1. religion and spirituality
2. hinduism

Chapter-III
SETTING AND SAMPLE
This Chapter presents a brief profile of both Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
in general and the districts under study in particular. It also includes the
socio-economic profile of the respondents.
3.1 State Profile: Assam
Assam, the easternmost part of the India, is bordered in the north by
Bhutan and in east by Arunachal Pradesh. Along the south lie Nagaland,
Manipur and Mizoram. Meghalaya lies to the southwest, Bengal and
Bangladesh lie to the west. The State is known as the gateway to the entire
Northeast India.
With the British annexation, Assam has undergone series of changes in its
physical and cultural boundaries to attain the present status, which makes
it a centre of mosaic culture. Till 1947, Assam comprised most of Northeast
India, except the tiny erstwhile kingdom of Tripura to the south, and the
British administered territory of Manipur to the east. However, modern
Assam is a minuscule form of its old structure. The Government of India,
which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided
Assam into several states in the 1970’s with a view to satisfy national
aspirations of the tribal populations living within the then borders of
Assam. At present, the geographical entity of Assam actually consists of
three distinct natural regions:
128
a)
The Brahmaputra Valley, lies in north has overwhelmingly
Assamese speaking people and also having existence of
different tribes and ethnic groups. The Valley comprises 22
plain districts with a total area of 56,194 sq. km. However, four
districts such as Kokrajhar, Cirrang, Bagsha and Udalguri now
fall under Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC).
b)
The Hills areas comprising Karbi Anglong district and North
Cachar Hills (presently known as Dima Hasio Raji) district with
a total area of 15,322 sq. km.
c)
The Barak Valley lies in the southern part of the state having
Bengali speaking people with some immigrant labourers in the
tea plantations and some sprinkled tribal population mainly in
the foothills. The Valley covers three districts with total area of
6922 sq. km.
Thus, the State of Assam comprises 27 districts (23 as per 2001 census)
which are further subdivided into 56 subdivisions and 145 revenue circles
for the convenience of administration and revenue collection. It covers an
area of 78,438 sq. km. with population density of 340 per sq. km. Assam has
total of 26,247 revenue villages. As per the Census of 2001, the total
population of Assam was 26,655,528 of which Hindus share 17,296,455
(Male-8,951,108 and Female-8,345,347), Muslim 8,240,611 (Male-4,252,691
and
Female-3,987,920),
Christian
9,86,589
(Male-5,02,756
and
Female-4,83,833), Sikh 22,519 (Male-13,508 and Female-9,011), Buddhist
51,029 (Male-26,322 and Female-24,707), Jain 23,957 (Male-12,840 and
Female-11,117), Other Religious Communities 22,999 (Male-11,795 and
Female-11,204). Out of the total population 87.10 percent are rural
population and remaining 12.90 percent are urban population. The
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percentage shares of area and population of the State to that of the country
are 2.4 and 2.6 respectively. Besides, the sex ratio per thousand of male in
2001 was 932 females (as compared to 933 for the country) and the literacy
rate in the State is 63.25 percent (male 71.28% and female 54.61%). Assam
has 1.83 million Schedule Castes and 3.31 Schedule Tribe populations. The
panchayati raj administration is well entrenched with 20 Zilla Parishads at
the district level, 188 Intermediaries (Anchalik Panchayats) and 2223 Gaon
Panchayats at the village level.
In the backdrop of state profile an extensive profile of each selected
districts, viz., Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj are stated below.
Cachar
The district of Cachar, situated in the southern most part of Assam
(Longitude 92 Degree 24’E and 93 Degree 15’ E, Latitude 24 Degree 22’N and 25
Degree 8’ N), is one of the oldest district of Assam. The district is bounded
on the East by two districts Hailakandi and Karimganj, North by Barail and
Jayantia Hill ranges and on the South by the State of Mizoram.
130
The district was first created in 1830 when the British annexed the Kachari
kngdom. In 1854, North Cachar was annexed and tagged to the district.
Subsequently, in 1874, Cachar was included in the Chief Commissionership
of Assam and the post of Superintendent was redesignated as the Deputy
Commissioner. In the post-independence period, North Cachar Subdivision was made a separate district and taken out of Cachar in 1951.
Again, in 1983 and 1989 erstwhile Karimganj and Hailakandi Sub-division
were separated and upgraded as two districts.
A brief profile of Cachar district is presented below in a tabular form:
C1: Profile of Cachar District
Total Population 14,44,921
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
7,43,042
7,01,879
2,08,235
18,631
12,43,534
2,01,387
Area in sq. km
3786
Sex ratio
(female)
945 (per 1000 males)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
67.82
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religion
not
stated
8,86, 761
5,22, 051
31,306
628
742
1385
1175
873
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
Inhabited
1020
1047
ZP
AP
GP
01
15
163
Uninhabited
27
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.cachar.nic.in
131
Karimganj
The district of Karimganj is located in the Southern tip of Assam (longitude
92 and degree 15’ and 92 and degree 35’ east, latitude 24 and degree 15’ and
25 and degree 55’ north). The district is bounded on the North by Cachar
district, on the South by Mizoram and Tripura States, on the East by
Hailakandi district and on the West by Bangladesh and Tripura. The district
is strategically very important as it shares 92 kms (51 kms is land border
and the rest 41 kms is demarcated by the river Kushiara) of International
Border with Bangladesh.
Karimganj, earlier a part of Sylhet district, was under the control of British.
However, up to 1786, the British could not establish its authority over the
entire region. During that period a local Zamindar known as Radharam
brought the region under his administrative control and he strongly
opposed the Colonial rule. Later on, British succeeded to defeat him and
thus it was with his downfall that in 1786 the British could establish their
complete authority in the region. Karimganj also occupies an important
place in the first war of Indian independence when three companies of the
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34th Native Infantry stationed at Chittagong revolted (November 1857) and
subsequently emerged in the South-east of the then Sylhet district. These
rebel soldiers encountered a Contingent of the Sylhet Light Infantry under
the command of Major Byng at Latu Village (presently under Karimganj
district). Ultimately, the soldiers were defeated. Nevertheless, they are still
adored by the people of the region.
Subsequently, Karimganj was upgraded as Sub-division of the then Sylhet
district in 1878. At the time of independence, the district of Sylhet was
transferred to East Pakistan except three-and-half thana areas such as
Ratabari, Patherkandi, Badarpur and half of Karimganj thana. These thanas
were put together under Karimganj Sub-division and incorporated in the
Cachar district of Assam as a full-fledged Sub-division. Finally, this Subdivision was upgraded on 1st July 1983 as a full-fledged district.
A brief profile of the present Karimganj district is highlighted below in a
tabular form:
C2: Profile of Karimganj District
Total Population 10,07976
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
5,17,680
4,90,296
1,30,957
2,901
9,34,126
73,850
Area in sq. km
Sex ratio
(female)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
1809
947 (per 1000 males)
67.21
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religion
not
stated
4,70,708
5,27,214
8,746
128
346
503
37
294
ZP
AP
Inhabited
915
GP
01
07
96
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
940
Uninhabited
25
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.karimganj.nic.in
133
Hailakandi
The district of Hailakandi is located in plain and an apparently
mountainous region. The district is situated at the southernmost corner of
Assam (latitude 24.68’ North and latitude 92.57’ East). It is bounded by the
river Barak on the North, on the East by Cachar district, on the South by
Mizoram and on the West by Karimganj. The district has got interstate
border having a length of 76 km. with Mizoram. It has a total geographical
area of 1327 sq. km. Consisting approximately 48% as forest area typically
located mostly on the southwest, south and southeastern side bordering
Mizoram.
Till the invasion of the British rule, Hailakandi was connected only by
water ways. It was during the early period of British rule that changes in
the means of communication had developed. The district had also a
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splendid account of playing a role during the freedom struggle. It had
participated in the first war of Indian independence also when leaders from
this region (in 1857) had a gallant fight with the British rulers at a place
called ‘Ron Tila’ at Mohanpur in Hailakandi and some of the leaders laid
down their lives for the cause of the country. This region has also been
credited for taking part in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India
Movement.
Hailakandi was one of the oldest Sub-Divisions in the State of Assam. It
was declared as Civil Sub-Division on 1st June, 1869. Prior to its emergence
as a full-fledged district, Hailakandi was a Civil Sub-Division under Cachar
district. It was upgraded as a district only on 29 September, 1989.
A brief profile of the present Hailakandi district is given below in a tabular
form:
C3: Profile of Hailakandi District
Total Population 5,42,872
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
2,80,513
2,62,359
59,251
821
4,98,787
44,085
Area in sq. km
1327
Sex ratio
(female)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
935 (per 1000 males)
59.64
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religion
not
stated
2,23,191
3,12,849
5,424
09
589
82
579
149
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
331
Inhabited
Uninhabited
327
04
ZP
AP
GP
01
05
62
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.hailakandi.nic.in
135
3.2 State Profile: Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh, land of rising sun, is situated at the eastern end of the
Himalayas. It is located in the extreme North-eastern corner of India. The
state is bordered by Myanmar on the East and South-East, Bhutan on the
West, China (Tibet) on the North and Northeast and the States of Assam
and Nagaland to its South. This speaks of the geo-strategic importance of
the State for the nation.
Arunachal Pradesh, once a part of Assam, has undergone a unique process
of political development. The state has acquired its identity for the first time
in 1914 when some tribal areas were separated from the then Darrang and
Lakhimpur district of Assam to form North East Frontier Tract (NEFT). The
NEFT was further subdivided into Balipara Frontier Tract, the Sadiya
Frontier Tract and Tirap Frontier Tract between 1914 and 1943. At the time
of independence the whole territory was under Part B of the Sixth Schedule
of the Constitution as the tribal areas of Assam. Part B includes NEFT
including Balipara Frontier Tract, the Tirap Frontier Tract, the Abor Hills
district, the Mishmi Hills district and the Naga tribal areas. All these
districts were renamed as NEFA in 1951. The NEFA was scheduled as part
of Assam during 1950-65 and its administration was carried out by the
Governor of Assam as an agent of the President of India under the Ministry
of External Affairs, Government of India. Later on, the responsibility of the
NEFA Administration was transferred to the Ministry of Home Affairs in
1965. It is pertinent to note here that the whole developmental process
actually started after the Sino-Indian war. It was this war that compelled
the Government of India to change its policies towards the region and
undertook a number of measures for its speedy politico economic
developments in order to bring the heterogeneous tribes into national
136
mainstream.1 As such the region has acquired the status of Union Territory
on 20th January, 1972 and renamed as Arunachal Pradesh with the
provision of thirty member legislative assembly. Later on, it was declared
as the 25th State of India on 20th February, 1987 with the provision of sixty
member legislative assembly and the first general election to constitute the
state government was held in February 1987. However, the democratic
political process mostly at the grassroots level actually started in the state
when Panchayati Raj was introduced on the basis of the recommendations
of the Dying Ering Committee. It is worthwhile to note that the PRIs in the
state have got ethno-political origin due to the diversified and isolated
traditions of the various tribes.2
The State of Arunachal Pradesh at present comprises 16 districts having a
population of 10,97,978 (Males-5, 79,941 and Females-5, 18,027) of which
Hindus share 3,79,935 (Male-2,17,195 and Female-1,62,740), Muslim 20,675
(Male-12,756 and Female-7,949), Christian 2,05,548 (Male-1,02,606 and
Female-1,02,942), Sikh 1,865 (Male-1475 and Female-390), Buddhist 1,43,028
(Male-72,618 and Female-70,410), Jain 216 (Male-130 and Female-86), Other
Religious Communities 3,37,399 (Male-1,68,613 and Female-1,68,786). The
State has a territory of 83,743 sq. km., which is about 2.55 per cent of India’s
land area and a third of the area of North-East India. The largest state in
North-East India, Arunachal’s area is slightly more than that of Assam, but
its population is 0.11 per cent of India’s population and only 2.85 per cent of
the population of North-East India. The density of population in the state is
13 people per sq. km. This stands in sharp contrast to the population
density of 324 per sq. km. in the country.3 The State has all together 4065
villages, out of which 3863 are inhabited and the rest are uninhabited.
137
In the backdrop of state profile the extensive features of the three selected
districts, viz., Papum Pare, Lower Subansiri and West Kameng are stated
below.
Papum Pare district
The district of Papum Pare is located in the North Eastern part of the
country (lies between longitude 93 13’ to 94 and latitude 270 15’ and 2 in the
south, 7 in the west and 12 in the east). The district is divided into two
administrative sub-divisions (Sagalee and Itanagar) and nine administrative
circles. The district is bounded by Kurung Valley district on the north,
Lower Subansiri district on the east, East Kameng district on the west and
Assam on the south. The district is inhabited mainly by the Nishis who are
known in history for their valour. Besides, the Mikir also form a major part
of the population.
The district was once an important part of the Ahom kingdom. The entire
region was brought under the Ahom administration during sixteenth
century. However, due to the revolt of the Nishis the Ahom expedition in
this region came to an end. With the fall of Ahom rule and the signing of
138
Yandabo Treaty (1826) British rule over Assam was established. The British
followed the policy of non-interference in the matter of the tribes. In 1914
the area became a part of the administrative unit called Western Section of
NEFT. By 1919, the area was renamed as Balipara Frontier Tract, which was
again divided in 1946 into – Se LA Sub-Agency and Subansiri Area.
Further, in 1954, this Tract was bifurcated into two administrative units –
Kameng Frontier Division and Subansiri Frontier Division. In postindependence period (1965) the latter was renamed as Subansiri district and
in 1987 it was further bifurcated into – Lower Subansiri and Upper
Subansiri districts. The Papumpare district was emerged out of the Lower
Subansiri district only in 1993. A brief profile of the present Papmpare
district is highlighted below in a tabular form:
C4: Profile of Papumpare District
Total Population 1,22,003
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
64,104
57,819
1,397
69,007
59,961
62,042
Area in sq. km
Sex ratio
(female)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
2875
901 (per 1000 males)
69
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religion
not
stated
51,026
5,318
36,574
263
3,330
65
25,395
32
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
Inhabited
267
283
ZP
AP
GP
01
10
76
Uninhabited
16
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.papumpare.nic.in
139
Lower Subansiri district
The Lower Subansiri district is mostly mountainous terrain and a greater
part of it falls within the higher mountain zone consisting of tangled peaks
and villages. The name of the district is actually derived from the Subansiri
River that flows through Raga Circles of this district. The district is
bounded on the north by China and Upper Subansiri district, on the south
by Assam and Papumpare district, on the east by West Siang and some part
of Upper Subansiri, on the west by East Kameng district.
During the British period the district was a part of Lakhimpur Frontier
Tract which was renamed as Balipara Frontier Tract in 1919. But in 1946, the
district was carved out of the Balipara Frontier Tract and named as
‘Subansiri Area’ with it’s headquarter at North Lakhimpur. Later on,
Subansiri Area was again renamed as ‘Subansiri Frontier Division’ (1954)
and the head quarter was transferred to Ziro. It was at a time when the
Ministry of Home Affairs took over the administrative charge of NEFA in
September 1965; the area was further renamed as ‘Subansiri’ district. The
140
district was bifurcated in May 1980 into Upper Subansiri and Lower
Subansiri districts. Again, in September 1992, the Lower Subansiri district
was bifurcated and a separate Papumpare district carved out of it. At
present Lower Subansiri district has six administrative circles and Ziro is
the head quarter. The district is mainly composed of three major tribes such
as Apatani, Nishis and Hill Miri. A brief profile of the present Papmpare
district is highlighted below in a tabular form:
C5: Profile of Lower Subansiri District
Total Population 98,244
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
49,542
48,702
197
88,512
85,860
12,384
Area in sq. km
10,135
Sex ratio (female)
957 (per 1000 males)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
45
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religio
n not
stated
10,493
830
24,078
52
284
06
62,481
20
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
Inhabited
652
704
ZP
AP
GP
01
14
195
Uninhabited
52
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.lowersubansiri.nic.in
West Kameng district
The district of West Kameng is also mostly mountainous and a greater part
of it falls within the higher mountain zone, consisting of tangled peaks and
valleys. The district is named after the Kameng River, a tributary of
Brahmaputra, which flows through this district. The district shares an
international border with Tibet region in the north, Bhutan in the west,
141
Tawang district in the northwest and East Kameng district in the east. The
southern boundary adjoins Sonitpur and Darrang districts of Assam.
Historically, the area around Kameng River has come under the control of
the Mon Kingdom, Tibet and the Ahom Kingdom. During the British
period this area became a part of the ‘Western Section’ of the North East
Frontier Tract’. It was renamed as the ‘Balipara Frontier Tract’ in 1919, with
its headquarter at Charduar in Assam. Just before independence of the
country this area was curved out of the Balipara (1946) with the name of
‘Sela Sub-Agency’ but its headquarter remained the same. Following the
independence of the country, Sela Sub-Agency was renamed as the
‘Kameng Frontier Division’ in 1954 with Bomdila as its headquarter.
Subsequently, this Division again was renamed as the Kameng district,
which was further bifurcated into East Kameng and West Kameng in June
1980. At present, West Kameng district is divided into three administrative
142
Sub-divisions such as Bomdila, Thrizino and Rupa. The district is now
mainly inhabited by the tribes like Monpa, Miji, Sherdukpen, Aka and
Bugun. The Monpas (Tibeto-Mongoloid stock) are the largest tribe of the
district. A brief profile of the present West Kameng district is as under:
C6: Profile of West Kameng District
Total Population 74,599
Population
Male
Female
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
42,542
32,057
372
36,951
67,906
6,693
Area in sq. km
Sex ratio
(female)
Percentage of
literacy (M/F)
Religious
Compositions
7,422
954 (per 1000 males)
61
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
Sikhs
Buddhists
Jains
Others
Religion
not
stated
32,125
1,159
2,462
426
33,104
16
4,750
557
No. of Villages
No. of ZP, AP
and GP
Inhabited
213
220
ZP
AP
GP
01
09
97
Uninhabited
07
Source: Census of India, 2001 (www.censusindia.com) & www.westkameng.nic.in
3.3 Socio-Economic Profile of the respondents
In pursuance of the Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act both the
Government of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh passed their respective
Panchayat Acts i.e. the Assam Panchayati Raj Act 1994 and the Arunachal
Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act 1997. Under these Acts two Panchayat elections
have so far been held. In Assam, the first election was held in 2001 and the
second in 2007, while in Arunachal Pradesh it was held in 2003 and 2008.
This ushered in a social change focusing on the basic issues and problems
relating to communities at the grassroots level. The compulsory reservation
of SC (except Arunachal Pradesh), ST and Women candidates is expected to
143
change the socio-economic dynamics at the grassroots level. It is in this
setting an understanding of socio-economic status of the Panchayat
representatives would enable us to determine the effectiveness of PRIs in
realizing as well as executing the scheme of democratic decentralization at
the grassroots level. In the following table we present an analysis of the
socio economic profiles of the elected leaders (respondents) of the
panchayats.
Table C 7: Distribution of the respondents by Sex
Assam
Position
Arunachal Praadesh
Sex
Total
M
F
President
14
(58.3)
10
(41.7)
24
(100.0)
VicePresident
18
(75.0)
6
(25.0)
Members
39
(54.2)
Total
representative
71
(59.2)
Position
Sex
Total
M
F
Chairperson
13
(68.4)
6
(31.6)
19.0
(100.0)
24
(100.0)
ViceChairperson
--
--
No
Provision
33
(45.8)
72
(100.0)
Members
34
(58.6)
24
(41.4)
58 .0
(100.0)
49
(40.8)
120
(100.0)
Total
representative
47
(61.0)
30
(38.9)
77
(100.0)
Source: Field Data. The figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total.
The table indicates that 59.2 per cent of the GP representative in Assam is
male and 40.8 per cent is female. Among the GP President Male constitutes
58.3 per cent and female 41.7 per cent. Interestingly, only 25 per cent of the
female representative in Assam holds the office of the Vice-President of GP
and male holds 75 per cent. The difference as regard to male and female GP
member in Assam is not significant. On the other hand, in Arunachal
Pradesh, 61 per cent of the Panchayat representatives (GP) are male and
38.9 per cent are female. But as regard female Chairperson is concerned
only 31.6 per cent holds the Office, which is less than that of Assam. The
table reveals that in Arunachal Pradesh there is no provision for the office
of the Vice-Chairperson and hence the question of male and female
144
representation does not arise. Compared to Assam, the gap between male
and female representation as GP member is more in Arunachal Pradesh.
Table C 8: Distribution of the respondents by Age
Assam
Age Group
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
21-30
14
(19.7)
13
(26.5)
27
(22.5)
05
(10.6)
04
(13.3)
09
(11.7)
31-40
31
(43.7)
23
(46.9)
54
(45.0)
19
(40.4)
13
(43.3)
32
(41.6)
41-50
16
(22.5)
10
(20.4)
26
(21.7)
14
(29.8)
08
(26.7)
22
(28.6)
51 & above
10
(14.1)
3
(6.1)
13
(10.8)
09
(19.1)
05
(16.7)
14
(18.2)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Source: Field Data
Age is a significant component as it represents maturity as well as
experience, which affects the activities of various bodies. The Seventy-third
Amendment Act has made a uniform age structure round the country by
fixing the lower age limit to 21 year so that youths could take active part at
grassroots politics. In Assam 22.5 per cent and in Arunachal Pradesh 11.7
per cent belong to the age group of 21-30 years, which shows less interest of
the youths at grassroots politics. This reveals that representation of youths
at grassroots politics in both the states is minimal. Reasons for such low
level of participation of the youths lie in their careerist attitude. That is to
say, in the longing for settlement in life youths are attracted towards
income and jobs and thereby having less attraction towards grassroots
politics. While being settled their attitude gets change. It is observed that
relatively higher per cent of GP representatives (45 per cent in Assam and
41.6 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) is in the age group of 31-40 years.
Another significant number of the respondents constituting 21.7 per cent in
Assam and 28.6 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh belonged to the age group of
145
41-50 years followed by 10.8 per cent (Assam) and 18.2 (Arunachal Pradesh)
belonging to the age group of 51 and above. This shows that a majority of
members at grassroots politics belong to middle age group. From the
analysis of age data of male and female members it is observed that most of
them belong to 31-40 age groups. At this age both male and female are
generally settled and they become active in the political sphere. However,
in case of women it is the reservation facility which prompts them more to
participate at the grassroots politics.
Table C 9: Distribution of the respondents by Marital Status
Assam
Marital Status
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
Married
48
(67.6)
32
(65.3)
80
(66.7)
35
(74.5)
22
(73.3)
57
(74.0)
Unmarried
20
(28.2)
12
(24.5)
32
(26.7)
10
(21.3)
7
(23.3)
17
(22.1)
Divorced / Widow/
Widower
3
(4.2)
5
(10.2)
8
(6.6)
2
(4.2)
1
(1.3)
3
(3.9)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Source: Field Data
The table reveals that married group occupies the highest percentage in
both the state. In Assam 66.7 per cent and in Arunachal Pradesh 74 per cent
of the respondents belonged to the married group, while only 26.7 and 22.1
per cent belonged to the unmarried group. The respondents belonging to
the third group (divorced/widow/widower) is negligible. Comparing to
male and female representatives in both the states it is found that male
representatives are mostly married. The analysis of the table indicates that
unmarried people have less interest in participating grassroots politics.
146
Table C 10: Distribution of the respondents by caste category
Assam
Category
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
General
34
(47.9)
29
(59.2)
63
(52.5)
0
0
--
SC
14
(19.7)
8
(16.3)
22
(18.3)
0
0
--
ST
2
(2.8)
1
(2.0)
3
(2.5)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
OBC
13
(18.3)
7
(14.3)
20
(16.7)
0
0
--
MOBC
8
(11.3)
4
(8.2)
12
(10.0)
0
0
--
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Source: Field Data
Caste is an age old concept, which depicts the social status of the people
and it is on the basis of this caste that categories are also determined. The
caste facet in Assam occupies an important position not only at the
grassroots level but also at the upper level of state politics. On the other
hand, in Arunachal Pradesh typical caste system does not exist. The state
has a very negligible SC population because of which it has been exempted
from making SC reservation. However, differences exist among the various
ST groups in Arunachal Pradesh. As a result of this social composition, we
observe variation in terms of the representation of various caste categories
in the PRIs of both the states. In Assam, General Category constitutes the
highest percentage (52.5 per cent), followed by SC (18.3 per cent), OBC (16.7
per cent), MOBC (10 per cent) and ST (2.5 per cent). In case of male and
female respondents, male occupies significant position in all the categories.
It is also to be noted that both male and female representatives from general
category constitutes the majority of the GP representatives. Conversely, in
Arunachal Pradesh, the position is totally different. Here, all the
147
respondents (100 per cent) belong to the ST category. However, like Assam,
male also has the dominant position in Arunachal Pradesh.
Table C 11: Distribution of the respondents by Religion
Assam
Religion
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
Hindu
40
(56.3)
26
(53.1)
66
(55.0)
27
(57.4)
17
(56.7)
44
(57.1)
Muslim
29
(40.8)
22
(44.9)
51
(42.5)
--
--
--
Christian
2
(2.8)
1
(2.0)
3
(2.5)
17
(36.2)
12
(40.0)
29
(37.7)
Buddhist
--
--
--
3
(6.4)
1
(3.3)
4
(5.2)
Any Other
--
--
--
--
--
--
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Total
Source: Field Data
The table depicts that in Assam, Hindu occupies the highest percentage in
GP as they constitute 55 per cent, followed by Muslims (42.5 per cent) and
Christians (2.5 per cent). The result indicates that both Hindus and Muslims
are taking equal part in the development process at the grassroots level in
proportion to their population. As Christian population is less in the
sampled districts, their representation is also very minimal. Likewise, in
Arunachal Pradesh also, Hindu representatives constituting 57.1 per cent
exclusively control the GP activities, followed by Christians (37.7 per cent)
and Buddhist (5.2 per cent). There is no Muslim GP representative in
Arunachal Pradesh.
148
Table C 12: Distribution of the respondents by Family Pattern
Assam
Arunachal Pradesh
Size of the
Family
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
1-5 members
34
(47.9)
27
(55.1)
61
(50.8)
23
(48.9)
13
(43.3)
36
(46.8)
Above 5
37
(52.1)
22
(44.9)
59
(49.2)
02
(51.1)
17
(56.7)
41
(53.2)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
Nuclear
41
(57.7)
30
(61.2)
71
(59.2)
27
(57.4)
09
(30.0)
36
(45.5)
Joint
30
(42.3)
19
(38.8)
49
(40.8)
20
(42.6)
21
(70.0)
41
(55.8)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Family Type
Source: Field Data
Family pattern represents two important components – size of the family
and type of the family. The former refers to the number of members present
in the family. Commonly, if a family consists of five or less than five
members it is considered as small and above five is large. Depending on the
nature of composition the families have been categorised as joint or nuclear
for the purpose of present study. Here joint family refers to that family
which is composed of parents, children and the children’s spouses and
offspring in one household and nuclear family refers to a family composed
of parents and their children only.
Table C12 reveals that majority of the Panchayat representatives (50.8 per
cent) in Assam belong to small family group (1-5 members) and both male
and female representatives are more or less equally spread. As regard the
type of the family, 59.2 per cent of the representatives in Assam belong to
the nuclear family. This shows a decline in joint family system, which has
been a major feature of Indian rural society since time immemorial. There is
149
an escalation of individualistic attitudes which is bringing a change in the
life-style of the rural masses also. Unlike Assam, in Arunachal Pradesh,
majority of the representative (53.2 per cent) belong to the large family
group (Above 5 members). Here, the joint family system is still in existence
as 55.8 per cent of the respondents belong to this category and this put them
in advantageous position at the time of Panchayat election.
Table C 13: Distribution of the respondents by Education
Assam
Education
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
Illiterate
02
(2.8)
05
(10.2)
7
(5.9)
06
(12.8)
07
(23.3)
13
(16.9)
Primary
19
(26.8)
27
(55.1)
46
(38.3)
19 (40.4)
13
(43.3)
32
(41.6)
Below HSLC
29
(40.8)
11
(22.4)
40
(33.3)
14
(29.8)
06
(20.0)
20
(26.0)
HSLC/HS passed
13
(18.3)
06
(12.2)
19
(15.8)
06
(12.8)
02
(6.7)
08
(10.4)
Graduation &
above
08
(11.3)
00
(0.0)
8
(6.7)
02
(4.2)
02
(6.7)
04
(5.2)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Source: Field Data
Education and democracy is highly correlated. Democracy needs the ability
of taking right decision and it is education which helps to realize the needs
of democracy. Education broadens the rational outlook of a person and
there by enables him to take correct and quick decision. There is a common
notion that people with average merit take part at grassroots politics and
educated section of the people keep themselves away from village politics.
However, situation has changed considerably with the passing of Seventythird Amendment Act as it has expanded the activities of local bodies. PRIs
are now entrusted with multifarious functions including development
projects which can bring a sea-change in the life of the rural masses.
150
Though the Act has not prescribed for any educational qualification yet the
pattern of working of the PRIs demands educational qualification of the
representatives. Table C 13 shows that PRIs in both the states are controlled
by the representatives having education up to primary level (38.3 per cent
in Assam and 41.6 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh). This is followed by the
representatives having below HSLC qualification (33.3 per cent in Assam
and 26 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh. It is also observed from the table that
representative having HSLC/HS qualification in Assam constitutes 15.8 per
cent, which is slightly higher than that of Arunachal Pradesh (10.4 per cent).
As regard the respondents from the last category (Graduation and above) it
is observed that the difference is marginal as 6.7 per cent representing
Assam and 5.2 per cent representing Arunachal Pradesh. A minute analysis
of the table further reveals that female representatives both in Assam and
Arunachal
Pradesh
are
comparatively
less
qualified
than
male
representatives as they constitute only 5 per cent in Assam (adding together
fourth and fifth category) and 12.2 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh (adding
together fourth and fifth category), which indicates the reality of women
empowerment in the states. It deserves mention here that the percentage of
female respondents under the first and second category (illiterate and
primary) in both the states is more than that of male respondents. From the
analysis of the table it can be inferred that though the education profile of
members of PRIs have steadily undergone change it is yet to attract highly
educated people as Panchayat members.
151
Table C 14 (a): Distribution of the respondents
(President/Chairpersons) by Income
Assam
Chairperson
Annual Income
Total
M
F
Below 20000
0 (0.0)
6 (60.0)
6
20001-40000
2 (14.3)
1 (10.0)
3
40001-60000
4 (28.5)
1 (10.0)
5
60001-80000
6 (42.9)
2 (20.0)
8
80001 & above
2 (14.3)
0 (0.0)
2
Total
14 (100)
10 (100)
24
Arunachal Pradesh
Chairperson
Annual Income
Total
M
F
Below 20000
0 (0.0)
4 (66.6)
4
20001-40000
3 (23.0)
0 (0.0)
3
40001-60000
4 (30.8)
1 (16.7)
5
60001-80000
5 (38.5)
1 (16.7)
6
80001 & above
1 (7.7)
0 (0.0)
1
13 (100)
6 (100)
19
Total
Source: Field Data.
Table C 14 (b): Distribution of the respondents (Members)
by Income
Assam
M
F
Below 20000
17 (29.8)
32 (82.1)
49
Total No.
(Presidents/
Chairpersons +
Members)
6+49=55 (45.8)
20001-40000
23 (40.4)
4 (10.3)
27
3 + 27=30 (25.0)
40001-60000
12 (12.1)
2 (5.1)
14
5 + 14 = 19 (15.8)
60001-80000
3 (5.2)
1 (2.5)
4
8 + 4 = 12 (10.0)
80001 & above
2 (3.5)
0 (0.0)
2
2 + 2 = 4 (3.3)
57 (100)
39 (100)
96
24 + 96 = 120 (100)
Annual
Income
Total
Member
Total
152
Contd... Table C 14(b)
Arunachal Pradesh
Annual
Income
Member
Total
Total No.
17 (70.8)
30
4 + 30 = 34 (44.1)
11 (32.4)
4 (16.7)
15
3 + 12 = 18 (23.3)
40001-60000
6 (17.6)
2 (8.3)
8
5 + 8 = 13 (17.0)
60001-80000
3 (8.8)
1 (4.2)
4
4 + 6 = 10 (13)
80001 & above
1 (2.9)
0 (0.0)
1
1 + 1 = 2 (2.6)
34 (100)
24 (100)
58
19 + 58 = 77 (100)
M
F
Below 20000
13 (38.2)
20001-40000
Total
Source: Field Data.
The distribution of sampled respondents on the basis of income in Table
C 14 (a) and C 14 (b) shows that not a single male President/Chairperson in
both the states has annual income of less than Rs. 20000, while in case of
female President/Chairperson a significant percentage – 66.6 per cent in
Assam and 70.8 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh – has an annual income of
below Rs. 20000. It is also observed from the table that in case of male
President/Chairperson in both the states, income category Rs. 60001 –
80000 comprises the highest percentage, followed by Rs. 40001 – 60000 and
Rs. 20000 – 40000 category. However, a nominal percentage – 7.7 per cent
in Assam and 2.9 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh – of male
President/Chairperson have annual income of above Rs. 80001. Thus, it is
evident from the table that male Presidents/Chairpersons in both the states
are more affluent comparing to female Presidents/Chairpersons. Ironically,
not even a single female President/Chairperson is found to have annual
income of above Rs. 80001. Majority of them (70 per cent in Assam and 66.6
per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) have annual income of below Rs. 40000.
As regard the economic status of male and female GP members are
concerned, it is observed from the table that in both the states the
153
percentage of female members in the category of below Rs. 20000 is much
higher (82.1 per cent in Assam and 70.8 in Arunachal Pradesh) than that of
male members (29.8 per cent in Assam and 38.2 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh) and this clearly indicate about the dependence syndrome of the
female representative upon their family members. Further, it is found that
the male representatives are also well heeled than that of female members
in both the states. From these observations it can be mentioned here that the
Panchayat Acts of both the states have opened up new vistas for the rural
masses having different socio-economic background to join PRIs.
Table C 15 (a): Distribution of the respondents
(President / Chairpersons) by Land Holding
Assam
Land
Chairperson
Total
M
F
0-1 acre
2 (14.3)
8 (80.0)
10
2-4 acre
5 (35.7)
2 (20.0)
7
5 acre & above
7 (50.0)
0 (0.0)
7
Total
14 (100)
10 (100)
24
Arunachal Pradesh
Land
Chairperson
Total
M
F
0-1 acre
1 (7.7)
5 (83.3)
6
2-4 acre
7 (53.8)
1 (16.7)
8
5 acre & above
5 (38.5)
0 (0.0)
5
Total
13 (100)
6 (100)
19
Source: Field Data.
154
Table C 15 (b): Distribution of the respondents (Members)
by Land Holding
Assam
Member
Land
Total
Total No.
(Presidents/Chairperson
s + Members)
M
F
0-1 acre
25 (43.9)
35 (89.7)
60
10 + 60=70 (58.3)
2-4 acre
21 (36.8)
4 (10.3)
25
7 + 25 = 32 (26.7)
5 acre & above
11 (19.3)
0 (0.0)
11
7 + 11=18 (15.0)
Total
57 (100)
39 (100)
96
24 + 96=120 (100)
Arunachal Pradesh
0-1 acre
16 (47.1)
19 (79.2)
35
6 + 35=41 (53.2)
2-4 acre
10 (29.4)
5 (20.8)
15
8 + 25=23 (29.9)
5 acre & above
8 (23.5)
0 (0.0)
8
5 + 8=13 (16.9)
Total
34 (100)
24 (100)
58
19 + 58=77 (100)
Source: Field Data.
In rural India, land occupies an important position as it associated with the
socio-economic status of the people. Hence, questions are asked to the
respondents about their land possession. Table C 15 (a) and C 15 (b) reveal
that in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, male Presidents/Chairpersons have
relatively
occupy
larger
size
of
land
than
the
female
Presidents/Chairpersons as well as members. In Assam 50 per cent and in
Arunachal Pradesh 38.5 per cent of the male Presidents/Chairpersons
possess more than 5 acre of land, while not a single female
Presidents/Chairpersons fall in this category. Again, 35.7 per cent (Assam)
and 53.8 per cent (Arunachal Pradesh) of the male Presidents/Chairpersons
possess
2-4
acre
of
land.
Surprisingly,
majority
of
the
female
Presidents/Chairpersons (80 per cent in Assam and 83.3 in Arunachal
155
Pradesh) in both the states occupy less than 1 acre of land. The main reason
for such differences between male and female respondents is the pattern of
property ownership as men possess land in their name rather than women.
This indicates a form of discrimination against women so far as land
relation is concerned.
Analysing the land holding of the male and female members it is noticed
that male members in both the states are also in a better position than
female members. The highest concentration of male members (43.9 per cent
in Assam and 47.1 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) is in the category of 0-1
acre, followed by the second category [2-4 acre (36.8 in Assam and 29.4 in
Arunachal Pradesh)] and third category [5 and above (19.3 in Assam and
23.5 in Arunachal Pradesh]. In case of female members it is found that
majority of them (89.7 per cent in Assam and 79.2 in Arunachal Pradesh)
are having 0-1 acre of land. Even not a single female member belong to the
third category (5 acre and above). Hence, it can be concluded that women
representatives are comparatively less affluent than male representatives. It
is only by virtue of reservation facilities that they are able to participate in
the decision making process at the grassroots level. It is thus evident from
the analysis that the sampled GPs are composed of representatives from
various socio-economic backgrounds.
Further, it is required to mention that in course of interaction with the
respondents their material possessions have also been taken into account. It
is observed that in terms of material possession Presidents/Chairpersons in
both Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are in a quite better position. They
possess
household
appliances
(TV,
refrigerator
etc),
means
of
communication (two/three wheeler) as well as agricultural tools. They also
live in pucca houses, while it is observed that majority of the members in
156
both the states live in semi-pucca houses, possess limited household goods.
Interestingly, female Presidents/Chairpersons having low level of annual
income and land holding also possess better household materials. The
reason is that they belong to a comparatively better off family (better
financial position of husband) as against other female members. Thus the
analyses of the above table indicate that there is a trend to choose the rural
elites to the posts of President/Chairperson in both the states.
Table C 16: Distribution of the respondents
by Political Parties’ affiliation
Assam
Arunachal Pradesh
Political Party
M
F
Total
M
F
Total
INC
31
25
56 (46.7)
34
17
51 (66.2)
BJP
15
09
24 (20.0)
--
--
--
AUDF
05
05
10 (8.3)
02
03
05 (6.5)
IND
19
10
29 (24.2)
11
10
21 (27.3)
AGP
01
00
01 (0.8)
--
--
--
Total
71
39
120 (100)
47
30
77 (100)
Source: Field Data.
Political factors play a prominent role in the functioning as well as
implementation of the plan schemes under the PRIs. It is often observed
that the political rivalries between the various factions and groups influence
the smooth working of the decision-making process at the grassroots level.
Thus, to understand the political influence at the local level it is necessary to
highlight the political majority of members in both the states (46.7 per cent
in Assam and 66.2 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) belong to the Indian
National Congress (I), followed by Independent candidates (24.2 per cent in
Assam and 27.3 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh). The strength of the GP
representatives from BJP is only 20 per cent in Assam, while in Arunachal
Pradesh none of the respondents belong to this party. The regional parties
157
like AUDF and AGP has also nominal presence in the sampled areas of
Assam. In Arunachal Pradesh, NCP has only 6.5 per cent of members at the
GP. In course of interaction with the respondents it is observed that
particularly in Assam many of the respondents contested elections as
independent candidates, while after winning election they joined the
political parties (mainly ruling party) and started working for them. The
reason for such kind of attitude lies in enjoying power by remaining close to
the political personnel. However, the existence of members from various
political parties creates differences of opinion in the functioning of the GPs
across the states. In case of Arunachal Pradesh it is quite interesting to note
that some of the GPs are composed of three/four members and among
them half of the members are from one party and the rest from other party.
This kind of division in such small body creates differences of opinion
resulting in the difficulty of selecting the beneficiaries as well as
undertaking rural development programmes. Thus, the party factions
generate problems in realizing the spirit of democracy at the grassroots
level.
Besides, it is also pertinent to know the motive of the representatives for
joining grassroots politics since the performance of the PRIs largely
depends on the commitment of the participants in bringing socio-economic
and political developments. Keeping this in view respondents have been
asked to share their opinion and in response the selected representatives
have pointed out a multiplicity of factors, which are grouped below in a
tabular form.
158
Table C 17: Factors motivated representatives to contest
Panchayat election
Factors
Assam
M
F
Total
Arunachal Pradesh
M
F
Total
Self-motivation
16
(22.5)
05
(10.2)
21
(17.5)
12
(25.5)
03
(10.0)
15
(19.5)
Family members / Friends
06
(8.5)
31
(63.3)
37
(30.8)
05
(10.6)
16
(53.3)
21
(27.2)
Party involvement
34
(47.9)
04
(8.2)
38
(31.7)
23
(48.9)
05
(16.7)
28
(36.4)
Welfare of the locality
11
(15.5)
03
(6.1)
14
(11.7)
05
(10.6)
02
(6.7)
07
(9.1)
Serving women
04
(5.6)
06
(12.2)
10
(8.3)
02
(4.3)
04
(13.3)
06
(7.8)
Total
71
(100)
49
(100)
120
(100)
47
(100)
30
(100)
77
(100)
Source: Field Data.
Table C 17 reveals that a significant number of the representatives in both
Assam (31.7 per cent) and Arunachal Pradesh (36.4 per cent) have joined
the PRIs largely because of party involvement, followed by family
members/friends (30.8 per cent in Assam and 27.2 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh), self motivation (17.5 per cent in Assam and 19.5 per cent in
Arunachal Pradesh), welfare of the locality (11.7 per cent in Assam and 9.1
per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) and serving women (8.3 per cent in Assam
and 7.8 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh). Interestingly, vast majority of
female representatives in both the states (63.3 per cent in Assam and 53.3
per cent in Arunachal Pradesh) stated that they joined PRIs as they are
motivated/influenced by their family members/friends, which is not a
healthy sign for the better performance of the PRIs.
3.4 Summing up: This Chapter presents the brief profile of both the states
along with the selected districts. It also presented the socio-economic and
political profile of the respondents of both the states. The analysis of the
data reveals that there are variations in the composition of the GPs across
159
the districts mainly in the Arunachal Pradesh, while in Assam the GPs have
similar composition. But GPs in both the states are represented by the
people having different socio-economic background. The analyses of the
tables specify that Presidents/Chairpersons in both the states are better off
in comparison to the other members. Sex-wise distribution of respondents
shows that male elected representatives constitute the largest number in
GPs in comparison to female representatives and it is because of their
numerical strength as well as the social structure that male representatives
are dominating the functioning of the PRIs in both the States of Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh. However, gap between male and female representation
has been found more in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Assam mainly
because of the existence of rigid social norms particularly the patriarchal
norms. Age data of the respondents reveal the minimal representation of
youths at the grassroots politics in both the states. Reasons for such less
participation of the youths lie in their careerist attitude. It is also observed
that a higher per cent of GP representatives (both male and female) is in the
age group of 31-40 years, which shows the domination of the middle age
group at the grassroots level. Again, marital status of the respondents
reveals that married group occupies the highest percentage in both the
states and this indicates the low level of interest of the unmarried people in
participating at the grassroots politics.
As regard the social background it is observed that in Assam, general
category constitutes the highest percentage followed by SC, OBC, MOBC
and ST. However, in comparison to female representatives male occupies
significant position in all the categories. It is observed that most of the SC
and women representatives have been contested and elected in the PRIs not
because of their passion but because of the reservation of seats for them.
Conversely, in Arunachal Pradesh, the situation is totally different. Here,
160
reservation of seats is not available for SC and all the representatives belong
to the ST category. But, differences exist among the members of various ST
groups. However, one common fact has been noticed in respect of both the
states is that male representatives have occupied the dominant position in
the PRIs activities. Religion-wise distribution of the respondents of both the
states also show the active involvement of the people irrespective of their
religion in the decision making process at the grassroots politics. Analyzing
the educational data it is observed that representatives from Assam are
more educated than that of Arunachal Pradesh. It is noticed that the
problem of literacy in both the states is grimmer among female
representatives
in
comparison
to
their
male
counterpart. Female
representatives both in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are found
comparatively less qualified than male representatives, which indicate the
reality of women empowerment in the states. However, it is important to
note here that the level of participation of the representatives from illiterate
category is not significant and this proves that educated sections of the
rural people are now gradually coming forward to participate in the PRIs.
The study of Family pattern of the respondents shows that a significant
portion of the representatives in Assam are found to be a part of the nuclear
family system. This shows a decline in joint family system, which has been
a major feature of the rural society since time immemorial. There is an
escalation of individualistic attitudes which is actually bringing a change in
the life-style of the rural masses also. Unlike Assam, in Arunachal Pradesh,
it is observed that majority of the representatives belong to the large family
group (Above 5 members). Further, it is found that the joint family system
is still in existence in Arunachal Pradesh as majority of the respondents
belong to this category. The distribution of respondents on the basis of their
income reveals that male Presidents/Chairpersons in both the states are
161
more affluent comparing to female Presidents/Chairpersons. As regard to
the economic status of male and female GP members, it is observed that in
both the states a great number of female members have a nominal income
comparing to male members, which clearly indicate the dependence
syndrome of the female representatives. An overall analysis of the
economic status of the elected representatives of both the states shows that
individuals from various income levels have got an opportunity to
participate in the activities of the PRIs. Analysing the land holding of the
elected representatives of both Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, it is further
observed that male Presidents/Chairpersons are relatively in a better
position as they occupy larger size of land comparing to female
Presidents/Chairpersons and other members. It is thus clear that size of
landholding is particularly relevant in relation to the holding of the post of
President/Chairman. Again, in terms of material possession also,
Presidents/Chairpersons (both male and female) in both the states are
found in a quite better position than that of the members.
Finally, the distribution of the respondents on the basis of their political
affiliation shows that the largest number of elected representatives
including
Presidents/Chairpersons,
Vice-Presidents
(posts
of
vice-
presidents is not available under APPRA) and members in both the states
belong to the Indian National Congress (I) followed by Independent
candidates. It is worth mentioning here that the presence of Independent
candidates in a large number reflects the enthusiasm of the people to
participate in the PRIs activities. However, in course of interaction it is
found that in Assam there is a tendency on the part of the independent
candidates to join in the ruling political party in the post-election phase
with a view to get advantages. This in turn provides stability in the decision
162
making process at the GP level. But where the numbers of members from
various political parties exist, political factions also prevail.
It is in this background it has become imperative to understand the
working of the PRIs in both Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and to do so a
set of questions have been prepared for the respondents and their responses
are tabulated and analysed in the next chapter.
References:
1.
Pratap Chandra Swain (2008), Panchayati Raj, APH Publishing Corporation,
New Delhi.
2.
Ibid.
3.
Government of India (2005), Arunachal Pradesh Human Development Report,
Department of Planning.
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