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THE FOLLOWING IS AN AMALGAM OF SEVERAL REPORTS AND IS
FOR ILLUSTRATION ONLY
XXXXXXXXX
xxxxshire
A Report on the Decoration
Following an Examination
of the Painted Surfaces
in Several Areas
A BRIEF SYNOPSIS
Although sampling has been limited, the majority of the surfaces examined have
either been stripped of their paint, or are recent insertions / replacements. A couple of
samples retained a full sequence of coatings and others are likely to date from the
ca.1830s. No complete decorative schemes for any of the four interior areas
examined have been revealed. Earlier paint can be found on some of the external
surfaces.
Interior
Fire is likely to be the main reason for the extensive paint removal and for the newer
surfaces encountered during the analysis. Smoke damage has apparently been found
in the attic and an incendiary bomb dropped during the Second World War might
have caused this.
The Entrance Hall seems to have been re-arranged in the early years of the twentieth
century. Several years later, evidence of smoke damage can be seen in that area.
The Kitchen Passage retains elements of earlier decorative schemes.
The Drawing Room seems to have been severely damaged by the bomb explosion of
197x and little can be found from before that date.
The Stairs have been stripped almost completely of paint; however various doors and
door architraves survive from the eighteenth century.
The use of a particular type of primer on certain elements suggests either that the
original decoration was somewhat old-fashioned for the 1760s, or that parts of the
house are older than is presently thought. This might bear further documentary
investigations.
Exterior
The exterior railings seem to date from after ca.1830. A summary of the initial
scheme on the other surfaces can be seen below:
New Stables (1868-1869)
Doors = Brunswick green
Windows = grained
1
Ironwork = off-white
Walled Garden (1815-1816)
a) Potting Shed (1815-1816)
Early stone-coloured paint survives on the timber panelling in the passage to the
Vinery.
The external doors seem to date from the second half of the nineteenth century.
b) Ornamental Gates (1786)
Stripped. Red-brown paint from late nineteenth / early twentieth century survives.
c) Gardener’s House
Appears to have been restored and stripped of early paint in 1970s.
The door set in the wall to the East of the Gardener’s House probably dates from the
second half of the nineteenth century. It was originally Brunswick green
2
XXXXXXXXX
xxxxshire
A Report on the Decoration
Following an Examination
of the Painted Surfaces
in Several Areas
Introduction
I was asked by Mr xxx xxx to carry out an investigation of the decorative schemes
applied in various rooms of the house and on selected external surfaces. The aim was
to learn as much as possible of the original decoration.
Historical Background1
The house lies to the South of xxxx. It was built for xx by xxx in the 1780s. The
Estate was developed in the 1860s and then fell into a long period of decline.
During the 1920s the house was the childhood home of xxxx.
After the Second World War the xxx family owned the house.
In 1958 xxx xxx bought xxx at auction for £xxx. The sales literature describe it as
having been “modernised with care and knowledge” whilst preserving such period
features as graceful bow sash windows and Georgian painted panelled walls.
In 19xx the main house was subject to an attack by a terrorist organisation. Two
bombs exploded, one destroying the kitchen and the second apparently demolished
the front door and blew in the Drawing Room window.
The house is listed Grade II* as a building of historical and architectural interest.
Areas Examined
A number of samples were taken from the following areas:
Interior
a) Entrance Hall;
b) Kitchen Passage;
c) Drawing Room;
d) Stairs.
1
This has been taken from the Conservation Plan prepared by xxx Architects. See
also Works Referred to at the end of this report for sources of other references.
3
Exterior
a) The New Stables;
b) Walled Garden & Gardener’s House;
For the purposes of this report the front of the main house is regarded as facing East.
Scope of Report
The extent of sampling has been limited by the budget, which allowed for about 80
samples. In the event a few more samples were taken. However, in spite of these
limitations, a picture has emerged of a number of the events that have taken place, and
a few of the decorative treatments applied within the house and on some external
elements.
In some areas it is only possible to raise questions and not answer them. Indeed the
small number of samples has inevitably led to a number of hypotheses that might have
to be re-thought in the light of further evidence.
Investigation of Samples
A total of 84 samples were taken by Patrick Baty during two visits made in June and
September 200x. Methods of analysis are dealt with in Appendix Nine.2
Dating of Individual Schemes
Although there is no documentary information to assist with the dating of individual
schemes it has been possible to estimate when certain of them were applied. This has
either been possible through knowledge of the pigments employed or the relative
position of schemes in the stratigraphy.
Detailed Analysis of Samples
INTERIOR
General
Most unusually in a house of this age many of the surfaces examined have either been
stripped of their paint, or are recent insertions / replacements. In fact, approximately
75% of the surfaces sampled displayed paint from the middle of the twentieth century
alone. While, of the remainder, only eight samples retained a full sequence of
coatings that was likely to date from the period 1815-30.
When compared to numerous other buildings of this age that have been sampled it is
clear that the house was not decorated very often.3 With the exception of the front
2
The full process is described in (Baty 1995:1, 27-37).
4
railings, twelve schemes are the most that can be found. It is very unlikely that the
paint build-up has ever been such to necessitate removal and no sign of paint stripping
can be seen on the second floor door and door lining, for example.4 Fire is likely to be
the main reason for the extensive paint removal seen throughout the house and for the
newer surfaces encountered during the analysis.
A number of samples suggest that the Entrance Hall was re-arranged in the early years
of the twentieth century. This is not thought to have been prompted by an earlier fire
because the Kitchen Passage, the likely route of flame and smoke, shows no sign of
such damage. Some years later, evidence of smoke damage can be seen in the
Entrance Hall, and that room together with the Stairs were either refurbished or
stripped almost completely of paint
The fire was not serious enough to destroy the door to the Master Bedroom (FF2) or
to the bedroom (SF2) directly above it. However, as part of the post-fire work the
door architraves on the Hall side of the Ground Floor rooms and the Master Bedroom
were replaced.
Entrance Hall (GF9)
General
Most surfaces display five decorative schemes. However the cornice in the South
West corner has retained further evidence. Significantly, there are particles of wood
smoke visible on this element and this may relate to wartime damage.
If the theory concerning incendiary bombs is correct it appears that the room was
substantially refurbished and redecorated following the period 1940-44. This would
seem to have been before the sale of the house in 1958, when it was proclaimed as
having “Georgian painted panelled walls”.5 Information provided by the paint seems
to support this.
Plaster Cornice
A small length of the cornice above the window in the South West corner may display
the full sequence of coatings applied to it (see photomicrographs of XX/26 in
Appendix Two).
Some sixteen or seventeen schemes can be seen, compared to the five or six found on
most other surfaces in this area. The first four schemes were carried out in off-white
soft distemper.6
A thin layer of lead white7 can next be seen. This was not likely to be a decorative
scheme in its own right as it is too thin, but is probably what was known as “sharp
3
An abbreviated list of projects carried out over the last twenty years can be seen at
www.colourman.com.
4
Two surfaces that appear to have retained their full sequence of coatings.
5
(xxxx 2002).
6
See Appendix Seven for details on this medium
7
Until the second half of the twentieth century, the main constituent of most
5
colour” or “sharp stuff” - a coat of oil paint applied over a series of earlier distempers
with the aim of sealing the preceding layers.8 Almost to confirm this two further
schemes of soft distemper were next employed.
The following, the seventh, scheme is of note because it is the first to contain a
pigment with a known date of introduction. This was an oil paint made up of lead
white tinted with French ultramarine.9 From information provided by the reused
shutter (XX/31) in the Kitchen Passage it is possible that this scheme dates from the
ca.1840s.
Two schemes of blue soft distemper, also tinted with French ultramarine, were next
applied. These are thought to have been applied during the second half of the
nineteenth century.
A dark green scheme, made up in three coats, can be seen to follow the blue (see
enlarged photomicrograph of XX/26 in Appendix Two). The colour was one of the
variants of Brunswick Green, (composed of Prussian blue, chrome yellow and black)
which saw great use during the period ca.1830-ca.1960.10 An approximation to this
colour can be seen in Appendix Five. This colour could also be seen on the cornice of
the Rear Hall (GF3) at the base of the stairs. Darker variants can be seen on the
exterior railings (see photomicrograph of XX/76 in Appendix Two).
The eleventh scheme looks like a grained one and is probably contemporary with the
graining found elsewhere. Significantly, there are particles of wood smoke on top of
it.11 The style of decoration and both the preceding and succeeding layers suggest
that this scheme could have been visible during the early years of the War.
The decorative scheme that follows the layer of smoke was a blue-green, and the last
in the sequence of coatings to have been based on lead white (see SEM print out of
XX/11 (layer A) in Appendix Two). It is this distinctive colour, which was made up
of Prussian blue and yellow iron oxide,12 that can be found as the first, or second
scheme, on most of the elements in the Entrance Hall, on the Stairs and on the first
floor landing. In the Entrance Hall, to complete the decoration, the cornice and
mouldings were then painted with a bronze paint.
architectural paints was lead carbonate, a white compound derived from metallic lead.
Throughout this report it is referred to as "lead white". See Appendix Four for more
details.
8
(Hasluck 1913, 163).
9
See Appendix Four for more details on these pigments.
10
Three variants can be seen in the Dulux Heritage paint range. Chrome yellow first
appeared in the second decade of the 19th century. Dr Ian Bristow notes that it saw
early use in the Royal Pavilion at Brighton in 1818 (Bristow 1996, 37). See Appendix
Four for a brief account of the pigments mentioned.
11
The characteristic globular particles of wood smoke have been encountered by the
author in the South Hall at xx (Baty 2000:3, 15), and at Uppark, following that fire.
See Appendix Six for some details on graining.
12
See Appendix Four for more details on these pigments.
6
A paler, yellower, green was next applied. This was based on lithopone13 (see SEM
print out of XX/11 (layer B) in Appendix Two) and this colour appears throughout the
three areas mentioned above.
Three schemes of off-white paint, each based on titanium dioxide14 (see SEM print
out of XX/11 (layer C) in Appendix Two) complete the sequence of coating identified
on the cornice. Although this pigment was introduced before the War, its first
appearance in a domestic paint stratigraphy usually indicates ca.1960. It is known
that the front of the house was damaged during a bomb attack by the xxx in 19xx, and
it is probable that the second of these schemes relates to the consequent repair work
(see below).
Skirting; Door and Architrave to Cloakroom; Chair Rail
Samples taken from the skirting and skirting moulding, the chair rail and the door and
architrave to the Cloakroom (GF10) display only the last five schemes identified on
the cornice above (see SEM print outs and photomicrographs of XX/11 in Appendix
Two).
The door architraves to the cloakroom (DGF15) and to the Kitchen Passage (DGF14)
are the same and date from the formation of the existing Entrance Hall. Presumably
the other areas that display this architrave were altered at the same time.
Presumably, also, the bolection moulding applied to the Entrance Hall relates to that
used elsewhere – for example in the Master Bedroom (FF2).
Walls
Although sampling has been limited, the walls display the same sequence of coatings
that have been found on the skirting. However, lining paper had been stuck to the
wall initially.
In common with several elements, a sample taken from the upper wall in the South
West corner displays one scheme prior to the blue-green (see photomicrograph of
XX/16 in Appendix Two). The plaster had been painted with lead white in oil before
two coats of a paint based on lithopone and chalk. This appears to have been a waterpaint (oil-bound distemper)15 which suggests that it was applied at some time after
1874.
A coat of varnish was applied over the blue-green on the upper wall.
Panel Mouldings
As mentioned above, while most surfaces were painted blue-green the mouldings and
cornice were given a coat of bronze paint (see photomicrograph of XX/14 in
Appendix Two).
It looks as though a slightly darker green was applied to the mouldings when the
yellower green lithopone paint was applied.
13
See Appendix Four for more details on these pigments.
See Appendix Four for more details on this pigment.
15
See Appendix Seven for details on this medium and information on dating.
14
7
Front Door and Architrave
The front door (DGF16) and its architrave were found to display an identical
sequence to that on the skirting – the blue-green (followed by a layer of varnish), the
yellower green and three off-whites. At the bottom of the sequence on the door,
however, is a black undercoat that has not been found elsewhere in the house.
It is puzzling to read that the Daily xxx reported that the front door was “demolished”
during the bomb attack in 19xx16 as the paint indicates otherwise – perhaps it was
merely damaged. The report would suggest that the Drawing Room window and the
front door should display paint from that period alone. However, the window only
displays two schemes of titanium dioxide-based paint, whilst the door has a lead
scheme, one based on lithopone and three on titanium dioxide.
It is likely that the first titanium scheme dates from the 1960s, the second from 19xx
and the existing one from a date since then.
Cupboard
The external face of the cupboard door (DGF06) displays the same sequence of five
schemes as found on the front door (including the layer of varnish) (see
photomicrograph of XX/23 in Appendix Two). However, at the bottom of the
sequence, on the wood substrate, is a mid-buff scheme based on lithopone. This is
curious because it predates the blue-green scheme that was, arguably, introduced
following a major fire. If the fire was serious enough to warrant a major
refurbishment in this area how did the cupboard survive? Perhaps more damage was
caused by smoke rather than flame. But would smoke alone have lead to the
wholesale paint stripping and the large number of newly introduced elements seen
throughout the house?
The inner face of the cupboard door displays the first three schemes alone – i.e. the
mid-buff in lithopone, the blue-green in lead, and the yellower green in lithopone, the
last of which is still visible.
The tongue and groove panelling at the rear of the cupboard displays the yellower
green, and below this is one grained scheme that has also been found on the cupboard
in the Kitchen Passage (see photomicrographs of XX/25 in Appendix Two).
Electrical wiring was introduced in this area between these two schemes.
Radiator
Four decorative schemes can be identified on the radiator. On top of a black, which is
thought to have been a factory finish, is the yellower green lithopone paint, followed
by three off-whites based on titanium dioxide.
Ceiling
The bed of the ceiling displays approximately four schemes of twentieth century
white paint, and appears to date from the post-fire work.
16
(ibid. 20 July 2000 reported in xx Conservation Plan.
8
Kitchen Passage (GF6)
Joinery
It was noticed during the initial visit that the cupboard doors in the Kitchen Passage
appear to have been made from re-used shutters. When sampled, one of these shutters
was found to display the same number of schemes as the framework to that cupboard
(compare photomicrographs of XX/31 with XX/30 in Appendix Two). However, the
first four schemes on the two elements are completely different. Clearly the shutter
was originally fixed to a window in another room. Having only examined four rooms
in the house it is difficult to be conclusive, but it has been noticed that a very similar
early sequence has been found in the Entrance Hall. Is it possible that the shutter was
originally in that room?
The coatings on the shutter are particularly revealing and several are date-indicative
(see XX/31). The first scheme was a pale blue consisting of lead white in oil tinted
with French ultramarine. This pigment was introduced in the early nineteenth century
and it is unlikely for this scheme to have been applied before ca.1830.
The second scheme was a green one, tinted with the (optically) distinctive pigment
Emerald green. Although comparatively recently introduced this pigment saw much
use in the period ca.1840-1860.17
The third scheme was a very pale blue, once again, tinted with French ultramarine. It
was noticed in the Entrance Hall that the sample taken from the cornice in the South
West corner (XX/26) displayed a sequence of three schemes all based on this
pigment. The position of these three schemes in the respective stratigraphies is very
similar - is it possible that they are contemporary?
The fourth scheme on the re-used shutter was an off-white based on zinc oxide (see
SEM print out of XX/31 (A) in Appendix Two).18 This is also important, because the
first occurrence of this pigment in a domestic stratigraphy usually indicates the period
ca.1890-1920.19
At this stage it is believed that the shutters were removed from their original location
and installed in the Kitchen Passage. The shutters / doors were grained in imitation of
oak as was the framework to the cupboard (XX/30).20 The same grained scheme has
also been found on the tongue and groove panelling at the rear of the Entrance Hall
cupboard.
The sixth scheme was a stone-coloured paint based on lead white. This was the first
scheme applied on the architrave of the door to the Entrance Hall (see SEM print out
and photomicrograph of XX/29 in Appendix Two) and also to the wooden framework
to the partition wall to the Cloakroom. This confirms what has been found on the
17
See Appendix Four for details. The Sixth Duke of Devonshire had the Dining
Room of his house in Brighton painted with this arsenical green on five or so
occasions in the 1840s and 1850s (Baty 2000:1, 3).
18
See Appendix Four for more details on this pigment.
19
This comment is based on the evidence provided by a large number of analyses.
20
From this stage the schemes applied to both surfaces were identical.
9
samples taken from the wall between the Entrance Hall and the Cloakroom– that the
partition was put up, and the Cloakroom formed, as part of the major refurbishment
that may have taken place after the War and before 1952. It is, of course, possible
that the Cloakroom replaced a similar space and analysis might reveal something in
that area.
The seventh and eighth schemes were both based on zinc oxide.
The last three schemes, as in the Entrance Hall, were based on titanium dioxide.
As mentioned above, the final seven schemes were also found on the framework of
the cupboard in the Kitchen Passage (see photomicrograph of XX/30 in Appendix
Two). However, the first four on this surface were very different, being off-whites /
pale stone colours (as perhaps one might expect on a utilitarian surface in such an
area).
The door to the Entrance Hall (DGF14) was found to display just one scheme of a
paint based on titanium dioxide. At this stage it is not known which of the three such
schemes in the Entrance Hall it relates to (see photomicrograph of XX/28 in
Appendix Two).
The architrave to the side door lobby displays just two schemes of modern paint. This
seems to reflect what has been found in the Drawing Room – that the area was
decorated after bomb damage in 19xx and once since then.
The wall displays eleven schemes, as does the cupboard in this area. The first seven
were in pale stone colours, which ties in with some of those found on the framework
of the cupboard. The eighth and ninth were in mid-blue, and the last two were in offwhite based on titanium dioxide.
The radiator displays five schemes and appears to be of the same date as the others.
Drawing Room (GF1)
The Drawing Room is a puzzle. Nothing has been found of the early decoration, most
surfaces displaying what appear to be just two schemes. It must have been very badly
damaged by the bomb explosion of 19xx.
The first scheme on the window shutter was based on titanium dioxide and seems to
have been applied over a modern pink primer based on red lead and zinc oxide (see
photomicrograph and SEM print out of XX/39 in Appendix Two). The rough surface
of the wood suggests that it has been stripped.
The skirting board in the Drawing Room is the same as that on the North wall of the
Dining Room (but different to that on the East wall of that room - which appears to be
earlier). It has been stripped and traces of lead white can be seen in the wood fibres
(see photomicrograph of XX/41 in Appendix Two). It is worth remarking that the
10
early traces of primer were white, as perhaps one might expect on the inner surfaces
of a bay window, rather than the earlier red.21
The inner face of the door to the Entrance Hall (DGF01) was sampled. This was
found to display four decorative schemes (see SEM print out and photomicrographs of
XX/42 in Appendix Two). The first comprised a layer of wood stain followed by a
coat of clear varnish. The second was based on lead white and lithopone, and the last
two were modern white ones.
The panel moulding, however, displayed two, possibly three, schemes of titanium
dioxide-based paint. Could it have been applied later?
The chimneypiece displays just two schemes of modern white paint and is thought to
date from 19xx.
The modern coved cornice and ceiling display only two schemes of modern paint.
The radiator had a dark brown scheme on top of the black factory finish, and this was
followed by two modern whites (see photomicrograph of XX/46 in Appendix Two).
Stairs
Very little evidence of the decoration applied before the major refurbishment survives
in this area. Five schemes of a similar nature to those in the Entrance Hall can be
seen – the blue-green; the yellower green, and the three based on titanium dioxide.
Fragments of earlier layers can be found on the cornice of the Rear Hall, on the
window reveal at the top of the first flight and on the upper walls. The door and door
lining to the North East bedroom (SF2) on the second floor appear to be complete.
The radiator on the first floor landing displays two earlier schemes than any of the
other radiators that were sampled although it is presumed to have been installed at the
same time.
Doors and Door Architraves
The door (DSF01) and door lining of the North East bedroom (SF2) on the second
floor appears to be original (see photomicrographs of XX/68 in Appendix Two). The
wood was primed with a coat of red oxide ground in oil22 and the finish coat was an
off-white lead paint.
The second scheme was an off-white of a pinkish hue.
The third scheme was a grained one, and is thought to date from the second quarter of
the nineteenth century or later.23
21
See Appendix Eight for more details on priming. Stylistically the window clearly
post-dates those original surfaces displaying red primer.
22
See Appendix Eight for details on priming.
23
See Appendix Six for details on graining.
11
Two successive schemes of a very similar olive green can next be seen. The second
of these broadly resembles one found on the cornice in the South West corner of the
Entrance Hall (XX/26).
A lighter green follows.
The seventh scheme was a grained one that was also found as the first scheme on the
radiator on the first floor (XX/64). It can also be seen on the re-used shutter (XX/31)
and cupboard framework (XX/30) in the Kitchen Passage and the rear wall of the
Entrance Hall cupboard (XX/25).
The blue-green post-war scheme seems not to have been applied, suggesting that the
door and its lining had not been damaged or affected by fire. This is curious, because
if an incendiary bomb had been responsible for much damage one might have
expected the door’s proximity to the attic to have necessitated its replacement.
The final four schemes are the same as found throughout the Entrance Hall and Stairs
– the yellower green followed by three based on titanium dioxide.
On the first floor, the sample taken from the door (DFF08) architrave to the front
bedroom (FF10) reveals that it, too, is original (see photomicrographs of XX/63 in
Appendix Two).
The wood was primed with red oxide in oil, but the overlying layers have been
stripped and the first complete scheme is the blue-green lead-based one believed to
have been applied after the war. The final four schemes are identical to the ones
found elsewhere.
The door (DFF02) to the Master Bedroom (FF2) was also found to be original (see
photomicrograph of XX/60 in Appendix Two). Once again, a red primer can be seen
followed by the remains of a dark brown black. Evidence of paint stripping can be
seen and this is followed by the blue-green post-war lead paint with a coat of varnish
on top.
Comparison of the above samples with photomicrographs of those from the ornate
door architrave (DGF05) to the Dining Room (XX/53) and the less ornate one around
the door (DFF02) to the Master Bedroom (XX/61) show that these two are clearly not
original. Both display just five schemes starting with the post-war blue-green.
The same ornate door architrave can be found on the ground floor on the Hall side of
the Drawing Room (GF1); the TV Room (GF2) and the back door. This suggests that
they were all installed at the same time, as part of the major work.
It was noticed that the door architrave to the first floor passage (FF5) is the same type
as on the door to the Master Bedroom (FF2) and therefore is probably of the same
date.
Other Joinery
The skirting at the base of the stairs is original (see photomicrographs of XX/49 in
Appendix Two). The wood was primed with red oxide in oil and painted with a dark
12
brown black. A sample taken from the margin of the stairs displayed exactly the same
sequence.
The window reveal on the first floor landing was found to have been primed with lead
white rather than red oxide (see photomicrographs of XX/56 in Appendix Two). The
overlying paints have been stripped as indicated by the disturbed lower levels and the
first complete scheme is the blue-green post-war one. The usual final sequence of
four schemes can also be seen. The suggestion is that this element is not original.
Could it date from the phase of work that seems to have taken place after ca.1830?
Walls
Samples taken from the upper walls on the first flight and the on first and second floor
landings were identical. That from the first flight, however, displayed one early
scheme (see photomicrograph of XX/54 in Appendix Two).
The wall was first given a coat of soft distemper. This has been almost completely
washed off before a layer of “sharp colour” was applied at a later stage. Probably at
the same time a thick layer of filler was used, and this was followed by two coats of
lead white in oil.
This may all have been a preparatory sequence prior to the wallpaper(?) which seems
to have been hung as part of the post-war refurbishment.
It seems that the yellower green lithopone paint that has been found elsewhere was
next employed.
What appears to be a layer of lining paper followed by wallpaper was then hung. This
would seem to equate to the first of the titanium dioxide paints thought to date from
the 1960s.
One or two schemes of titanium dioxide paint complete the sequence.
Radiator
The radiator on the first floor landing was sampled, and found to display six
decorative schemes (see photomicrograph of XX/64 in Appendix Two).
The first layer was a dense black which is thought to have been a factory finish. A
scheme of graining was next applied. This seems to relate to the grained scheme
found at this level in a few of the stratigraphies elsewhere in the house (in the Kitchen
Passage and the rear of Hall cupboard).
The blue-green scheme found throughout the house was next used. A thin coat of
varnish was applied to this. The remaining four schemes have also been seen in other
areas.
Dining Room (GF4)
Although not within the scope of this report, the chimneybreast and inner face of a
window shutter were sampled.
13
Two schemes of modern paint were found on the chimneybreast and four lead-based
off-whites were found on the shutter. The shutter may date from the ca.1830s phase
of work and, presumably, is of the same date as the Drawing Room window.
EXTERIOR
Front Railings
Once again, these fall outside of the scope of the project. However, knowing that
useful dating information is often displayed by railings, one sample was taken (see
photomicrograph of XX/76 in Appendix Two).
Approximately twenty-three schemes have been identified. Although unconfirmed,
the first scheme appears to have been a Brunswick Green, which would give it a date
of application of not before 1830. Certainly the second scheme contained Chrome
yellow and could not have seen use before that date.
By the simple expedient of dividing the period ca.1830-ca.1995 by the number of
schemes found one is given an approximate average repainting cycle of just over
seven years. Whilst not particularly frequent this figure is feasible and has been
encountered before.24
If, from the single sample taken, the complete surviving sequence has been identified
it would suggest that greens of various hues have been used until the first quarter of
the twentieth century. Black has been used since. The stratigraphy is a very typical
one seen on nineteenth century railings.
The New Stables
The New Stables were erected in 1868-1869. From the evidence of the paint layers
one can see that Brunswick green was in use on the Estate from, at least, the ca.1860s
to the mid 1960s when a bright green was employed.
Comprehensive repairs were carried out to the interior and exterior during 1996-1997,
when it was last repainted. It is possible however that the shop and toolstore doors
were repainted again in 1999 when further conversion was carried out to this building.
It is thought that little maintenance would have been carried out during the war and in
the years immediately following. It also seems unlikely that xx would have been in a
strong financial position to spend very much on the Estate during the 1930s. The
paint layers suggest that redecoration was carried out at irregular intervals until the
1930s and that it started again ca.1953-1954.
24
The front railings of 1 Lewes Crescent, Kemptown, Brighton, were painted 26
times between 1828/9 and ca.1998 - approximately once every 6.75 years (Baty
2000:1, 1). Those in front of Nos. 26-31 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh (constructed
between 1805 and 1820) were painted on average once every 8 to 11 years (Baty
2000:2, 9).
14
Coal Shed Door
Most of the samples that were taken show signs of paint loss or of stripping.
However the door to the coal shed of the lower flat at the East of the building has
retained what appears to be a full sequence of coatings (see photomicrograph of xxx/6
in Appendix Two).
The first two schemes were in dark Brunswick green. Black was used on the third
occasion. A very distinctive mid Brunswick green with particles of red iron oxide
was next employed. In the photomicrograph it can be seen that this has soaked down
through a crack in the black layer and traces can be seen below the black.
Three darker Brunswick greens were next applied and these were followed by a very
distinctive scheme, which has been found on other surfaces. This consisted of a
lithopone-based grey undercoat25 on top of which was a dark Brunswick green. A
further Brunswick green followed this.
The last of the greens was a bright green, which has also been seen on the xx
Building. This is thought to date from the mid 1960s. The remaining schemes were
all based on titanium dioxide and were in buffs and fawns.
Door in Internal Corner
The door set in the internal corner of the North side of the building has been stripped.
Traces of a lead-based grey undercoat can be seen, however the first full scheme is the
bright green mentioned above, and thought to date from the 1960s. The remaining
ones were as the coal shed door that has been described above.
Stair Balustrade
The iron balustrade to the upper flat at the East end of the building was originally
painted with an off-white lead-based paint. A stone-coloured one can next be seen. It
is possible that rust was responsible for the loss of the next five (?) schemes because
the third visible scheme is the dark Brunswick green on the grey lithopone-based
undercoat.26
Following the bright green described elsewhere black has been employed on the stair
balustrade.
Tool Store Window
The window of the Tool Store, in the SE corner of the building, was also sampled.
The window was originally grained – probably in imitation of dark oak. Graining was
repeated once more before a number of schemes of off-white in lead white-based
paint were applied.
Probably at the same time that the bright green was used on the doors and balustrade
an off-white based on a mix of lithopone and lead was employed. The last seven or
eight schemes have been in off-white paint based on titanium dioxide.
25
This seems to be the same as that used as part of the first (1959) scheme on the xx
Building.
26
This seems to date from 1959.
15
The soil pipe adjacent to the front door of the lower flat in the North of the building
displayed very few decorative schemes. A coat of black can be seen on top of a thick
layer of rust. This seems to have been a scheme in its own right rather than a rustproofing coat. Two or three schemes of white paint followed by the same number of
pinkish-brown complete the sequence.
Walled Garden & Gardener’s House
The Walled Garden was laid out between 1775 and 1786, but there are records
indicating that the outer walls were rebuilt (in a new location) in 1816. The tool sheds
and fruit stores (potting sheds) were built in 1815, most of the joinery looks as though
it has been renewed since then. Some potting shed doors were renewed in 1996 and
all exterior woodwork and metalwork in the Walled Garden was repainted in 1996.
The timber gates were repainted in 2002.
The 1786 ornamental gates are likely to have been moved to this position from
somewhere else. There is evidence that there have been timber gates hung in this
opening at some time. The Gardener’s House is likely to date from 1815-1816 and
the old gateway to the East appears to have been formed with the construction of the
wall.
Ornamental Gates
The ornamental iron gates set in the East wall of the Walled Garden were found to
display very few decorative schemes (see photomicrograph of xxx/67 in Appendix
Two). It is possible that further sampling would reveal more evidence of earlier
coatings, but care was taken with the selection of this sample.
Over a thick coating of rust can be seen three schemes of red iron oxide in oil. Each
of these was varnished. There is nothing to suggest a date but similar coatings have
been seen on late nineteenth and early twentieth century gates and railings.27
On top of the three red-brown schemes can be seen six of black. The penultimate
scheme seems very similar to the one below the existing Antelope colour on the xx.
Potting Shed: Interior
a) The passage side of the six panel door to the Seed Store was found to display five
decorative schemes. The first was grained in imitation of wood – probably dark oak.
The ground coat was based on lead white and appears to be equivalent to the ninth
scheme on the neighbouring passage lining. It is possible that this dates from the
early twentieth century.
The subsequent scheme was a dull green compounded of yellow iron oxide and black.
No white pigment could be found to help with the dating of this.
Two schemes of buff-coloured paint based on titanium dioxide can next be seen,
placing these in the post 1960 era. The existing green is similarly based
27
(Baty 1995:2 passim). It is possible that the earliest paint is of the ca.1880s.
16
b) The beaded lining in the passage to the Vinery has similarities with the Seed Room
door and it probably retains original paint (see photomicrograph of xxx/65 in
Appendix Two).
A sequence of eight schemes of stone colour in lead-based paint can be seen at the
bottom of the stratigraphy. It is very noticeable that the paints are very second grade
and display lots of adulterants – principally chalk and barytes. It is quite possible that
the earliest of these dates from ca.1815.
The ninth scheme is a grained one and identical to the first on the Seed Room door
(see above).
The tenth (dull green) scheme and the following buff-coloured paint were also found
on the neighbouring door. The twelfth and the final (existing) schemes are both based
on titanium dioxide.
c) The inside face of the Western-most double doors of the Potting Shed displayed
four schemes of off-white paint.
Potting Shed: Exterior
a) Slightly different numbers of decorative schemes can be seen on the samples taken
from the external doors. The impression given, however, is that most date from the
second half of the twentieth century.
The double doors of the Potting Shed second from the West end displayed the greatest
number of schemes (see photomicrograph of xxx/66 in Appendix Two).
The wood was primed with an aluminium wood primer, given a green undercoat and
then a top coat of Brunswick green in a paint based on titanium dioxide. Four further
schemes in Brunswick green follow this. An olive green can then be seen and then
the final (existing) Brunswick green.
It seems likely that this particular door dates from ca.1960.
Gardener’s House
The top sash of the West window on the rear of the building was thought to display
more paint than the other surfaces, but only modern paint can be found. The wood
has been primed with an aluminium primer and four schemes of white paint based on
titanium dioxide can be found on top. It seems likely that the window was stripped in
the 1970s.
A sample taken from the West window on the front of the building shows that this
window was stripped at the same time.
A sample taken from the central fanlight on the South front was unclear and an
indeterminate number of schemes in limewash could be seen.
17
Door
The old door set in the wall to the East of the Gardener’s House appears not to have
been painted for many years (see photomicrograph of xxx/70 in Appendix Two).
Underneath a faded red can be seen what appears to be a blue paint.
A sample taken from this door shows the red to have been composed of red iron
oxide. The “blue” however was shown to be a weathered Brunswick green. When
such a colour is exposed to UV light for a long time the Prussian blue component of
the mix migrates towards the surface of the film making the colour bluer. This is
shown very clearly in the photomicrograph, where a thin layer of dark blue can be
seen directly under the weathered red scheme.
This phenomenon is well known as indicated by the following quote:
Faded Colours
It is well to remember that only genuine effects are permanent. A short time
ago the artistic world discovered that on garden gates, farm fences, etc., there
was a most lovely blue-green colour to be seen sometimes. This was
Brunswick green in a state of dilapidation, and was showing that it needed repainting. However, the colour was so lovely that many attempts were made to
copy it in new paint. They all failed hopelessly. One cannot with paint fake
the work of time. An excellent example of this is seen inside houses where
people have had their panelling painted to imitate dirt in the mouldings. It
always looks wrong.28
Approximately six earlier schemes in Brunswick green can be seen as well as one in a
very dark grey / almost black colour.
This door displays approximately the same number of pre-titanium schemes as the
stop to the Herb Garden gate. This suggests that they are of the same age, but that for
reasons not known the door has not been painted since the xx have owned the Estate.
Perhaps the doorway has been blocked since shortly before the war and it was felt that
there was no need to paint a non-functioning door.29
Recommendations / Conclusions
The limited number of paint samples, together with the almost meticulous paint
stripping has led to far less information being obtained than is usual from buildings of
this age.
It is very unlikely that complete early schemes would be revealed by further analysis.
More sampling might help with the dating of layers, and could shed light on the extent
of replaced elements. This in turn might help reveal the course of the fire – if indeed
that is what led to the major refurbishment.
28
29
(Ionides 1934, 18).
This door will pose very interesting conservation issues.
18
It has been suggested from the scorch marks found in the attic that the house might
have been hit by incendiary bombs during the Second World War. It is odd that, if
the fire started at the top of the house and worked down, the door architrave to the
North East bedroom on the second floor has retained so much of its early paint and
that original fabric survives on the first floor.
It would be interesting to learn more about xxx in the first half of the twentieth
century. It is possible that some of the questions concerning post 1920s decoration in
the house can be answered by xxx xxx who, although in her eighties, may respond to
a letter. Perhaps if xxx xxx or her daughter are still alive, they may be able to answer
general questions about their occupancy from 1958.
It is known that there were restrictions on building materials in the years after the
War. One wonders how long it was before ornate architraves and wallpaper became
available again. Is it possible that the house was uninhabited for some time after the
war before being put up for sale in 1958?
Do the scorch marks in the attic and the wood smoke in the Entrance Hall indicate
two separate outbreaks of fire or the extent of a single outbreak?
The use of a red primer on certain elements suggests either that the original decoration
was somewhat old-fashioned for the 1760s, or that parts of the house are older than is
presently thought. This might bear further documentary investigations.
The re-used shutter in the Kitchen Passage has given a hint to the colours used in the
room that originally housed it. It is possible that other re-used shutters might be
sampled to see if they were all from the same room. If the window shutters are freed
and the inner faces sampled one should be able to learn a lot more about the earlier
joinery colours in various parts of the house. The information gained would still be
partial however and it is not felt that further analysis would help with redecorating the
house.
From early in the nineteenth century until the 1960s Brunswick green was applied to
external doors, fasciae, and sometimes windows.
A pinkish-brown / warm stone colour that was similar to the present BS 08B21
(Antelope) seems to have been introduced in the 1870s. This has only been found on
certain elements of a secondary nature.
Patrick Baty BA (Hons) FSA Scot FRSA
26th November 20xx
Papers and Paints Ltd.
4 Park Walk
London SW10 0AD
www.colourman.com
19
APPENDIX ONE
LOCATION OF SAMPLES
46
12
41
13,
14
&
15
30
&
32
37
45
43
42
38
North
35
36
40
44
44
33
27 & 28
2,
6
&
7
39
34
26
25
11
16, 17,
18, 20,
21 & 22
10
9
4 & 29
3
24
5
1
20
19
8&
23
31
/4
/3
/5
NW Corner - Door
21
/2
/6
/5
/7
NW Corner - Pilaster
22
/22
/21
/15
/14
/16
/20
/13
Column (diagrammatic)
23
APPENDIX TWO
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND SEM PRINT OUTS
Lead and Zinc
]
]
]
] 7 x lead
schemes
]
]
Plaster
]
]
]
] Ochre and black
]
]
]
]
Black
particle
Distemper
Plaster
Photomicrographs of xxx/102 (x200 & x500)
Staircase. Top Floor. NW wall between dining room + N lobby
24
3x
[
modern [
schemes [
Zinc white +
lead
] 7x lead
] schemes
]
]
]
]
]
]
Paint has
flaked off
plaster – no
distemper
Photomicrographs of xxx/117 (x200 & x500)
Staircase. First Floor. Wall RH of door to Picture Room
25
Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), using the scanning electron microscope,
was carried out on the greyish layer applied over the last pink scheme on the NW wall
of the second floor of the Staircase. The reading was taken from sample xxx/102. It
shows a peak from Lead (Pb) and smaller ones from Calcium (Ca), Barium (Ba) and
Zinc (Zn).
The indications are that the paint was based on lead and zinc with a quantity of chalk
and barytes added as an extender.
26
{ Lots of late
{ 20th century
{ schemes
{
{
{
{
{
{ 3 x pink
{ schemes
{
3 x earliest }
schemes }
}
}
}
Mix of
black,
yellow / red
and brown
iron oxide
Photomicrographs of xxx/114 (x200 & x500)
Staircase. First landing. Skirting moulding above 2nd tread.
27
{ 3 x pink
{ schemes
White
3 x dark }
greyish }
schemes }
Photomicrograph of xxx/113 (x200)
Staircase. First landing. First pilaster on E side
{ late 20th
{ century
{ schemes
7 x lead
schemes
Photomicrograph of xxx/104 (x200)
Staircase. Top floor. Column shaft nearest dining room
{3 x late 20th
{century
{schemes
{ zinc on lead
{ scheme
{ 2 x varnished
{pink
{schemes
7 x lead }
schemes }
{ 4 x whites
Photomicrograph of xxx/115 (x200)
Staircase. Edge of pencheck stair below baluster
28
Gold 2
Gold 1
Copper
flakes
Gold 1
Copper
flakes
Lithopone
based
scheme
Photomicrographs of xxx/105 (x200 & x500)
Staircase. Top floor. Gilded torus moulding of same column shaft
29
Brown –
lithopone
based
Grained
7 x lead
schemes
Photomicrograph of xxx/96 (x200)
Servants’ stair. Baluster, ground floor
30
4 – 5 x late
20th century
schemes
{ 3 x red
{ oxide
{ schemes
Dark Brunswick
green
{ 4 x black
{ schemes
{
{
{
{
{ 4 x black
{ schemes
{
{
{
{
Photomicrographs of xxx/91 (x200 & x500)
Servants’ Corridor. Baluster of wine cellar stair
31
5 x whites
in TiO2
Dark green
2 x greyish
greens
Buff
lithopone
based
scheme
Varnished
browns
6 x offwhite
Original
off-white
Photomicrographs of xxx/94 (x200 & x500)
Servants’ Corridor. Door to kitchen lobby. External face LH stop
32
{
{
{ 6 x schemes
{ in TiO2
{
{
{
3x
lithopone
based
schemes
{
{ 5 x pinkish
{ brown
{ schemes in
{ lead
{
Red iron
oxide
particles
Photomicrographs of xxx/25 (x200 & x500)
West wing. Cellar entrance door. S elevation
33
2x
schemes in
TiO2
Dirt layer
{ 2 x zinc
{ based schemes
{
{
{ 22 x lead
{ based
{ schemes
{
{
{
{
{
Original
scheme
Photomicrographs of xxx/28 (x100 & x500)
West wing. Cellar window on Tower. LH lining
34
Schemes based
on TiO2
Titanated lead
scheme
{
{
{
{ Schemes
{ based on
{ lead
{
{
{
{
{
Zinc based scheme
Wood
Original
scheme
Wood
Photomicrographs of xxx/5 (x100, x200 & x500)
Clock Tower Court. S side x room window upper sash
35
Late 20th
century
schemes
Titanated
lead
Zinc based
scheme
18 x leadbased
schemes
Photomicrograph of xxx/10 (x200)
Clock Tower. W elevation 1st floor above arch. Window – outer sash N side
36
Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), using the scanning electron microscope,
was carried out on the twentieth scheme applied to the window above the arch of the
Clock Tower. The reading was taken from sample xxx/10. It shows a peak from
Lead (Pb) and smaller ones from Titanium (Ti).
The indications are that the paint was based on lead with a small amount of titanium
dioxide added.
37
5–6x
schemes
based on
TiO2
Lithopone
based
schemes
Wood
Bright
green also
found on
Stables
Lithopone
based
schemes
Wood
Photomicrograph of CUL/124 (x200)
x Building. S elevation. Coal hatch to LH of door. Lining of hatch
38
Bright
green also
found on x
Building
Lithopone
based paint
Lithopone
based paint
{
{
{4x
{
Brunswick
{ greens
{
{
{
{
{
{
Black
Brunswick
green
Photomicrographs of xxx/80 (x200 & x500)
New Stables. Lower N flat. Coalshed door under stair
39
5 x modern
paints
Wood
Particles of
aluminium
Remains of
2nd scheme
Original
pale
pinkish
brown
White
undercoat
Photomicrographs of xxx/65 (x200 & x500)
x House. Corner Post. NW corner. Above bench
40
Existing
black
First black
3 x red iron
oxide
Varnish
Red iron
oxide
Rust
Photomicrograph of xxx/77 (x200)
Walled Garden. East wall. Iron gate
41
APPENDIX THREE
CROSS SECTIONS MADE
Cross sections in bold have been photographed and appear in Appendix Two.
ENTRANCE HALL
XX/1
Lower Wall SW corner – panel moulding
XX/2
Fragments from upper wall
XX/10
Skirting Fascia SW Corner
XX/11
Skirting Moulding SW Corner
XX/12
Lower Wall SW Corner
XX/13
Lower Wall R/H Chimneypiece (S)
XX/14
Lower Wall R/H Chimneypiece (S) – Panel Moulding
XX/15
Chair Rail SW Corner
XX/16
Upper Wall SW Corner
XX/17
Upper Wall R/H Chimneypiece (S)
XX/18
Upper Wall R/H Chimneypiece (S) – Panel Moulding
XX/19
Front Door (Inside Face) – Centre Rail 5ft up
XX/20
Front Door Architrave – Bottom R/H
XX/21
Door to Lavatory – Hanging Stile
XX/22
Door to Lavatory – Architrave: Bottom R/H
XX/23
Cupboard Door (Outer) R/H Door
XX/24
Cupboard Door (Inner) R/H Door
XX/25
Cupboard – Rear Wall (tongue and groove panelling) E Wall
XX/26
Cornice SW corner old plaster
XX/27
Ceiling Bed
XX/71
Radiator
KITCHEN PASSAGE
XX/28
XX/29
XX/30
XX/31
XX/32
XX/33
XX/34
XX/35
XX/36
XX/37
XX/38
XX/72
Door to Hall (Inner Face) Muntin
Door to Hall - Architrave
Framework of Cupboard
Reused Shutter / cupboard Door Muntin
Rear Wall of Cupboard (Tongue and Groove) R/H Side
Wooden Framework to Partition Wall to Lavatory (W) Bottom L/H
Curved (W) Plaster Wall
Architrave to Side Door Lobby
E Wall Top L/H of radiator (R/H of Cupboard)
Blue Flakes below window to kitchen
S Wall at base of Back Stairs
Radiator
DRAWING ROOM
XX/39
Window Shutters (nailed shut) Bottom L/H (SW)
42
APPENDIX THREE (continued)
XX/40
XX/41
XX/42
XX/43
XX/44
XX/45
XX/46
XX/47
XX/48
Skirting Fascia (SW)
Skirting Moulding (SW)
Door (Hanging Stile Bottom R/H)
Door Panel moulding
Chimneypiece Bottom L/H Plinth
Wall Opposite Chimneybreast
Radiator
Cornice Opposite Chimneybreast
Ceiling (above /47)
STAIR COMPARTMENT
XX/49
XX/50
XX/51
XX/52
XX/53
XX/54
XX/55
XX/56
XX/57
XX/58
XX/59
XX/60
XX/61
XX/62
XX/63
XX/64
XX/65
XX/66
XX/67
XX/68
XX/69
XX/70
Skirting at base
Baluster
Lower Wall – Level with 2nd Stair
Chair Rail
Door Architrave to Dining Room (ornate type)
Upper Wall – Level with 3rd Stair
Cornice to Hall – above 1st Step
1st Landing Window Reveal – Bottom L/H
Stair Margin – Riser to 5th Step
Ceiling Bed – Rear Hall
1st Landing – Lower Sash
1st Floor – Door to Master Bedroom: Bottom of Muntin
1st Floor – Door architrave to Master Bedroom – R/H Side
1st Floor – Door to front Bedroom
1st Floor – Door Architrave to Front Bedroom
1st Floor – Radiator
1st Floor – Landing Upper Wall (W) NW Corner
1st Floor – Upper Wall above Top Step (N)
2nd Floor – Landing Upper Wall (N)
2nd floor – Landing Door to NE Bedroom – Bottom of Muntin
2nd floor – Landing Door to NE Bedroom – Lining (Lower LH)
2nd Floor – Cornice (modern)
DINING ROOM
XX/73
XX/74
Shutter – Lower L/H Inside Face: Bottom L/H
Wall – Chimneybreast Return: R/H above Bell
FRONT RAILINGS
XX/3
Railing Upright
43
APPENDIX THREE (continued)
NEW STABLES
XXX/4
XXX/5
XXX/6
XXX/7
XXX/8
XXX/9
New Stables. NE side. Diagonal entrance door. Stop LHS
New Stables. Shop door. Stop to LHS fanlight
New Stables. Lower N flat. Coalshed door under stair
New Stables. Lower N flat. Soil pipe adjacent to front door
New Stables. Upper N flat. Stair baluster
New Stables. E elevation. Lower window of toolstore. LH rail upper
sash
WALLED GARDEN
XXX/75
XXX/76
XXX/77
XXX/78
XXX/79
XXX/80
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Eastern double doors. Top facing
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Interior 6 panel door into Seed Store.
Hinge stile.
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Interior beaded lining in passage to
Vinery. 122cm up beside office door
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Double doors 2nd from W end. RH leaf
91cm up
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Westernmost double doors. N face
Walled Garden. Potting Shed. Western most double doors. N face.
Flake from decayed lining LH leaf
GARDENER’S HOUSE
XXX/81
XXX/82
XXX/83
XXX/84
Gardener’s House. S face. Central fanlight. Middle of bottom rail
Gardener’s House. S face. Top sash of W window
Gardener’s House. N face. Door through wall to LHS of house
Gardener’s House. N face. Window to RH of entrance. Top sash LHS
44
APPENDIX FOUR
SOME PIGMENTS FOUND AT XXX
White Lead
"White may be said to be the basic colour in all painting practice, for few pigments
are used without the incorporation of some white to give body (opacity) or to reduce
colour strength. Until some fifty years ago [about 1900] white lead was the only
white pigment produced in any great quantity, but since then other whites have been
introduced which have practically superseded white lead for some purposes, notably
interior painting. In spite of certain drawbacks, however, white lead remains
unsurpassed for exterior painting. The other principal basic whites used in this
country are zinc oxide, lithopone, antimony and titanium".30
Zinc Oxide
Zinc oxide is a bright white pigment that is non-poisonous, and is not discoloured by
sulphurous fumes. These properties led to its consideration as a replacement for white
lead towards the end of the nineteenth century. One of the earliest references to it
appears in a book of specifications published in 1859.31 In this instance it was
recommended in rooms with gaslights where the "clearness and brilliancy" of the
white was to be preserved. Its chief disadvantage is the hardening effect it has on oil,
which causes it to produce a hard non-elastic and brittle paint film. This may lead to
premature breakdown of the paint on external surfaces by cracking or chalking unless
corrected. In mixture with white lead it produces a very good paint. The zinc hardens
the lead and helps it to maintain colour in a smoky atmosphere, while the lead
moderates any hardening action of the zinc and so prevents brittleness. Paints
containing such a blend of lead white and zinc oxide were used in the first quarter of
the twentieth century.
The use of zinc oxide appears to have reached its peak in the second decade of the
twentieth century. It was at this time that Arthur Jennings, the prolific writer on paint,
wrote:
Before 1914 nearly the whole quantity of zinc oxide used in this country was
imported from France, Belgium, Holland, and the United States of America,
but since that time several factories have been started in England, and the
present produce has already reached an output almost sufficient to fill all home
requirements.32
Its appearance in paint stratigraphy usually indicates the period ca.1890-1960.
30
(Hurst 1949, 61).
(Donaldson 1859, xxi).
32
(Jennings 1921, 1:184-185).
31
45
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
Titanium Dioxide
Titanium dioxide seems to have been first developed as a pigment simultaneously in
Norway and the United States. This took place in 1916, and full-scale production was
under way by 1919.33 Initially the pigment was composed of 25% anatase titanium
dioxide and 75% barium sulphate, and this was known as titanium white. It was not
introduced into Britain until 1921, and it met with a slow take up.34
A composite pigment using precipitated calcium carbonate was tried experimentally,
but was abandoned because it was too expensive to produce. The first "pure" anatase
grades of titanium dioxide were produced in 1923 in France, and began in England in
1934.
Although the anatase variety compared favourably with other available white
pigments, it had the tendency to "chalk" when exposed to the weather. Development
and production of the more stable rutile variety were delayed by the Second World
War, and the first manufacturing plant only appeared in England in 1948.
The outstanding qualities of this were soon recognised, and by the late 1940s it had
largely superseded the original type of pigment for many purposes, although the
composite pigment was still manufactured and used for a while. Because of its
brilliant whiteness and intense opacity it has been the prime white pigment in house
paints for the last thirty years.
The following figures show how the production of the pigment increased sharply after
the last war:
Estimated UK Production of TiO2 in Thousands of Tons35
1935
1937
1945
1948
1950
4
6
9
16
30
Barytes / Barium Sulphate
The pulverized natural form of barium sulphate is traditionally called barytes in
English-speaking countries; the synthetic product, blanc fixe. The natural product
was first suggested as an artists' pigment in about 1782, but the major introduction of
both natural and synthetic materials into commerce probably took place in the period
1810 to 1820.
33
(Blakey and Hall 1988, 4).
Its earliest known use in a paint in this country was in 1924 (Baty 1999, 1).
35
(Chatfield 1955, 248).
34
46
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
The earliest use that has so far been encountered by this author is 1811, when it was
used in the first scheme on the external railings at the front of the Bristol Commercial
Rooms.36
By the 1820s the widespread practice of adulterating lead white with barytes was
common, although this was generally legitimately done, and not a dishonest practice.
Lead white thus adulterated was called Venice white at 1/1 barytes/lead white,
Hamburg white at 2/1, and Dutch white at 3/1.37
A few years later, Tingry describes it as being good for undercoats or primers, but
points out that it is not superior to any of the "simple earths", as it does not combine
with oil in the same way that lead does.38
Shortly after, David Hay expressed concern at the way that lead white was adulterated
with barytes, and gave tips on how to identify its presence. He acknowledges how
difficult this is when the paint is ready-prepared,39 and suggests paying a high price in
order to avoid buying it accidentally.40
One hundred years later, the use of barytes in cheaper grades of lead white was still
recognised, but again with the caveat that such paint be marked as "reduced white
lead", and not to be confused with "genuine white lead".41
Lithopone
The Frenchman G.F. de Douhet must be considered the pioneer of the lithopone
industry. In two French patents, granted to him in 1847, de Douhet described the
concept of preparing a new white pigment from zinc sulphide and barium sulphate.42
Lithopone was first produced in England in 1874, and was found having been used
soon afterwards on St Pancras. Early use has also been found at Chastleton, and at
Chatham Dockyard.43 It saw much use in interior paints, particularly in oil-bound
water paints. It had great advantages compared with the two principal white pigments
in use at the end of the nineteenth century.
Unlike white lead, which tends to discolour in the presence of sulphurous gases, it is
inert. Compared with zinc white, its chief advantage is its greater opacity and
elasticity. On the other hand lithopone has the drawback of blackening when exposed
36
(Baty 1995:2).
(Leuchs 1825) in (Feller 1986, 47-64).
38
(Tingry 1830, 59-60).
39
Confirmation that ready-mixed paint has been available for many years.
40
(Hay 1847, 105).
41
(Heaton 1948, 65).
42
H. Clausen, "Zinc-Based Pigments" in Pigment Handbook, vol. 1. New York. John
Wiley & Sons. 1988, 48
43
I am grateful to Catherine Hassall for this information.
37
47
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
to the sun before it has become thoroughly dry. Patents were taken out in 1923 and
1925 for methods of increasing its light fastness. It was, however, generally regarded
as unsuitable for the preparation of external paints, which disintegrate rapidly owing
to the combined effect of sulphonation of the oil and conversion of the lithopone to
soluble salts.
Lithopone frequently found use in the flat wall finishes manufactured at this time…
A few years since an entirely new class of flat paints for walls was produced.
They have been so exceedingly successful that it is not too much to say that
every paint manufacturer to-day either makes such goods or contemplates doing
so in the near future.
...Perhaps the quality of these materials which is the most appealing is that the
body is so good (the base is lithopone) that a single coat almost always suffices,
even on bare wood. A final coat of a good varnish completes a job which will
be found to be durable, economical, and altogether satisfactory.44
Vermilion
The pigment known as Vermilion, is a bright scarlet pigment produced by combining
sulphur and mercury, the result being red mercuric sulphide. Cinnabar is the natural
form, which was less common, but often preferred, because of the tendency of the
early colour-shops to adulterate the artificial variety with red lead.
There were two methods of producing this pigment, the one known as Dry-Process,
and the other as Wet-Process. The Chinese are believed to have invented the dryprocess, although Amsterdam became the principal centre for its manufacture in
Europe in the early seventeenth century. It is still available in mainland China, and
the author has recently obtained a quantity from Guangdong province.
When viewed under the microscope, the particles of dry-process vermilion are
irregular, and clearly made by pulverising lumps. The larger particles tend to be
elongated, reflecting its columnar structure.
By the end of the seventeenth century, Gottfried Schulz, a German, had discovered an
easier, and less expensive method of manufacturing the pigment. This was done by
heating the black mercuric sulphide in a solution of ammonium or potassium
sulphide. It soon became the favourite method of production in the West, being
known as English or German vermilion.
The particles of wet-process vermilion are fine and uniform in
size, which is a characteristic of a chemically precipitated product.45
44
45
(Jennings and Rothery 1921 1:135).
(Gettens et al 1993, 159-165).
48
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
Its price in the late 1840s varied from three shillings to six shillings per pound.46 As a
benchmark, the ubiquitous yellow ochre varied from 1d. to one shilling per pound.47
Red Lead
John Smith described very clearly the manufacture of red lead:
this colour is made out of common lead, by first reducing it to a litharge; and
that litharge being afterward ground to a powder in a mill is afterward
conveyed into a hot furnace, for that purpose, where 'tis continually kept
stirring with an iron rake, till it has attained to the colour of a fine, pale red.48
This pigment had a very mixed reputation, and was often used more for its drying
properties, than its orange-red colour, which was liable to turn black in oil. Whittock
said, however, that it kept its colour in water-based media, and was consequently,
sometimes, used in distemper.49 Vanherman found little use for its colour in housepainting, except as a ground for mahogany graining.50
As well as being used in the manufacture of drying oils, this pigment came to replace
Spanish brown or red oxide as a priming colour. Its quick drying nature was of
considerable use at a time when a coat of oil paint could take several days to dry, and
the decoration of a room, perhaps, a week. The addition of red lead to the undercoats
would ensure that these would be ready to receive the finish coat as soon as possible.
One consequence of this characteristic was that it was somewhat difficult to work
with, hardening into an unmanageable mass51 and adhering:
so strong to the bottom of the paint-pot, that it proves a troublesome task to
liberate it and bring it into a working condition again.52
The pigment was often mixed with size and used to kill knots, prior to painting.
Emerald Green
Emerald, or Schweinfurt green was a later development among the arsenical greens,
being discovered by F.V. Rusz and G. Vilhelm Sattler at Schweinfurt in 1814. It
appears to have first been put on the market in 1816.53
Emerald green was regarded, in the 1830s, as a:
46
(Hay 1847, 110-12).
(ibid. 108).
48
(Smith 1687, 21).
49
(Whittock 1827, 10).
50
(Vanherman 1829, 29).
51
(Tingry 1830, 106),
52
(Vanherman 1829, 29).
53
(Bristow 1996, 28).
47
49
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
…green which has recently obtained great reputation on the continent, and which
is said to surpass Scheele's, both in beauty and splendour.54
The colourman, George Field, writing in 1850, described it as being a new copper
green, the "most vivid of this tribe of colours", rather opaque, and more durable than
the others. He added that it worked well in water, but with difficulty in oil, and dried
badly in that medium.55 It was used in both oil and distemper, and as a colour in the
manufacture of wallpaper.
Chrome Yellow
Chrome yellow was the yellow pigment that the artist and the house-painter had been
waiting for. It was the first bright yellow that was reasonably durable, and yet worked
in both oil- and water-based media.
A Frenchman, Louis Vauquelin, is credited with the discovery, in 1797,56 though it
was not until some years later that sufficient supplies of the mineral, lead chromate,57
were available to enable production in any capacity. Rosamund Harley says that it
was a German, called Bollman, in his factory at Battersea, on the Thames, who first
manufactured the pigment commercially in England, in the second decade of the
nineteenth century.58
Vanherman, writing in 1829, said that it:
surpasses every other yellow, for brilliance, beauty, and intensity of colour,
either as a full, or in its gradations when lowered with white. There are two
sorts manufactured, the orange and the lemon: the first is a rich warm tint; the
latter is cool, and elegantly delicate. They are both standing articles, when
properly prepared...those specimens which are light are to be rejected.59
Tingry indicated the up-to-date nature of his third edition, when he mentioned that
"for some time past, it has been prepared artificially in this country",60 and claimed
that it had superseded the use of patent yellow among coach-painters and housepainters. Its great advantage besides the "extreme richness and beauty of its colour"
was that it possessed so much body:
54
(Gilder's ca.1827, 44).
(Field 1850, 73).
56
(Tingry 1830, 107)
57
PbCrO4.
58
(Harley 1982, 100-102).
59
(Vanherman 1829, 28-29).
60
(Tingry 1830, 107)
55
50
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
that one pound of it will go as far as four pounds of patent yellow. It is so fine
that it requires no laborious grinding, but will spread readily under the brush,
and may be laid on with varnish; it is not poisonous like King's yellow;61 it
will stand better than most other pigments; sulphuretted hydrogen-gas only
impairing its beauty; against which, however, it may be protected by varnish.
It makes also a beautiful green with Prussian blue. Care should be taken to
obtain it pure, as it is apt to be adulterated with white lead or patent yellow,
from both which it cannot be distinguished by the eye.62
Hay described it as "almost the only bright yellow now in use", commending the
painter to purchase it from a manufacturer of high repute, and to pay as much as he
could afford. He said that it came from the manufacturer in the form of "dry
lumps".63
Prussian Blue
The discovery of Prussian blue was announced in the memoirs of the Berlin Academy
in 1710, but no directions were given for its preparation. A Dr Woodward published
a recipe for making the pigment in the English Philosophical Transactions in 1724,
explaining that he had received the formula from a friend in Germany. Late in the
eighteenth century, it was learned that Prussian blue was a compound composed of
"iron oxide with a peculiar acid." The composition of this acid - prussic acid - was
finally made known by the Swedish chemist, Carl Scheele, in two essays published in
1782 and 1783.64
T.H. Vanherman, writing in 1829, stated that it "is the most general and useful blue
we have, either for inside or out-door painting." He went on to say that combined
with some of the reds, and most of the yellows, it "produces purples and greens, of
numberless tints and gradations, but does not harmonise with patent yellow".65
Prussian blue was also used to correct the yellowing tendency of white paint. Tingry's
later editor was very clear on this point:
Besides the addition of the drier and oil of turpentine to white lead paint, it
will be sometimes found very useful to add to it a small quantity of ground
Prussian blue, to impart to it a very slight blue tinge, which in crowded and
smoky towns, London in particular, without such addition, soon becomes of a
dingy yellow.66
61
It may not have been quite as poisonous as king's yellow, but it is classified as a
toxic pigment.
62
(ibid., 107-8).
63
(Hay 1847, 108).
64
(Penn 1966, 38).
65
(Vanherman 1829, 28).
66
(Tingry 1830, 270-71).
51
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
It is surprising that little mention was made of the tendency of Prussian blue to be
destroyed by alkali,67 indeed Whittock referred to it being suitable for distemper,
adding that in this case it was mixed with whiting and kept ready ground by the
colourmen, under the name of "damp blue".68
Even after the introduction of an artificial ultramarine, Prussian blue was described as
one of the most important pigments to the house-painter, being of:
a deep and powerful colour, mixing well with white paint in the production of
all tints of which blue is an element, and is at the same time decidedly
transparent. It is, like most other manufactured pigments of various
qualities.69
Ultramarine / French Ultramarine
Ultramarine has been prized for many years for its beautiful blue colour, and since
ancient times has been produced from the precious stone, lapis lazuli. Although
mentioned by name in the majority of the early works on house-painting, there is no
evidence of it having been in general use. John Smith, writing at the end of the
seventeenth century, referred to it being "so vastly dear, that 'tis not to be used except
in pieces of great price",70 and the author of the Pocket Manual, nearly one hundred
and fifty years later, said its price "prevents its being introduced, unless very rarely
indeed, into house painting".71
Pierre Tingry described it as being brought from Asia, particularly Persia, and the
kingdom of Golconda.72 Other sources were listed as Siberia, Prussia, and Spain,
although the stone produced from these countries was considered inferior. The price
of ultramarine was recorded as being nearly as high, or even higher, than that of gold
in the early nineteenth century.73
A couple of sources describe it being a preparation of "calcined lapis-lazuli",74 which
is perhaps a confusion, in that the stone was heated in order to cause it to shatter when
immersed in cold water, thus making it easier to grind, rather than in order to effect a
change in appearance of the material.
Except for its high price, ultramarine possessed several of the ideal properties of a
pigment; it was suitable for use in both oil and water media, reasonably resistant to
67
Harley refers to the warning in Edward Dayes, The Works of the Late Edward
Dayes, 1805 (Harley 1982, 73). The Painter's, Gilder's, and Varnisher's Manual is
the only work examined to mention this (ibid., 38).
68
(Whittock 1827, 11).
69
(Hay 1847, 114).
70
(Smith 1687, 25).
71
(Pocket 1825, 100).
72
The old name for Hyderabad. SOED 1986, s.v. "Golconda."
73
(Tingry 1804, 303; Pocket 1825, 100).
74
(Nicholson 1823, 414; Whittock 1827, 11),
52
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
acids and alkalis, non-fading, and unaffected by moisture. It was also of a clean,
slightly purple hue, unlike the darker greenish tints produced by the other blues used
for house-painting. It is hardly surprising that a great effort was made to synthesize
the pigment, and by the early years of the nineteenth century it was understood that
sulphur was one of the chief components.75
The third edition of P.F. Tingry's Painter's and Colourman's Complete Guide
recorded the successful production of artificial ultramarine by Guimet and Gmelin in
1828,76 and this pigment rapidly passed into general use. As with the natural product,
there were different grades of the new pigment, and in the 1840s it was available at
various prices, from five shillings to forty shillings a pound; the sort made by Guimet
being decidedly the best.77
Charcoal / Blue Black
Black, particularly Charcoal black was often added to white paint with the aim of
removing the yellowish hue. Its slight blueness was also used to dull down a colour,
especially a blue, without imparting any yellow / brown-ness, which would produce a
greenish tinge.
Willow was the standard source, but other products were burnt and crushed such as…
Black from burnt vine twigs.
Vine twigs reduced to charcoal gives a bluish black, which goes a great way.
When mixed with white it produces a silver white, which is not produced by
other blacks: it has a pretty near resemblance to the black of peach stones; but to
bring this colour to the utmost degree of perfection, it must be carefully ground
on porphyry.78
Yellow Ochre
In common with the umbers, the earth pigments designated ochres (or oxides) saw
constant use in house-painting, not only were they readily obtainable, but they
encompassed a large range of hues, both in their natural and their calcined state.
Tingry explained how readily they were obtained:
Ochres are easily purified by simple washing. They mix readily with water,
and the sand and stones which they contain being heavier than themselves,
subside. The water, turbid with the ochre, is decanted, by making it pass into
a trough lower than the vessel in which it was washed; when the ochre has
75
(Tingry 1804, 309).
(Tingry 1830, 68).
77
(Hay 1847, 115).
78
(Tingry 1804, 350).
76
53
APPENDIX FOUR (continued)
subsided the clear water is drawn off. The ochre is then taken out, and being
dried is divided into small masses.79
John Smith mentioned the two basic types:
Yellow Oaker, Is of two sorts; the one gotten in England, the other brought
from beyond the Seas: the one is light Yellow, much like the colour of Wheat
straw; the other is somewhat of a deeper colour.80
The second edition clarified this, by referring to the first as "Plain-Oaker" most of
which was found in the Shotover Hills near Oxford,81 and the other as "SpruceOaker".82 The former displayed many of the best properties for a house-painting
pigment, being described as a "Colour, that with pains, will grind very fine, it bears an
excellent body, and resists the weather well".83
A darker ochre called "Common Brown or Bristol Oker" by Pincot was recommended
for filling imperfections in the body work of carriages, presumably a greater capacity
for drying rendered it useful for this purpose.84 This facility for drying could relate to
the confusion mentioned earlier under Umber, where Tingry recorded the use of the
name Brown ochre as a synonym for umber. Dossie pointed out that its colour was as
a result of calcination "either by subterranean fires or artificially".85
As well as various sorts of yellow and brown, Tingry told us that:
Many of the yellow ochres when burnt become of a red colour, and are then
occasionally used for more delicate processes.86
In this state the pigment was generally known as light red.
Hay accounted for the wide variety of colours, and told us that its price varied with
the shade:
They are a native earthy mixture of silica and alumina, coloured by oxide of
iron, with occasionally a little calcareous matter and magnesia, and are found
between strata of rock and sand. Ochre varies in...price from 1d. to 1s. per
lb.87
79
(Tingry 1830, 74).
(Smith 1676, 22).
81
A very detailed account of where to obtain this Oxford ochre is given in (Plot 1677,
55).
82
Dr. Harley suggests that spruce was an old form of Prussia or Prussian (Harley
1982, 89).
83
(Smith 1687, 22).
84
(Pincot ca.1811, 31).
85
(Dossie 1796, 1:104).
86
(Tingry 1830, 73).
87
(Hay 1847, 108).
80
54
APPENDIX FIVE
BRUNSWICK GREEN
An approximation to the colour employed on the cornice of the Rear Hall (GF3) can
be found below.
Approximate Munsell Reference: .38G 3.17/1.51
Approximate NCS88 Reference: 7412 G09Y
L* 32.51
a* -6.66
b* 4.60
Observer conditions: CIE 10 (1964) Standard Observer.
Illuminant: CIE A Standard Illuminant.
Colour system: L*a*b*.
88
The NCS, or Natural Colour System, is a system of colour notation developed by
the Scandinavian Colour Institute. The system had been licensed to ICI (Dulux) for
the UK market and the colours can be seen in the Dulux Colour Dimensions Colour
Atlas. The inclusion of this form of notation is purely for convenience and there is no
suggestion that Dulux paints are being recommended for any redecoration carried out.
[Dulux is a trademark of ICI.]
55
APPENDIX SIX
GRAINING
The imitation in paint of materials usually more expensive, or exotic, is thought to
have been carried out since ancient times.
As a means of decoration in interiors, Wyatt Papworth believed that:
The processes of graining and marbling may be traced back as far as the time
of James VI of Scotland, (1567-1603).89
The growing use of softwood for the building and internal cladding of houses in the
late seventeenth century, led to an increased demand for the painted imitation of
woods in this country. In his second edition, Smith referred to the imitation of "Olive
Wood" and "Walnut Tree", and described them being veined over with a darker
pigment.90
Ian Bristow's commentary on the seventeenth century decoration at Dyrham Park, in
Gloucestershire, lists a number of painted woods, referred to in the accounts for the
house; amongst them cedar colour, walnut colour, wainscot colour, and princes-wood
colour.91 At first sight, such names might be understood to imply merely the colour
and tone of these woods, but in this early period, either the colour or the imitation of a
wood could be indicated,92 and it is usually context or recorded price that makes clear
what had been carried out.
A clue to some of the conventions of the day can be obtained from a letter of 1700
that accompanied three samples of graining prepared for a client:
B, ye properest for a Bedchamber, if well performed (withe the pencil), and not tou
mucht withe a brushe as is the common way, it will requier moor skill to paynes &
will coste the moor, it represents a Light wall-nut tree color as I have seen some
cabinets, and is proper for Antirooms & Bedchambers, the other A is a dark wallnut
tree & will require a glossey varnishe and is very proper in Light chambers - C is a
wainscot color muche in voge (since wright
89
(Papworth 1857-58, 9).
(Smith 1687, 52).
91
(Bristow 1979, 141) Prince wood, or prince's wood, is a dark-coloured and lightveined timber produced by two West Indian trees, Cordia gerascanthoides and
Hamelia ventricosa; also called Spanish elm. SOED 1986. S.v. "Prince-wood." Sir
Roger Pratt, writing in the 1660s in his capacity as architect of Kingston Lacy Hall,
Dorset, listed three of these four woods, making no mention, however, of wainscot
(Gunther 1928, 282).
92
Smith, in dealing with umber, said that "it resembles the colour of new oaken
wainscot the nearest of any colour in the world" (Smith 1687, 27). The earliest use of
the word "graining", encountered by the author in a published text, is in a list of
painting prices of 1786 (Pain 1786, 14).
90
56
APPENDIX SIX (continued)
wainscot is subject to (since wright wainscot is subject to groe dark and in
spots,) and generally speaking ye use at present is a flate color that of
torteschall93 [italics mine].94
Not only could wood be represented in light and dark forms, but the finish could also
vary in levels of sheen, some combinations being more appropriate than others.
Olive wood and Walnut appear in the 1788 edition of Smith,95 yet by this time, the
use of both of these woods was probably rather old-fashioned, being replaced by
wainscot (or oak), and mahogany, which began to feature in price books of the
period.96
No mention of graining is found in the first English edition of Tingry, of 1804, which
is no doubt a reflection of both the book's continental origins, and the fact that the
process had not yet become fashionable again. In England, however, during the next
ten years, a rekindled interest in the technique of imitating woods in paint developed.
Papworth recalled a friend saying that:
…the doors of the Chapel in Conduit Street, Bond Street, attracted much
attention from the novelty of their being grained to imitate wainscot, done
perhaps, about the year 1810 when a new front was given to the building.
From some letters in my possession I find that mahogany was imitated in
1815, and maple wood in 1817.97
Price books of the time reflect this growing interest in fancy woods, and Laxton's The
Improved Builders' Price Book of 1818, contains an early and wide range, amongst
them: new wainscot, white oak, old or dark oak, air wood, satin wood, Hispaniola
mahogany, coromandel wood, amboyna wood, yew tree and black rose wood.98
By the 1820s the interest was such that even Butcher had changed the original list of
woods mentioned by Smith, deleting olive wood, and adding mahogany and
wainscot99 to the walnut already listed. Smeaton, reflected this, and added satin wood
and two varieties of rose wood.100
Whittock confirmed the approximate date of this renewed enthusiasm, in his work of
1827:
The very great improvement that has been made within the last ten years [italics
mine] in the art of imitating the grain and colour of various fancy
93
"Flate color" probably refers to the low sheen on tortoiseshell.
(Winde 1700, quoted in Beard 1981, 60).
95
(ibid., 5).
96
(Pain 1786, 14; Taylor 1813, 125).
97
(Papworth 1857-58, 9).
98
(Laxton 1818, 99).
99
(Butcher 1821, 3).
100
(Pocket 1825, 105, 109, 160-62; Gilder's ca.1827, 49, 51-52, 189-90).
94
57
APPENDIX SIX (continued)
woods and marbles, and the facility and consequent cheapness of this formerly
expensive work, has brought it into general use; and there are few respectable
houses erected, where the talent of the decorative painter is not called into
action, in graining doors, shutters, wainscots, &c..101
He went on to tell us that:
Much has certainly been done by modern decorative painters, within the last
fifteen years.102
One of the features of this new trend was the extent to which some house-painters
developed the art of imitating the natural product. Whereas the late seventeenth
century representations of woodgrain are almost theatrical in their handling, in that
they only read as wood from a distance,103 the early nineteenth century grainer was
encouraged to observe nature, for the "foundation of his future proficiency",104 and to
produce realistic specimens.
Whittock, as well as producing actual coloured examples of many of the popular
wood effects in his The Decorative Painters' and Glaziers' Guide, gave an indication
of where such woods might be used. Writing some twenty years later, Hay showed
how this had changed by the end of the period:
[Of Oak, or Wainscot]
1827
Oak is the wood that is commonly preferred to any other for
outside work...preferred to any other wood for doors and shutters where
strength is required. The decorative painter, therefore, who considers
propriety, will generally recommend the imitation of oak for street doors,
shutters, &c..105
1847
Imitation oak has been greatly used in halls, staircases, libraries, and diningrooms, and it will be observed, from the description of the process, that it must
be very durable.106
It appears that the fashion for a wide variety of fancy woods began to wane within a
few years, and Vanherman told us that, having "formed a considerable part of the
101
(Whittock 1827, 20).
(ibid., 46).
103
See the walnut graining, carried out by Sergeant Painter Robert Streater, on the
panelling of Apartment 7 at Hampton Court Palace, and recently exposed by
Catherine Hassall.
104
(Whittock 1827, 20)
105
(Whittock 1827, 20).
106
(Hay 1847, 140).
102
58
APPENDIX SIX (continued)
decorative system", graining and marbling are "now giving place to the plain and
simple".107 The two reasons given for this change being, the:
additional expense to the painter's bill, and the short-lived beauty they exhibit;
for being generally executed in water colours, and then varnished, should this
covering crack and chip, the work will consequently look shabby, ragged, and
mean.108
He added that:
Graining, like diamonds in portrait painting, should be sparingly employed for
its scarcity constitutes in a great measure its value.109
The process of graining was, inevitably, labour intensive. Papworth, relying heavily
on Hay's description,110 said that:
in the first instance [it is] the same as for ordinary painted work, but it requires
more care in obliterating the marks of the brush. The last coat, instead of
being flatted, is composed of equal portions of oil and spirits of turpentine,
and is brought up to the colo[u]r characteristic of the wood to be imitated.111
When this ground-work was quite dry, a thick layer of a semi-transparent paint was
prepared, in the colour of the wood to be imitated. This was laid smoothly over the
ground-work, after which a graining comb,112 made of steel, ivory, horn, or wood,
was:
drawn through this composition, by which it is separated upon the groundwork into minute portions, representing the grain of the wood.113
The heart grain and flowers would then be wiped out using a thumb nail, or a piece of
horn, covered with a cloth. This was left to dry before being overgrained with a
transparent layer of oil or water colour. Two or three coats of an oil varnish based on
a resin such as copal would then be applied.
107
(Vanherman 1829, 40).
(ibid.).
109
(ibid., 41).
110
(Hay 1847, 137).
111
(Papworth 1857-58, 9).
112
These combs were made in a range of sizes, a number being illustrated on plate II,
facing page 22 of Whittock's The Decorative Painters', and Glaziers' Guide. Tingry
tells us that they were obtained at the comb-makers in London (Tingry 1830, 282).
113
(Hay 1847, 138).
108
59
APPENDIX SEVEN
DISTEMPER
An inexpensive matt finish that was widely used on plaster walls and ceilings was
known as distemper, or size colour. This was made with whiting, or ground chalk,
bound with a glue size made from animal bones, horns or skin, and tinted with a
suitable pigment. It had many advantages: cheapness, the wide range of tints
achievable in it, the ease with which it could be made and applied, and the speed of its
application. It was also used when the colour of the intended scheme could only be
obtained using pigments that were liable to change in an oil medium. Being loosely
bound, it could be washed off for renewal, but it was not particularly durable, and was
neither washable nor suitable for areas of heavy traffic, hence the modern name of
soft distemper.
This mode of beautifying rooms is cheap and the appearance very agreeable;
properly managed is within any capacity, and in my opinion is preferable to
paper, as vermin will not harbour as they do behind the chassims of papered
rooms...The proper consistence for use is rather thicker than cream, and
always used in a chilled state...and, in all walls intended to be coloured it is
necessary first to have them a good white with common White-wash,114 with
nothing but size and whiting; the colours you should buy in a damp soft
state...and these again you should thin and work smooth with a little water
previous to mixing with the size, and observe to make a trial on a piece of card
or paper, and dry it before the fire before you colour your wall as you will see
the effect, and prevent being disappointed...Old papered rooms where the
paper is in a firm and good state, may be coloured in this way...The
convenience of colouring rooms in this way is so ready and attended with so
little dirt or inconvenience, that a room may be compleated [sic] and dry in a
day...in all cases have your colours smooth and well mixed before you lay
them on, be as quick as you can in using them, laying them as even as you
possibly can, and observing to leave them lay'd off one way, as the marks off
the brush will not then be so much observed.115
As well as being cheap and relatively easy to apply, it had one great advantage over
an oil-based paint, and that was its permeability to moisture. When one considers that
new brickwork has been estimated to contain about thirty gallons of water per cubic
yard, and lime plaster contains nearly half a gallon in each of its three coats per square
114
Tingry gave an account for the preparation of this:
If plain distemper is to be applied to a wall or partition covered with
plaster, some Spanish white or white of Troyes is thrown into water, where it
may be easily broken and diluted if allowed sufficient time to soak. A little
charcoal black, diluted separately in some water, is then added, to correct the
too great whiteness, and to prevent it from becoming yellow. To the water
mixed with white one half of a solution of strong glue in water is added,
exceedingly hot, but not boiling, and it is then applied with a brush. The
coatings are repeated till the tint has become uniform (Tingry 1830, 247).
115
(Pincot ca.1811, 19-21).
60
APPENDIX SEVEN (continued)
yard,116 a new building would have a large amount of water present in it. Some of
this would be permanently bound chemically, but many tons would slowly evaporate
during the first few years, and not all of the water vapour would travel outwards. If
obstructed by an impermeable layer of paint, the pressure built up underneath would
cause the paint to be pushed off the wall.
In view of this potential problem, it is perhaps surprising that only one author draws
attention to it. Peter Nicholson, in his An Architectural Dictionary spoke of distemper
as a stop-gap measure:
Painting in distemper, or water-colours mixed with size, stucco, or plaster,
which is intended to be painted in oil when finished [italics mine]; but not
being sufficiently dry to receive the oil, may have a coating in water-colours,
of any given tint required, in order to give a more finished appearance to that
part of the building.117
He continued:
It will not require less than two coats of any of the foregoing colours in order
to cover the plaster, and bear out with an uniform appearance. It must be
recollected, that when the stucco is sufficiently dry, and it is desirable to have
it painted in oil, the whole of the water colour ought to be removed; which
may be easily done by washing; and, when quite dry, proceed with it after the
directions given in oil painting on stucco.118
Nicholson was also aware of the implications of this long drying-out time, and in a
comment on speculative building said:
Perhaps, in general cases, where persons are building on their own estate, or
for themselves, two or three years are not too long to suffer the stucco to
remain unpainted; though frequently, in speculative works, as many weeks are
scarcely allowed.119
Dr Ian Bristow refers to the common practice, until quite recently, of decorating the
plasterwork in newly finished interiors first in a porous water-based paint, pending
final decoration in oil a year or two later. He cites the accounts for Henry Pelham's
house in Arlington Street, London, which show that the whole of the staircase had
been painted in this way by January 1746 and was not decorated in oil until about two
years later.120 Thomas Cubitt, the builder, advised his clients to live "under builder's
finish" for two years to prevent expensive decoration from being spoiled.121
116
Source: The Paint, Oil and Chemical Review, Chicago. 101, No.23, 15-16,
November 1939; quoted in (Hess 1951, 334).
117
(Nicholson 1819, II:416).
118
(ibid.).
119
(ibid.).
120
(Bristow 1996, 111).
121
(Hobhouse 1971, 385) quoted in (Wilson and Mackley 2000, 196-97).
61
APPENDIX SEVEN (continued)
It would seem that, in a new house, two to three years was also about the life of a coat
of distemper on walls, as Hay warned that it lasted only as long as the size withstood
the action of the atmosphere, "unless when the surface of the plaster has been
rendered impervious to absorption by one or two coats of paint"122
Ceilings, throughout the nineteenth century, were generally treated with a water-based
coating such as a size-bound distemper. A repaint would entail complete removal and
washing down of the previous coat. As a precaution against incomplete removal,
Pincot recommended the use of a size binder to stick "fast all the dirt left after
washing".123
Oil Bound Water Paints / Washable Distempers
Although "improved" recipes for water-based paints appeared throughout the
nineteenth century, it was in the early 1870s that a significant breakthrough was
made. The introduction of Charlton white, or Orr's white (lithopone - which was a
co-precipitate of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate), gave the industry a pigment that
was a very pure white with a high degree of opacity. This marked a significant stage
in the development of what might be called emulsion paints, or oil-bound water
paints.
These products were often called "washable" distempers, and saw great use on plaster
surfaces until recent years, when they have all but been replaced by the modern vinyl
matt emulsions.
By "oil-bound", it is meant that the paint was an oil-water-emulsion, in much the
same way that milk is. Water and oil were combined with a solution of soap or a
caustic alkali (such as lime) which saponified the oil, and the mixture was agitated
until the oil broke down into tiny globules which remained in suspension as an
emulsion.
The pigment part of the paint usually consisted of lithopone, with extenders such as
barytes or Paris white (chalk), and the vehicle largely of linseed oil or a long-oil
varnish.
Oil-bound water paints, such as the well known Walpamur, dried first by evaporation
of the water content, and then by oxidation of the oil. Evaporation took place rapidly;
however, oxidation is a slower process, sometimes taking several months to reach a
maximum degree of hardness. As the ability of the coating to withstand water was
related to its hardness, it needed to be protected for the first few months after
application.
122
123
Meaning an oil paint. (Hay 1847, 154).
(Pincot ca.1811, 14).
62
APPENDIX SEVEN (continued)
Oil-bound water paints were available in a paste form, and could be thinned either
with water or with petrifying liquid. This latter was generally a dilute solution of the
emulsion used as a binder for the water paint itself, and the effect of adding it was to
increase the oil content of the coating. Water paints could be used outside, in
sheltered locations, but only when thinned with petrifying liquid.
These early emulsion paints were generally supplied in a stiff paste, which was
thinned in water to a brushable consistency for application. On evaporation of the
water, the paint dried to a porous film, with the glue - often in the form of casein acting as a temporary binder during the drying of the oil, which finally hardened the
film so that it became moderately wipeable.
Unfortunately, these early form of emulsions - known variously as oil-bound waterpaints, oil-bound distempers, or washable distempers, had a number of weaknesses.
a) The first problem became evident when a number of decorative schemes were
applied on top of them. The strength of the bond of water paint was less than that of
oil paint and, although the coating had some resistance to water, it was absorbent, and
the liquid in a new coat would soften it to some extent and cause it to swell. Water
paint, moreover, was applied in thicker and heavier coatings than oil paint; in drying,
it contracted strongly and, in doing so, exerted a considerable pull on the underlying
film, weakening the grip of any parts which were not firmly attached to the surface.
A substantial strain was placed on the bond of the old coating. Two, three, or even
more coats could be safely applied on occasion, but there came a time when the
weight and stress were too great and cracking and flaking took place at the weakest
points in the system.
b) Unlike a soft distemper, which had to be removed when repainting, an oil-bound
water-paint was fairly well adherent, and would often fool the decorator into leaving it
in place.
The presence of an early scheme of oil-bound water paint in a sequence of coatings
should not necessarily be a cause for alarm, but care must be exercised in the
redecoration.
63
APPENDIX SEVEN (continued)
Sample specification for the application of an oil-bound water-paint on
new plaster
From: Jenson and Nicholson Ltd. Paint and its Part in Architecture. London, 1930.
p.387
WALLS, NEW, INTERIOR
To be finished any colour not Affected by Lime
CONDITION: Finished with Portland Cement, Parian, Sirapite, Keene's, Medina, or
other Patent Cements.
Type of finish required: Good: Washable Water Paint or Washable Distemper
The surface to be freed from dirt, grease or other foreign material incidental to building
operations.
All defects to be made good with material similar in composition to that of the main
surface.
The surface to receive one coat of sharp stuff [italics mine] composed of white lead with
a vehicle of 90 per cent American turpentine and 10 per cent linseed oil, to be applied
immediately the plasterer has completed trowelling and prior to the setting of the plaster.
The surface is to receive two coats of washable distemper of approved shade, applied
strictly in accordance with the manufacturers' printed instructions.
64
APPENDIX EIGHT
PRIMING AND PAINTING WOOD
The priming of the wooden elements in an early eighteenth century building can often
assist with their dating. Unfortunately, too few areas of unstripped early woodwork
survive in the building to demonstrate this. However, it is interesting to see that the
certain elements had been primed with a red rather than a white primer.
The use of white lead in the priming coat on timber usually suggests a date from the
mid-eighteenth century, prior to that it was more usual to apply Spanish brown, a
natural red earth (red oxide) pigment, "well ground and mix'd very thin with Linseed
Oyl".124 As Ian Bristow has pointed out, this change to a paler primer probably
reflected the change in taste that took place in the first half of the eighteenth century,
when white became the almost universal colour for joinery in fine interiors.125
The use of a red primer at xxxx reflects a somewhat old-fashioned practice, and
suggests that the general decoration was likely to have been darker than the more
typical light schemes being introduced some twenty years before the house was built.
Once the primer had been applied and allowed to dry, the nail holes and other
superficial irregularities were filled in. This was done with putty, which was made
out of whiting and linseed oil, the boiled version, as recommended by Field, probably
drying more quickly.126 The practice of filling surface imperfections before priming,
as opposed to after, seems only to have been advocated by Smith,127 no doubt it was
soon discovered that the substrate tended to absorb the linseed oil from the putty,
causing it to shrink and fall out.
David Hay, writing in the 1840s, provided the clearest description of the process of
painting once the primer had been applied, saying that the "second coat should be
made thicker than the first", but that this:
will depend upon the degree of absorption that has taken place in the application of
the first coat. Sometimes a great proportion of it bears out - that is, drys with a gloss;
in which case the second coat ought to have a good body of white lead in it. At other
times, it is found that no part of the first coat bears out, and that even some portions of
it have had the oil so completely absorbed as to leave nothing on the surface but a dry
powder. When this is the case, it is a sure sign that the plaster is of such a nature as to
receive the full benefit of the oil; and, that it may be properly saturated, the paint for
the second coat is kept rather thin. Before applying this coat, the work should be
rubbed with fine sand-paper. If the second coat bears out properly when dry, the third
coat will form the groundwork for the finishing process; but should it not bear out
124
(Smith 1723, 43). The recipes for primers given in two works of the latter half of
the eighteenth century form the basis for this statement (Watin 1778, 87; Secrets
1780, 93).
125
(Bristow 1994, 48).
126
(Field 1850, 152).
127
(Smith 1723, 43).
65
APPENDIX EIGHT (continued)
properly, the work will be understood to require five coats; and, therefore,
another coat of plain oil-paint is applied.128
The third coat that formed the base for the "finishing process" referred to was
composed of white lead, diluted with an equal proportion of linseed oil and
turpentine. The latter was added because of its ability to hold a large amount of solids
in suspension, thus increasing the density of the coat. If the final colour was to be
other than white, it was usually at this stage that pigment was added, the tint being
darker than that of the finish coat.
Both Pincot and Hay referred to the use of a cheap undercoat which was known as
clearcole. This was generally chalk mixed with size, although sometimes lead white,
ground in water, was included. The former explained that it:
is a cheap mode of painting well calculated for servant's rooms, attics, and
kitchens, old houses, small tenements, or ship's cabins, where dispatch is
necessary, or where it is necessary to paint often.129
Whilst unquestionably a cheap process, it tended to cause later problems, and
subsequent layers of paint could chip off, necessitating the complete removal of the
old paint.130
128
(Hay 1847, 124-25).
(Pincot ca.1811, 18).
130
(Hay 1847, 127-28).
129
66
APPENDIX NINE
SAMPLE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Sample Preparation Procedures
Pigments
Samples of pigments from specific paint layers were permanently cast in Cargille
Meltmount (with a refractive index of 1.66) onto microscope slides. The pigment
samples were examined at 500x and 1000x magnifications under both transmitted,
and plane polarized light.
The pigments were identified using polarized light microscopy (PLM) techniques
which allows identification of different pigment particles based on the characteristics
of particle shape, colour, refractive index, and optical properties. In certain instances,
where further confirmation was required, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX),
using the scanning electron microscope, was carried out.
Cross Sections
Samples of finish coatings and substrates were removed from representative surfaces
in the rooms being examined with a scalpel, craft knife or dental drill. Depending on
the material, the samples varied in size from 5mm to 10mm. The samples were
divided before casting, leaving a portion of the sample available for future testing.
Samples were cast in small cubes in silicon rubber moulds using clear casting
polyester resin (Alec Tiranti Ltd, Reading, Berks.). The resin was allowed to cure for
24 hours at room temperature and under ambient light. The cubes were then cut in
half to expose the cross sections, and wet polished with 240, 400, 600 and 1200 grade
wet-and-dry papers.
The cross section samples were examined under visible light using a Brunel
metallurgical microscope at 200x and 500x magnifications. Those that appeared to
have the full sequence of layers, i.e. that displayed an intact sequence from the
substrate through to the final scheme, were examined particularly closely. These
intact samples were compared with those samples that were distorted or unclear, and
with those that were incomplete. The combined information has provided the details
in this report.
The cross sections were photographed with Kodacolor Gold Plus ASA 200 colour
print film, and the resulting photographs were labelled and laid out in sequence to
allow direct visual comparisons. The best photomicrographs for each area have been
included with this report. Most photographs were taken at 200x, and 500x, although
other magnifications have been used. Many of the photographs have been digitally
enlarged in order to fit the page and show more details.
67
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70