above: Mom, Laos middle: Khout, Laos below: Belu (demon), Burma transform themselves into a specific legendary sea creature. Laotian trouser tattoos comprise a magical net of lozenges and rectangles, making the bearer invulnerable. The lozenge additionally symbolised the female genitals, and thus denoted fertility, revitalisation and life itself. Many designs incorporated in Laotian trouser tattoos alluded to sexuality. For example, according to Laotian mythology, Pha-nha-soun bewitches young girls, who see him in dreams shortly before their first menstruation. His tattoo is a stylised representation of a penis with a tuft of horsehair on the glans. This tattoo, worn as an amulet below the waist, is still popular in Thailand, where it is believed to protect men from bullets and daggers. Laotian and Burmese trouser tattoos often had borders of medallions featuring animals and plants. The representations strongly resemble the decorations found on Chinese Han Dynasty artefacts that probably served as incense burners. Along the lower edge of these containers are representations of animals, mostly mythical, in various attitudes, such as hunting or sitting. Above this border are undulating lines, which also resemble those of Laotian tattoos. These lines represent mountains separating the earthly and heavenly realms. Heavenly beings and monstrous mythical creatures Southeast Asian tattoos are not limited to the lower body. In Burma, the body was traditionally divided into twelve areas, each right column, above: Rachasee, Thailand left column: King of Tigers, popular among thieves for its agility, Burma right column, below: Thai with tattooed incantations and formulae on his back, c. 1970 74 left column: Shan man with protective tattoos, Burma, c. 1930 right column: Palaung with fullbody tattoo, Burma, c. 1900 with its own tattoos, most with a magical function. Hindu gods, Buddhas and other sacred figures were usually tattooed on the chest, back or arms, seldom on the stomach or lower body. For example, a shaven head or the back were appropriate locations for one of the various Buddhas, each having its own magical attributes. Depictions of animals were tattooed on the ears, throat, shoulders and lower and upper arms: apes, peacocks, parrots, bats, cats, vultures, tigers and monstrous mythical creatures like the rakshasas, evil spirits that could change their appearance, though they usually took the form of a dog or a vulture. The most important Laotian mythical creatures were the mom, bizarre beings whose forms were determined by the space available for the tattoo, and the half-man, half-hawk khout. This is the Thai equivalent of the Chinese dragon that guards the eastern heavens (the Nâga dragon guards the west, Rakshasas the south, and Ixan, the elephant, the north). Especially popular among young Burmese was an image of belu, a devil or evil spirit that symbolised fertility, aggression and brute force. Animals and devils were always surrounded by an oval outline of letters from the Burmese alphabet, sometimes forming a secret message. The animals could also be composed of letters. Belus, tigers and lions were applied to the hips, sometimes with daggers in their mouths. The pubic area was the ideal location for a peacock or gecko, symbols of lust. The soles of the feet and the palms of the hands were spared due to contagion taboos associated with the two dominant faiths in this region, Hinduism and Buddhism. There was a pervasive belief that a tattoo’s magical powers would disappear upon contact with unclean material, such as offal or human waste. Only the mountain peoples of Burma, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia tattooed their faces. Nonetheless, for a period it was fashionable for young Burmese to wear subtle love spots between the eyes or on the lips. These allegedly exerted magical powers of attraction on the opposite sex. The inhabitants of Shan, the border region between Burma and Laos, were even more extensively tattooed than the Burmese. The Palaung tattooed their lower body to below the calf, and sunrays decorated the back and front of the body from the waist to the neck. Magical squares, rectangles and trigrams containing secret Magic squares from Laos 75 left column: A former Kalingan headhunter, 2000 Calf designs, Manobo woman, c. 1925 left column: Arm tattoo, Manobo woman, c. 1925 the shaman, tambalan. It was believed that tambalans could control supernatural forces with spells. These provided protection against misfortune and evil, and could bring good fortune. The spells were not written in secret signs but in Latin. Believers wore them in a small bag around the neck, or tattooed a concise version on the body. A strict protocol applied when the spell was tattooed: it could only be performed by a tambalan on a Friday, and only after the recipient had recited Catholic prayers and offered sacrifices on the seven preceding Fridays. This is a remarkable example of the melding of customs from two cultures. The tambalan abbreviated the lengthy Latin spells by tattooing only the first letter of each word. The letters were placed below each other and crosses marked the beginning and end. Tattooed spells against accidents, snakebites and witchcraft were much in demand, as were spells that charmed women. As their name suggests, the Negrito, the Philippines’ most ancient inhabitants, are dark-skinned. They live in the mountain forests of Luzon, Mindanao and elsewhere, and decorated themselves with scar tattoos until very recently. Most Filipinos are light-skinned Malays. Tattooing was universal among these Malay tribes and was closely associated with headhunting. Tattooing was practised by the Pintado and Ilokano on the Bisaya Islands, the Igorot and Tinguian on Luzon, and by many tribes on Mindanao. It still occurs in mountainous and rural regions. Men of the Bontoc, an Igorot tribe, could only be tattooed after taking their first head. The Americans, whose first government in the Philippines was established in 1898, prohibited this practice. Until then, headhunting was a way to acquire status, settle differences and appease ancestors. A warrior would display his trophy on a pole outside his hut. The whole village would then celebrate with a feast, worship their heroes and perform magical dances in resistance to the spirits of the vanquished enemy. During such festivities women could be tattooed on their arms and hands. The Kalinga who live in the highlands of Luzon are a formidable tribe. Because of their reputation, they were long able to preserve their ethnic identity and traditional customs, including headhunting. To them, it was the most effective way to resolve external conflicts. Today, tattoos on men and women are purely decorative, but this was not always so. Some older women still bear the special tattoos they earned for transporting food for warriors during headhunting expeditions. Killing men from enemy tribes was the best way for a warrior to succeed within the tribe, and the degree of success was indicated by tattoos. Ironically, on having killed enough enemies, a warrior became eligible for the function of peacemaker and intermediary. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, the Manobo people on Mindanao filed their teeth and blackened them by chewing the ash of burnt bamboo mixed with a fungus. Boys and girls tattooed their upper bodies, arms and legs with magnificent symmetrical patterns admired by all – native and foreigner. Tattooing was right column: Negrito couple facing page: Kalingan woman, 2000 90 91 right column: Dayak warriors, Borneo BORNEO: INSPIRATION FOR NEW TRIBALISM In contrast to the smaller island groups, Borneo maintains a tattooing tradition. Tattooing is a part of daily life among the coastal Iban (Sea Dayak), though the designs have changed. Many men still have the traditional rosettes, but the new generation prefer Chinese dragons, Asian girls, military symbols and other foreign motifs. Historically, the Iban borrowed tattoo motifs from other tribes and adapted them to their own taste. Iban warriors tattooed themselves with images of animals and feared or enigmatic phenomena. In the past, these were representations of tigers, scorpions and crocodiles. During the Second World War, images of aeroplanes were used, and in the 1960s, helicopters appeared. This provides us with a unique insight into the evolution of a lively tattoo culture. Borneo’s interior is an impenetrable region suffused with danger. The swamps, rivers and jungles teem with snakes, tigers and hostile people, who the Europeans, at the time of their first explorations, suspected of cannibalism and headhunting. Few Westerners dared venture here, so descriptions of tattooing on Borneo before 1900 are rare. This immense island swarms with minor tribes living in the hills or along rivers. Tattooing was practiced throughout Borneo, with each tribe preserving its unique tradition. One particular style – that of the Kayan – left: Iban man Bekatan throat design eventually prevailed among the larger tribes. The Kayan are the creative force behind most modern tattoo designs, which they spread among other tribes such as the Iban on the north coast and the inland Kenyah. Kayan woodblock stamps left column: Dayak men, Borneo 102 The Kayan style owes its universality in part to the use of the woodblock-stamp technique. The men of the tribe carved relief patterns into blocks of wood, which could easily be transferred onto the skin. These blocks were loaned, or taken from village to village, where local tattooists used them as templates. Moreover, the various tribes’ tattoo styles were alike because in the course of longer trips men would collect tattoos as proof of their journeys, similar in many ways to passport stamps today. Only friendly tribes were visited because of the very real risk of losing one’s head when visiting unknown areas. Headhunting was indeed a common custom on the island, as the Europeans had suspected. For this reason, tattoos belonging to and identifying specific tribes were more readily seen on women, who were not targeted during raids. Some smaller tribes such as the Bukat and Bekatan were heavily tattooed. Large areas of their bodies were covered with dark patches, the designs being formed by the lines of natural skin colour between. Iban men were the most heavily tattooed of the larger tribes. Designs were copied from other tribes, mainly the Kayan, Kenyah and Bekatan. Even the typical Iban throat motif, which they call katak (frogs) or ‘the thread of the spinning wheel’, is an adaptation of a Bekatan motif. Kayan men – in contrast to the heavily tattooed Iban – had no more than five designs on their thighs and forearms. A design unique to them was the talisman (lukut) on the wrists that prevented the soul from escaping the body. The Kayan believed that if a man fell ill, it meant that his soul had left his body; restored health signalled that the soul had returned. A lukut bead was bound to the wrists with a thread to prevent it escaping again. Later, a tattooed bracelet and bead replaced it, ruling out accidental loss. This is a good example of a specific tattoo motif originating as a temporary decoration, a process that is probably at the root of many tattoo designs. Dogs, rosettes and scorpions Stylised depictions of dogs, scorpions or shrimps are the most common motifs among the Kayan, Iban and Kenyah. These are the names the inhabitants gave to the motifs; the animals themselves have become so stylised that they are barely recognisable. The dog Lukut designs right column and below: Iban throat designs 103 facing page Sakudei woman nursing her children, Siberut left: Siberut and Pagai hand designs filed. Less rigid rules applied to tattooing: it was rarely compulsory and there were no associated rituals or ceremonies. It was only on Timor that men would tattoo themselves during a burial feast, partly to pass the time, and partly because they believed the images would stay dark if applied during a wake. Although tattooing had no associated ceremonies on these island groups, the tattoos themselves often had magical properties. For example, symbols on a woman’s breasts protected her from evil sorcerers and malevolent spirits. Pregnant women were especially vulnerable and required additional magical protection. All the inhabitants of the island Solor, east of Flores, were tattooed. If they arrived in the afterlife without tattoos, they would be chased away by the souls there. This belief was the deciding factor among the peoples of many South Sea cultures when choosing whether or not left: Sakudei tattooing above: Timorese designs 112 113 to their allure. The more beautiful the designs, the greater were her chances of finding a good husband. Her family paid for her tattoos until she married, after which the responsibility fell to the husband’s family. These were also tattoos with religious power and a magical function. They protected woman against all manner of evil during the execution of her daily tasks, and brought good fortune in marriage, life and the hereafter. Members of tribes in Uttar Pradesh in northeastern India had a conch shell tattoo on the wrist symbolising a happy marriage and ensuring a woman would not be widowed in this life or the next. left column: Kutch woman recognised by the lines applied above the eyebrows and on the temples during childhood. Small dots below the navel helped women who were childless or had lost a child through sickness, a custom also observed in the Middle East and North Africa. The tattoos of many hill and jungle tribes were simpler. The designs comprised small lines, circles and dots symbolising celestial bodies. Men of the Pulayar in the hills of Travancore tattooed a crescent and a small dot on their foreheads to represent the moon and a star. The Kota, Toda and Badaga in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu did likewise, but here only women who had one or more children were tattooed in this way. Lotus blossoms and other good luck charms Many symbols of happiness and protection are associated with Hinduism: lotus blossoms, fish, peacocks, triangles and swastikas. A dot or a spot is a common specific against the evil eye (a dot or small cross on the nose has the same purpose in the Middle East and North Africa). Lotus blossoms symbolise purity in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Bengal, it is not uncommon for a Brahman, a member of the elite priestly caste, to refuse to accept water from a girl without a lotus blossom tattooed on her forehead. Fish above: ‘Milkmaids of Krishna’, Punjab Stylised lotus motifs right column: Gond girl 122 emphasised in a number of ways: eating habits, surnames, trades and aspects of outward appearance such as clothing, jewellery and tattoos. Lambani gypsy women could be recognised by a small dot on the left side of the nose, and in the Punjab in northwestern India, a tattoo indicated the trade associated with a woman’s caste, such as milkmaid or spinner. In accordance with this system, most people marry within their caste. The early years of many girls’ lives are dominated by their approaching marriage. From puberty, their mothers and grandmothers train them in the tasks they will have to perform once married, such as housework, and the art of love. Bhumia and Gond girls received the traditional chulwa tattoo just above the nose at the age of five, symbolising their future households tasks. This tattoo is still seen on some women. The same girls would be tattooed around the foot with a line symbolising the elephant god Ganesh, providing them with the strength associated with this god. A horse tattoo on the thigh had a similar purpose. Mothers encouraged daughters to be tattooed because these added Women’s gods and labyrinths Religious depictions guaranteed a woman’s entry to heaven, and once there, that she was recognisable to her ancestors or her dead husband. This tradition was so entrenched that no woman escaped it. Even today, girls of the Ho in Chotanagpur without a religious tattoo are viewed as sinful. The Ho believe that tattoos are the only things that remain visible on a dead soul, and thus aid identification in the afterlife. Parameshwar is the supreme Hindu deity residing in heaven, and not everyone enters with ease. There are not too many obstacles for men, but women once had to have symbolise feminine power and in their most abstract form are depicted as a triangle of dots. Almost all Gond and Bhumia girls had a dotted triangle on the soles of their feet, which protected them from thorns and falls when walking through fields and woods. Depictions of scorpions, snakes, bees or spiders offered magical defence against bites and stings from these creatures. Kamar-Gond women have a peacock tattooed on the shoulder or a scorpion on the back of the hand for protection. Conversely, among the Dômbs, the scorpion was admired for its vitality and energy, and a representation of a cut-open scorpion provided the bearer with the same qualities. A line between or above the eyebrows (angâra or vibhûti) symbolises the small circle of red powder or ash that is usually placed here as a defence against all possible evils. Many Kota and Badaga women living in the Nilgiri Hills had a blue line between their eyebrows that served the same purpose. Irulan snake catchers in the Bay of Bengal traditionally had a vertical line in the middle of their foreheads, probably to protect them from snakebites. Women of the Oráon tribe in Chotanagpur could be left column: Tattooed urban woman below: Badaga forehead and hand motifs right column: Urban tattooist 123 observed many other motifs, mainly geometric patterns, such as crescents, circles and squares. Characteristic of the women were the decorations around the heel and foot resembling socks. Facial tattoos were rare. Travellers visiting the island after Cook provide a record of the changes to the Tahitian tattoo style. Almost immediately after the arrival of the Europeans, the islanders began tattooing realistic depictions on their bodies, and traditional Tahitian tattoos fell into disuse. Charles Darwin, visiting Tahiti in 1835, wrote that the sock motif had almost entirely disappeared, as had the traditional arcs and black patches on the buttocks. European animals such as goats, dogs, pigs, birds and fish had become popular replacements. In 1789, Captain William Bligh, who was later cast adrift after the mutiny on the Bounty, noted that many islanders had a representation of a knight astride a horse tattooed on their legs. left column: Three Tahitians, by Captain Henry Byam Martin R.N., c. 1840 left column: Tahitian ‘sock’ and arm motifs, c. 1800 138 with a small mallet or beating stick, each stroke causing blood to flow. The tattooist would sing as he worked to maintain the rhythm and alleviate the client’s pain. Sometimes the pigment was not pricked directly into the skin but rubbed into the wounds with the blood. Although James Cook may have been an enlightened man for his time, many of the Europeans that followed him were not. Within a hundred years of Cook’s descriptions, the indigenous cultures had all but disappeared and been replaced by societies based on the European model. Customs such as tattooing, cannibalism, human sacrifice and idolatry were considered unacceptable and right column: Gambier Islander swiftly eradicated. One of the few benefits that can be salvaged from this tragedy is that the changes and eventual disappearance of the various tattoo cultures can now be reconstructed from the reports of many other travellers and scientists, such as Charles Darwin, who visited the same islands as Cook. THE ADVANCE OF EUROPEAN ANIMAL MOTIFS In 1768, James Cook sailed from Plymouth, England, aboard the Endeavour for the first time. He rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in spring the following year, reached the paradisaical Society Islands, the most important of which is Tahiti. This coral island with its friendly inhabitants, white beaches, beautiful weather and exquisite women proved enormously attractive to European adventurers. It was only with the greatest difficulty that ships’ captains persuaded the crew to depart with the ships. A few years before Cook’s arrival, a crew dismantled almost half a ship, exchanging the nails, hinges and chains with Tahitian girls for sexual favours. Cook would not have been surprised by the tattoos on Tahiti, as others had reported seeing them several years earlier. Everyone on Tahiti was tattooed, but the designs varied widely. Some aspects of the designs were common to all tribes, however: both men and women had large black patches on their buttocks with arcs leading past the lumbar region to the lowest rib. On girls, these tattoos were marks of honour or signalled the onset of puberty and their suitability for childbearing. Cook and his companions During their stay, one of his crew had his buttocks tattooed in the traditional Tahitian way. Traditional weapons were also popular tattoo designs. Clubs and spears were combined with swords, muskets, cannon and pistols. The Tahitians also managed to realistically depict European measuring instruments and compasses. The palm tree had become a much-loved tattoo. The whole tree including the roots was depicted, climbing from the ankle over the calves. Complete narratives were also tattooed on men’s chests, portraying groups of men in battle or sacrificial scenes. Pressurised by missionaries who arrived on the islands after the explorers, tribal chiefs forbade the practice and tattooing died out soon after the middle of the nineteenth century. Apparently, a woman who dared place a small tattoo on her leg despite the ban was tattooed with a mark of shame on her face on the orders of the tribal chief. left column: Rurutu Islander 139 Zul woman with lip plug and facial tattoo, Nigeria facing page: Danakil woman, Ethiopia, c. 1970 page 202: Bushman woman, Namibia, c. 1960 The tattoos of the Ishan in Edo, a region in Nigeria, are remnants of a fifteenth-century scarification ritual from the city of Benin. The local ruler at the time, concerned that his subjects would move away from the city, ordered that they all be marked with the city’s emblem. Over the centuries this scar evolved into a symbol distinguishing the free citizens of Benin from slaves and foreigners. The practice was forbidden by the British colonial government at the beginning of the twentieth century, but resurfaced years later in the form of a tattoo. 200 Coloured scars in southern Africa Coloured scars are common to the southern tribes of Nigeria and in southern Africa. Nigerian Yoruba women, for example, traditionally rub a mixture of charcoal and indigo into scars on their breasts to intensify the colours. Nowadays, some have facial tattoos, and curling motifs, zigzag lines and letters on their calves. The coloured, raised scars, known as uri, of the Ibo in Nigeria, consist of three rows of incisions from the throat to the belly and another two rows around the midriff. The tattooist slightly parts page 203: Fulani-Bororo nomads, Niger, c. 1970 page 204: Fulani-Wodaabe nomads, Niger, c. 1970 page 205: Chokwe woman, Namibia, c. 1960 201 SIGNS OF HONOUR FOR PRIVILEGED WARRIORS Lapowinsa, Delaware chief, by Gustavus Hesselius, 1735 Osage chief with ceremonial tattoos, 1897 In addition to war symbols, there were other marks of distinction that could only be worn by warriors with privileged status. A Mohave ‘custodian of the scalps’, for example, had a T-shaped design on both cheeks. On the Plains, only the best Osage warriors and custodians could have the ‘Honour Packs of War’ tattoo on their back and chest. The ‘Honour Packs of War’ design consisted of a sacred stone knife and the tribe’s ceremonial pipes. Each ‘custodian of the pipes’ had a chevron pattern tattooed on the chest. Various parts of the design symbolised the knife, the pipes and sunrays or wigwams. Skulls indicated that the bearer had killed enemies in war, symbolised vitality and prolonged the life of the bearer by the number of days that his victim would have lived had he not been killed. 254 It was a great honour for Omaha or Ponca people to be allowed to join the Hon’hewachi, the ‘night dance’ or ‘those blessed by the night’. The honour of participation was bestowed on men who distributed more than 100 presents during a potlatch (a ceremony in which the host gave away huge quantities of gifts to acquire prestige). A man so honoured was also entitled to have the Xthexe, the tribal emblem of prestige, tattooed on his oldest daughter’s chest. This design represented the sacred Waxthe’xe staff, which, with the ceremonial pipes, symbolised tribal unity. If a man distributed more gifts during a subsequent potlatch he could tattoo another female member of his family with other marks of honour. Because of the status associated with these tattoos, choosing the recipient could often cause resentment. Some girls had a turtle or waxing moon on the neck or hand, which, in combination, symbolised the powers of water and wind. Girls who did not have the right to these motifs were freely tattooed with a variety of Ponca girl, by George Catlin, 1832 figures. These included the disc of the Plains peoples or a four-pointed star on the forehead. Together these signified the union of a man and a woman and also functioned as a fertility symbol. Tattooing honour signs was an expensive ceremony with many associated rituals. The Xthexe and the emblems related to the Hon’hewachi could only be tattooed by a tattooist from the fellowship. This position was hereditary and his powers were obtained from visions. The tattooist used a number of needles bound together and decorated at one end with small bells or the rattles from a rattlesnake. Steel needles replaced wood splinters at the end of the nineteenth century. Traditionally, the operation concluded with the tattooist sucking the charcoal-rich blood from the wounds of the freshly tattooed girl. either not deeply tattooed, or was merely painted on the skin. The French naval officer Bernard Bossu was present when a Quapaw chief decided that a warrior had not earned the tomahawk tattoo on his chest and ordered that it be cut away. Sympathising with the fraudster, Bossu suggested an alternative method. He anaesthetised him with opium, removed the tomahawk tattoo with Spanish fly (derived from the blister beetle and containing cantharidine which causes blistering of the skin), and dressed the wound with banana leaves. CLAN TOTEMS It was common for men of many Native American tribes to have clan, tribe or personal totems tattooed on the chest. These strengthened bonds within the tribe and provided the bearer with the characteristics of the totem animal. The Plains Crow and Blackfoot called their Arapaho neighbours ‘the Tattooed People’, as all the men had all three tribal symbols tattooed on their chests. Men throughout the sub-Arctic region tattooed their totem on their chests, hoping that it would strengthen their inner bond with their Manitou, a supernatural power or spirit. A Manitou appearing in a dream could also be sufficient reason to tattoo a totem, and the depictions themselves were inspired by dreams. Designs included buffalo heads, thunderbirds, horse tracks, suns and stars. The bear was the most popular totem among warriors of the western Dené. The tribes had a deep faith in the magical powers of their shaman and in the existence of good and evil spirits. The shaman interpreted their visions, mediated between the tribe and the spirits, and cured their illnesses. He was also the ‘Owner of the tattooing bundle’, and thus the only right column: Dene man below: West Dene patterns one who could perform the procedure. Drumming and sacred songs accompanied the tattooing of personal totems and other important designs. The shaman used a knife or several needles bound together. To cry out was considered a sign of weakness and men would sooner bite off their tongues. Clan tattoos were also customary among the Haida, Bellabella and Kwakiutl living on America’s northwest coast. The Haida of Queen Charlotte’s Island, and the Kaigani, a Haida tribe inhabiting the south Alaskan Prince of Wales Archipelago were renowned until the twentieth century for their splendid and strikingly coloured tattoos. Men and women had tattoos on the chest, the front of the thighs, the lower leg and between the shoulder blades. Women were also tattooed on the lower arm, the hands and the knuckles. These tattoos indicated the women’s totem families: Bear, Beaver, Wolf or Eagle, or one of the fish families. They were especially useful when identifying important individuals at feasts and below: Western Dene totems left column: Kwakiutl sun design right column: Haida totems 255