
5.3
5.9
6.9
6.8
7.1
5.7
7.1
7.7
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
6.1
6.3
6.3
6
6.1
6.2
6.2
6.1
6.1
Wind speed at 45m agl (in m/s)
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
4.5
4.7
5.3
6.4
6.2
6.6
4.9
6.6
7.4
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
5.5
5.7
5.7
5.3
5.5
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.5
Wind speed at 25m agl (in m/s)
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.6
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
3.6
3.8
4.6
5.8
5.5
6
4
5.9
7
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
4.8
5
5.1
4.5
4.8
5
4.8
4.7
4.8
Wind speed at 10m agl (in m/s)
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.8
agl = above ground level.
43
Appendix 2: Biodiversity information
44
Appendix 3:
Reservoir22
Meteorological
Office
data
for
Llwyn-on
Rainfall Long Term Average for LLWYN-ON RESR :
Actual Rainfall mm for 1971-2000
Month
Mean value of Actual Rainfall
Months of original data
used to produce mean
All Months 1765.26
355
January
220.27
30
February
148.34
30
March
150.2
30
April
101.56
29
May
95.3
30
June
94
30
July
84.31
30
August
118.89
29
September
142.3
29
October
190.77
30
November
192.76
29
December
226.56
29
Produced on Jan 12, 2009
Rainfall Long Term Average for LLWYN-ON RESR :
22
Some tables are based on only 8 years of data.
45
Days >= 1mm ('Rain' Days) Rainfall for 1971-2000
Month
Months of original
Mean value of Days >= 1mm ('Rain' Days) data
Rainfall
used to produce
mean
All
Months
174.31
350
January
18.93
29
February
13.8
30
March
16.37
30
April
12.5
29
May
12.17
30
June
12.17
30
July
11.03
30
August
11.97
29
September
13.5
28
October
16.4
28
November
17.4
28
December
18.07
29
Produced on Jan 12, 2009
46
Air Frost Long Term Average for LLWYN-ON RESR :
Days of Air Frost for 1971-2000
Month
Mean value of Days of Air Frost
Months of original data
used to produce mean
All Months 60.47
98
January
12.76
9
February
12.07
9
March
8.64
8
April
6.01
9
May
1.81
9
June
.15
8
July
.01
7
August
.02
7
September
.34
8
October
2.04
8
November
6.68
8
December
9.94
8
Produced on Jan 12, 2009
47
Days Of Snow Lying Long Term Average for LLWYN-ON
RESR :
Actual Days Of Snow Lying for 1971-2000
Month
Months of original
Mean value of Actual Days Of Snow
data
Lying
used to produce mean
All Months 2.38
97
January
.44
9
February
.56
9
March
.88
8
April
0
7
May
0
8
June
0
7
July
0
9
August
0
8
September
0
8
October
0
8
November
0
8
December
.5
8
Produced on Jan 12, 2009
48
Sunshine Long Term Average for LLWYN-ON RESR :
Actual Daily Sunshine hours for 1971-2000
Month
Mean value of Actual Sunshine
Months of original data
used to produce mean
All Months 3.5
95
January
1.17
8
February
1.86
8
March
2.73
8
April
4.76
9
May
5.73
8
June
5.2
8
July
5.81
8
August
5.26
8
September
3.97
8
October
2.61
8
November
1.76
7
December
.98
7
Produced on Jan 12, 2009
49