1. art and entertainment
2. visual art and design
3. drawing

CHAPTER TWO
LAYOUTS AND
LETTERING
OBJECTIVES
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Identify six types of technical drawings based on the projection
system they use .
2.
Identify the line patterns used in technical drawings and describe
how they are used.
3.
Read and measure with the architects' scale, engineers' scale, and
metric scale.
4.
Identify standard drawing media and sheet sizes.
S.
Add lettering to a sketch.
6.
Fill in a standard title block with the appropriate information.
7.
Lay out a drawing sheet.
Refer to the following standards:
•
•
•
•
Y14.100-2004 Engineering Drawing Practice
Y14.2M-1992 Line Conventions and Lettering
Y14. 1- 2005 Decimal Inch Drawing Sheet Size and Format
Y14. 1M-2005 Metric Drawing Sheet Size and Format
LAY 0 U T SAN D LET T E R I N G
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OVERVIEW
Two dimensional technical drawings, whether they
They also include an "alphabet of lines," where each
are sketched by hand, drawn using instruments,
line of the drawing represents certain information.
drawn using a CAD program , or generated from 3D
Lettering is also standardized, to make drawings quick
solid models, follow certain rules so that they can be
to create and easy to read and reproduce. Standard
correctly interpreted. Unlike artistic drawings, which
sheet sizes for drawings include a title block that pro­
communicate self expression and emotional content,
vides important information such as the drawing
technical drawings communicate how to manufacture
name, company information, scale, revision numbers,
or construct a product, system, or device. In order to
and approvals for relea se of the d rawing.
clearly describe this information, technical drawings
adhere closely to formal standards.
These formal standards include systems of projec­
tion for developing and understanding drawing views.
Check the sites below for engineering graphics supplies and
equipment
• http://www.reprint-draph ix.com/
• http:/ /www.eclipse.net / -essco /draft/d raft.htm
• http: / /www.graphic-design .com /Type /index.htm l
24
C HAP T E R 2
LAY 0 U T SAN D LET T E R I N G
Picture plane or
plane of projectiOn)
Projectors ~
Behind every 20 drawing of an object is a space relationship
involving the object and three "imagined" things :
h~f
ed
9
a
UNDERSTANDING PROJECTIONS
C
b
(a) Perspective Projection
Pictur e plane or
plane of projectiOn)
Parallel
projectors ~
I. The observer 's eye, or station point
2. The plane of projection
3. The projectors (also called visual rays or lines of sight).
Figure 2.1 shows two drawings of a shape projected onto
a plane as viewed by an observer, whose eye represents the sta­
tion point. The lines projecting from the corners (or vertices) of
the object are the imagined lines, called projectors.
To understand projection, imagine that the drawing is pro­
duced hy points, called piercing points, where the projectors
would pierce the projection plane. The drawing may be a two­
dimensional representation on a sheet of paper, or it may be a
two-dimensional representation shown on your computer
screen. as shown in Figure 2.2, but the basic principles are the
same . One reason 20 projection skills remain relevant, even
with the advent of 3D modeling, is that computer monitors still
display a 20 view on their flat screens .
Types of Projections
(b) Parallel Projection
2.1
The Concept of Projection
There are two main types of projection: perspective and
parallel. These are broken down into subtypes as shown in
Figure 2.3.
In perspective projections, the projectors come together
at the station point to form a cone, as in Figur e 2.1a. Perspec­
tive drawings represent objects as we see them or as they would
appear in a photograph.
in parallel projections, the projectors are parallel, as
shown in Figure 2.1b.
Orthographic projections are one type of parallel projec­
tion . In orthographic (meaning right-angle) projections, the
parallel projectors are perpendicular to the plane of projection.
Because orthographic projections show objects in a way that
their features can be represented at true size or scaled at a pro­
portion of true size. they are especially useful in specifying the
dimensions needed in technical applications.
If the projectors arc parallel to each other. but are at an
angle other than 90° to the plane of projection, the result is
called an oblique projection.
Technical drawings of 3D objects usually use one of four
standard types of projection, shown in Figure 2.3:
•
•
•
•
2.2 A View of a 3D Object "Projected" onto a
Computer Monitor
Multiview
Axonornetric (isometric)
Oblique
Perspective
Multivicw projection shows one or more neces sary
views. Either of two systems are used to arrange the views in a
multiview drawing: Third Angle or First Angle. You will learn
about rnultiview projection in Chapter 4.
Axonometric, oblique, and perspective sketches are meth­
ods of showing the object pictorially in a single view. They will
be discussed in Chapters 14, 15, and 16.
The main types of projection are listed in Table 2.1.
Oblique
proje ction
One-p oint
perspective
Two-point
perspective
RS
Third- angle
projection
1
Three-point
perspective
2.3
Trim etric
projection
Classification of Projections
Table 2.1 Classification by Projectors.
Clas5 of Projection
Distance from Observer to
Plane of Projection
Direction of Projectors
Perspective
Finite
Radiating from station point
Parallel
Infinite
Parallel to each oth er
Obl ique
Infinite
Parallel to each oth er and oblique to plane of projection
Orthographic
Infinite
Perpendicular to plane of projection
Axonometric
Infinite
Perpendicular to plane of proj ection
Multiview
Infinite
Perpendicular to plane of projection
26
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND LETTERING
Drawing Vocabulary
Drawing line s, lettering, mea surement system s, scale, sheet
sizes and title blocks are pre sent ed in this chapter.
Drawing Lines Projected drawing views use spec ific line
patterns to repre sent object features. For example, when show­
ing a three dimensional ohj ect , som e lines represent the ed ges
of surfaces that are hidden from that viewing direction. These
hidden line s have a dashed line pattern to help the reader
understand the drawing. Another type of line indicates the
location of the cent er of a sym metric feature. such as a hole.
Familiarity with the type s of lines used in technical drawing s
help s you read drawings and create drawings that others can
easily understand.
Lettering The shapes of letters that arc easy to read and
write arc described as part of drawing standards. Oft en free­
hand sketching is used early in the de sign pro ces s to present
idea s and showing note s and information legibly helps present
your idea s to others cle arly. Good lettering often make s or
breaks a sketch .
Measurement Systems Two me asurements sys tems are
used for technical dr awings: the met ric sy stem and U.S . ens­
tornury unit s. It is important to be familiar with both measure­
ment system s to create and read drawings that are nsed
worldwide.
Scale Obvionsly a large item, a house or bridge for exam­
ple, cannot be shown full size on a paper sheet. To clearly convey
important information about particularly large or small objects,
you need to select an appropriate sheet size and show drawings
to scale (proportionately smaller or larger than the actual size).
Standard lettering sizes for drawings depend on the sheet size .
Title Blocks Company information, the drawing scale ,
sheet size, and other information is included in a standard title
block located in the lower right corner of the drawing to make it
eas y to locate these important detail s on every drawing layout.
2.1 ALPHABET OF LINES
Th e meaning of each line on a technical drawing is indicated
by its width (thi ck or thin) and its particular line style. The per­
son who reads the drawing will dep end on the se line styles to
know if a line is visible or hidden, if it represents a center axi s,
or if it conveys dimension information.
To make your drawings easy to read, make the contrast be­
tween thick and thin line s distinct. Thick lines (0.6 rnm) should
be twice the width of thin lines (0. 3 mm ) as shown in
Figure 2.4. The line gage in Figure 2.5 sho ws various widths.
Figure 2.6 shows freehand line technique. You may find it
helpful to lise 1/8 " graph paper at first to get a feel for the length
of dashe s used in hidden lines and ccnterlines, Soon you will
be able to estimate the lengths by eye .
Figure 2.7 illustrates line styles for technical drawings. All
lines (except constructio n lines) mnst be sharp and dark. For
visible, cutting-plane, and short-break line s use thick lines .
Thin drawing line s should be just as sharp and black, but only
half the thickness of thick line s. Construction lin es and letter­
ing guide lines should be thin and light so that they can barely
be seen at ann 's length and need not be erased. All line s should
be uniform in width and darkness. Ideal lengths of the dashes
used to form the line patterns are also shown in Figure 2.7.
Thick (0.60 mm)
Thi n (0 .30 mm)
2.4
.007 in .
.010 in .
.012 in .
.014 in.
.020 in .
.024 in .
.18mm
.25mm
.30mm
.35mm
.50mm
.60mm
.028 in .
.031 in .
.039 in.
.047 in .
.055 in .
.079 in.
.80mm
.70mm
2,5
Centerline Dashes
Thick and Thin Drawing Lines
,
2.6
..
----' 4~~
Too thick for a cent erline
,
,
Good and Poor Freehand Line Technique
2.00mm
Too thic k for a hidd en line
..
(Sharp, dark and thick )
..
Too ind efinite, too light
_____ ___ .-- .... _
,
1.40mm
Visible Lines
(Dark and th in with sharp ends)
Too indefinite, too light
1.20mm
Line Gage
,
-----
1.00mm
Hidden Line Dashes
(Dark and thin with sharp ends)
,
I I I I
~
..
,
'" Not a straight path
. 1'
,
'Too light
'
..
..
2 .1
AL P H ABE T 0 F LIN E S
Visible line
Hidden line
Section line
Thin
3.2mm (.12")-U-
_
1.6mm (.06")
_I 1
:.-.
1.6mm (.06")
_Ii
_
~
~
Center line
Thin
!-19-38mm - 1
(.75-1 .5")
3.2mm (.12")_1
II
Symmetry
Thin.-l
Dimension line,
Ext ension line
•
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Thin
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Leaders
1­
3mm (.125") horizontal tail
~ 3mm (.125") arrow
LThiCk-I r---- -- - - -- -- -- --1-- ~! ~
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1.6mm (.06")
6.4mm (.25") --1
,
Cutting-plane
lines
- 11-1.6mm(.06")
Thick
Viewing-plane
lines
!-19-38mm
(.75-1.5")
Thick
--c
Short-break line
Long-break line
Phantom line
_ _3.2mm (·12")- Lt_ J
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r-~mm (.06")
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Stitch lines
1.6mm (.06")
Thick
- 11-1.6mm (.06")
I
-----~---.-------.;
Thin
2.7
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19-38mm
1-(.75-1.5") ­
Alphabet of Lines (Full Size)
I
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i:% ,/
r
y::X: __ " ,
1-(.75-1.5")-1
Chain lines
~~
Freehand
or freely drawn
27
28
CHAPTER 2
L A Y O UT S AN D
LET T ERI NG
2.2 FREEHAND LINES
The main difference between an instrument or CAD drawing
and a freehand sketch is in the appearance of the lines. A good
freehand line is not expected to be precisely straight or exactly
2.3 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
:::
When you create a technical drawing, the item you show will
be manufactured or constructed using a particular system of
measurement, which you indicate on the drawing. The metric
system is the world standard used for measuring lengths.
10
­
2.3.32-
uniform, as is a CAD or instrument-drawn line. Freehand lines
show freedom and variety. Freehand construction lines are
very light, rough lines. All other lines should be dark and clean.
­
4 X 112.20 THRU
45-
-+-+
U.S. Customary Units
55-
-
u.s. customary
units based on inch-foot and yard measure­
ments (where a yard equals exactly 0.9144 meters, there are
3 feet to the yard. and 12 inches to the foot) continue to be used
in the United States. Drawings may use either measurement
system and still follow ANSI!ASME drawing standards as long
as the system of measurement is stated clearly on the drawing.
Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9 show the same part dimensioned with
the two different measurement systems.
L._ _....u..---''-----'_.L&-......;-'~
4 X Rl.3
POCKET T 5
2.8
A Drawing Dimensioned Using Metric Units
The Metric System
4 X ~2 .20 '[}JRU
4 X R2.6.3
POCKET T 1.0
2.9 A Drawing Dimensioned Using U.S. Customa ry
Units
"1?l....
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2.00 [0.079]
4.6.3 (0.182]­
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[~0 .0 87]
9.00 [0..354)
11.00 [ 4.3.3J -
-
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4 X R2.6.3[10.3J
POCK ET w 1.0[.04]
2.10 A Dual Dimensioned Drawing Using U.S .
Customary Units as th e Primary Units
Today's metric system is the International System of Units.
commonly referred to as SI (from the French name, Ie Systerne
Internat ional d' Unites), It was established in 1960 by interna­
tional agreement and is now the international standard of
measurement, with all countries in the world adopting it,
although some continue using traditional U.S. units to a greater
or lesser degree.
The meter was established by the French in 179 1 with a
length of one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth's
equator to the pole. A meter equals 39.37 inches or approxi­
mately 1.1 yards.
The metric system for linear measurement is a decimal
system similar to the U.S. system of counting money. For
example,
Imm = I millimeter ( 1/1000 of a meter)
[ em = I ce ntimeter (1/100 of a meter)
= IOmm
Idm = I decimeter ( 1/ lO af a meter)
10cm = l aO mrn
= I meter
1m
= 100 ern = 1000 mrn
lkm = 1 kilometer = 1000 m
= 100 ,000 ern = 1,000 ,000 mm
The primary unit of measurement for engineering draw­
ings and design in the mechanical industries is the millimeter
(rn rn). Secondary units of measure are the meter (m) and the
kilometer (km). The centimeter (em) and the decimeter (dm)
are rarely used on drawings.
2 .4
Som e indus tries ha ve used a du al dimensioning system o f
millimeters and inches on drawings. How ever, this pract ice can
be con fusin g becau se the sizes displ ayed in the two sys tems
may co ntain rounding enol's. If two systems are sho wn, the pri­
mar y unit s are used for a ll manufacturing me asurem ent s and
the seco nda ry system unit s (sho wn in parenth eses) are for ge n­
era l informati on purp oses only. Figure 2. 10 shows a dr awin g
usin g dual dimen sion ing. Most large manufa cturers use all
met ric dim ension s on the dr aw ing for ease and cons istency .
D R AW I N G
sc xL E
29
Many of the dimen sions in the illu strati on s and the prob­
lem s in this text are give n in metric unit s. Dim en sions that are
give n in U.S. c ustomary units (inches and fee t, either decimal
or fractional ) can be conv erted eas ily to metri c values. In stan­
dard practi ce, the ratio J in. = 25 .4 ITIm is used . Decimal equiv­
alent s tables can be found ins ide the back cover, and
conv ersion tabl es are give n in Appendix 3 1. Many hand y unit
co nversion sites are also avail able on the Web , at sites such as
www .onl inecon version .com.
2.4 DRAWING SCALE
Unl ike dra win g usin g a computer (where an object is drawn at
its actual size so that the inform at ion stored in the co mputer file
is acc urate) a pri nted or paper drawing may represent the ob­
je ct at its ac tual size (full size) , or may be larger or smaller than
the object, dep ending on the size o f shee t used . Drawing scale
is the reduction or enlarge me nt of the drawn o bject relative to
the real o bject (Figure 2. 11).
Planeof projectiOn)
H,1fscale ' 2
fL.,
~
Full scale
Scale is stated as a rati o of the number of drawing unit s to
the number of actual units. Fo r exa mple, a mach ine part may be
sho wn on a shee t at half its actual size . a scale of I :2; a build­
ing may be drawn 1148 of its size , a scale of 1:48 (or in U.S.
customary unit s, 114" I'); a ma p may be drawn 1/1200 actual
size, a scale of I" = I00 ' o r I : 1200 ; or a print ed circuit board
may be drawn four time s its size, a scale of 4:1.
=
l
Twi" scale 2" ~
~
,
D
1:1~
2.11
Reduced and Enlarged Scale. Many drawings mu st be shown at reduced scale for the object to fit on th e
pap er.
2.5 SPECIFYING THE SCALE ON A DRAWING
There are severa l accept abl e meth od s to note scale on the
drawin g, but all of them sho w the relati on ship o f the size of the
objec t as drawn to the siz e of the ac tua l objec t. For a part that
is sho wn on the pap er at hal f its actua l size, list the sca le one o f
these three ways :
Pre fer red metri c scale ra tios arc I: I; I:2; I :5, I: 10, I :20, 1:50,
I: 100, and 1:200.
Map sca les are indi cated in term s of prop orti on s suc h as
Scal e 1:62500 , fracti on s such as Seale 116250 0, o r graphically,
suc h as 400 0 400 800 Ft
111M.
,
,
•
SCALE: 1:2
SC ALE: 1/2
SCALE: .5
For machin e drawings, the sca le indic ates the ratio o f the
size o f the drawn object to its ac tua l size, regardle ss or the unit
of measurement used. Expansion or enlarge me nt sca les arc
given as 2: I, 4:1; 5:1, 10:1, and so on. Figure 2. 11 illustrates
how the actua l object relates to a draw ing at half size and how
that might be noted in the title block of the drawing. Figure 2. 12
shows the scale for a I to 24 redu ction noted in a title block.
Architectural drawings in the U.S. typically list the scale based
on the number of fractions of an inch on the drawing that represent
one foot 0 11 the aetna] object. For example, SCALE : 118" = I'.
The variou s sca le ca libra tions available on the metri c scale
and the en gineer s' sca le pro vid e alm ost unlimited sca le ratios.
224j224-4W D IN G ROUND DYNO
Sta nd ard Whe el Base 88 X 130
8 1224103
i!O.t.A$fDAft :
2.12
2123noo1
List Predominant Drawing Scale in the Title Block.
Court esy of Oynojet Research, Inc.
30
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND LETTERING
2.6 SCALES
Scales are mea suring tools used to quickly enlarge or reduce
drawing measurements. Figure 2.13 shows a number of sca les,
including (a ) metric, (b) engineers' , (c) decimal (d) mechanical
engineers', and (e) architects' scales. On a full-divided scale,
the basic units are subdivided throughout the length of the
scale . On open-divided scales. such as the architects' sca le,
only the end unit is subdivided.
Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood. The
better wood scales have white plastic edges. Scales can be
(a) Metric scale
(b) Engineer's scale
(c) Decimal scale
(d) Mechanical
Engineer's scale
(c) Architect's scale
(I) Scale guard
2.13
Types of Scales
either triangular or flat. The triangular scales combine
se ve ral scales on one stick by using each of the triangle' s
three side s. A scale guard sho w n in Figure 2.l3f can sa ve
time and prevent errors by marking the s ide of the scale
currently in use .
Several scale s that are based 011 the inch-foot system of
measurement continue in domestic use today, along with the
metric system of mea surement, which is accepted worldwide
for scien ce, technology, and international trade .
2.7
M ETRIC SC ALES
31
2.7 METRIC SCALES
Metr ic sca les are ava ilab le in flat and triangular styles with a
variety of scale graduations. T he triangular sca le illu strated
(Fig ure 2. 14) has one full-size scale and live redu ced -size
sca les, all full y d ivided . Usin g these sca les, a drawi ng ca n be
made full size, enlarged size d, or redu ced sized.
Full Size The I : I scale (Fig ure 2.14a top ) is full size , and
eac h division is actuall y I mm in width with the num bering of
the calib rations at 10 mrn inter vals. T he sa me sca le is also con­
venie nt for ratios of I: 10, I : 100, I : WOO, ancl so on.
Half Size T he 1:2 sca le (Figure 2. 14a bott om) is one­
half size, and eac h divi sion equals 2 m in wi th the ca libra tio n
1:1 Ratio
metric-scale
(full size)
1---­
- - -48.5 mm ­
numbering at 20- unit intervals. Thi s scale is also co nve nie nt
for rati os of 1:20, 1:20 0. I :2000, and so on.
Th e rema ining four scales o n this tri angular metr ic sca le
include the typ ical sca le rati os of I:5, I:25. and I:75 (Figures
2. 14b and c). Th ese ratios ma y also be enlarge d or redu ced
by multipl yin g or divi d ing by a factor of 10. Met ric sca les are
also avail abl e with othe r sca le ratio s for specific draw ing
purpose s.
Metri c scales are also used in map drawin g and in drawing
force diagrams or other graphical co ns truc tions that involve
such sca les as I mm = I kg and I mITI = 500 kg .
- - - - I
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metric-scale
(one-fifth size)
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metric-scale
(half-size)
-175 mm--­
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L
20 mm--1r
50 mm1000 mm (1 meter)_
1:25 Rati o
metric-scale
1 :33'/) Ratio
metric-scale
(c)
1 :75 Ratio
metric-scale
2.14
Metric Scales
32
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND
LETTERING
MAKING MEASUREMENTS TO LAY OUT
A ONE-FIFTH SIZE METRIC DRAWING
3500~
-
,
-2500-
500 -
I
70 rnrn, on the: ,::::---­
full metric scale
2500
f
1100
~
I
I
Check length of your scaled line by calculating how
many millimeters the length should he. then measur­
ing the line you have drawn with a full scale metric scale. In
this case the 3500 rnm length should be 70 rum when shown
at I :50 scale.
Determine the full size measurements of the object
you will draw. This example will layout a 3500 x
2500 111m flat plate with a rectangular slot in it. A picture of
the part to be drawn with dimensions representing its actual
size is sho wn above .
Find your 1:5 ratio metric scale. like this one.
e--:
For accuracy,
mark several
distances wi thout
repositioning
scale
Continue to layout the remaining lengths. Even slight
errors in measurements when using a scale may accu ­
mulate to produce a significant error, so work carefully.
To avoid cumulative errors. instead of setting off distances
individually by moving the scale to a new position each
time . po sition the scale once and mark all of the distances by
adding each success ive mea surement to the preceding one .
Starting from the 0 end of the 1:50 scale, use a sharp
pencil to make a thin , light. short line to mark off the
length of the 3500 nun line. To make accurate mea sure­
ments. be sure to place the scale edge parallel to the line you
are measuring on the drawing. and make your dashes at right
angles to the scale. at the correct graduution mark, as shown.
This is useful in dimensioning drawings, too . Keep in mind
that providing dimensions from one end to each successive
location (say. in the case of building a wall) makes it easier
for the worker to lay it out quickl y and accurately.
2.8
ENG I NE E R S ' S e A L E S
33
2.8 ENGINEERS'SCALES
An Engineers' scale is a decimal sca le graduated in unit s of
I inch divided into 10,20,30,40,50, and 60 parts. These scales
are also frequ ently called the civil engineers ' scales becau se
they were originally used in civil e ngineering to draw large
scale structures or maps. Som etimes the engineers' sca le is
referred to as a chain scale. becau se it deriv ed from a chain of
100 link s that surve yors used for land measurements.
Becau se the eng ineers' scale divides inches into decimal
units, it is co nve nient in machin e drawing to se t off inch
2.15
dim ensions expressed in decimals. For example, to set off
1.650 " full size, use the 10 scale and simply set off one main
div ision plus 6-1/ 2 subdivisions (Fig ure 2.15 ). To set off the
same dim en sion half size , use the 20 sca le, since the 20 scale is
exactly hal f the size of the 10 scale. Similarly. to set off the
dimension quarter size, use the 40 scale.
An engineers' scale is al so used in drawing stress dia grams
or oth er graphical co nstructions to such scales as I" = 20 lb.
and I" = 4000 lb.
Engineers' Scale
2.9 DECIMAL INCH SCALES
The wide spread use of decimal inch dim en sion s brought abou t
a scale spec ifica lly for that use. On its full- size scale, each incb
is divided into fiftieths of an inch , or .02". On half- and
2.16
quarter-size decimal sca les , the inches are co mpressed to half
size or quarter size and then are divided into 10 part s, so that
each subdivisio n stands for . 1" (Fig ure 2. 16).
Decimal Inch Scale
2.10 MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' SCALES
The object s represent ed in machin e draw ing vary in size from
small parts that measur e only fractions of an inch to part s of
large dimension s. For this reaso n, mechanical e nginee rs' scales
are divid ed into units representing inche s to full size, half size,
quarter size, or eighth size (Figure 2.17). To dra w an obj ect to
a scale of one-half size , for example. use the mechanical engi­
neer s' scale mark ed half size , which is grad uated so that eve ry
1/2" represent s I 'I. In othe r word s, the half- size sca le is simply
a full-size scale compressed to half size.
2.17 Mechanical Engineers' Scale
These sca les are useful in dividing dim ensions. For exam­
ple. to draw a 3.6" diam eter circ le full size, we need half of 3.6"
to use as radiu s. Instead of usin g math to find half of 3.6" . it is
easier to se t off 3.6" on the half- size sca le.
.---- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Triangular combination scales are available that include
tull- and half-size me chanical engineers' scales, several
architects ' scales, and an engineers' scale all on one stick.
34
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND
LETTERING
Full size scale
(16 divisions
per inch)
Note that the increments for the 3/16 scale
begin at the 0 closest to the scale indicator
Start at this 0 for
measurements using
_
the 3/32 scale
2.18 Architects' Scale
2.11 ARCHITECTS' SCALES
The architects' scale is intended primarily for drawings of
buildings. piping systems, and other large structures that
mu st be drawn to a reduced scale to fit on a sheet of paper.
The full-size scale is also useful in drawing relatively small
object s, and for that reason this scale has rather general
usage.
Architects' scales have one full-size scale and ten reduced­
sized scales. (To fit them all on a three-sided scale, there arc
two scales on the same edge of the scale, but each starts from
the opposite end. Simply find the scale you want, and read the
units from the zero closest to that end .
Architects ' scales can be used to draw various sizes from
fuJI size to 1/128 size . In all of the reduced scales, the major
divisions represent feet and their subdivisions represent inches
and fractions of inches .
Note that on an architects' scale. the scale mark ed 3/4
means 3/4 inch = I foot , not 3/4 inch = 1 inch (that is, it means
one -sixteenth size, not three-fourths size). Similarly. on an
architects' scale. 1/2 mean s 1/2 inch = I foot , not 1/2 inch =
1 inch. In other words. on an architects ' scale, 1/2 means
twenty-fourth-size, not half size.
• Full Size: Each division in the full -size scale is 1/16"
(Figure 2.18). Each inch is divided into halves, then quar­
ters, eighths, and finally sixteenths. You'll notice that the
dividing lines are shorter with each subdivision.
Measurements smaller than 1/16" must be made by esti­
mating. For example, 1/32" is half of one 1/16", so you
would visually estimate halfway between 1/16" division
line s. To measure 1/64", you would estimate one fourth of
1/16", and so on .
• Half Size : Use the full-size scale, and divide every dimension
by two. (Remember, do not use the 1/2" scale, which is
intended for drawing to a scale of 1/2" = I', not half-size .)
To create a half scale drawing using an architects' scale, divide
your measurements in half and then layout the drawing.
• Double Size: Use the full-size scale. and multiply every
dimension by 2.
.---- TIP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
AutoCAD software users sometimes become confused
using architectural units. When selecting architectural units
in which to enter lengths, keep in mind that a value of 1 is
one inch, not one foot.
2.1 1
ARC H I TEeT S'
35
S CAL E S
MEASURING WITH AN ARCHITECTS' SCALE
Division lines represent 3/8"
increments (in this case, I at
full scale
\
\
\
DECK
'I.
\
\,
\
~
II
\~
\'1.
\\
I
SCALE 3/8" = "
To make measurements with an
architects' scale, first determine
which scale to lise hy reading the scale
noted in the title block or noted below
the view. In the example above, 3/8
inch = I foot.
Fractional division lines
represent' " at full scale*
DECK
Position the scale so that the 0
value is aligned with the left
end of the line being measured and
note the division mark nearest to the
line's right end (in this case, 2).
Slide the scale to the right so that
the closest whole division you
noted in Step 2 lines up with the right
end of the line you are measuring.
A fractional portion of the line you are
measuring now extends on the left,
past the scale's 0 mark.
Counting toward the left, note how
many fractional division marks are
between zero and the left end of the
line. (In this example, there are two.)
Add the fractional value to the whole .
value that you noted in Step 2. In this
example. you noted 2 whole division
lines, plus two fractional division
lines, so the length of the line is 2'-2"
at actual size.
DECK
Division line is
now aligned with
the other end of
the line being
measured
Add the inches, counti ng
back from the 0 value
/
' On architects ' scales, there lire 12 fractional divisions, because there are 12 inches per/oat.
\
\
\'),
\
~
\
\
II
\'1.
36
CHAPTER
2
LAYOUTS AND
ABCDEFGH
abcdefgh
Sans-serif lettering has no serifs,
or spurs, at the ends of the strokes
ABCDEFGH
abcdefgh
Roman letters are accented by
thick and thin line weights
ABCDEFGH
abcdefgh
Italic letters are slanted,
whether serif or sans serif
2.19 Distinctions Between Roman,
Italic, Serif, and Sans Serif Lettering
LETTERING
2.12 LETTERING
Lettered text is often necessary to completely describe an object or to provide detailed
specifications. Lettering should be legible, be easy to create, and use styles accept­
able for traditional drawing and CAD drawing.
Engineering drawings use single-stroke sans-serif letters because they are highly
legible and quick to draw . (San s-serif means without serifs, or spurs.) A font is the
name for a particular shape of letters . The particular font for engineering drawings is
called Gothic. Figure 2.19 shows the distinctions between Roman, italic, serif and
sans serif fonts .
Lettering is a standard feature available in computer graphics programs. With
CAD software, you can add titles, notes , and dimensioning information to a drawing.
Several fonts and a variety of size s may be selected . When modifications arc
required, it is easy to make lettering changes on the drawing by editing existing text.
Freehand lettering ability has little relationship to writing ability. You can learn
to letter neatly even if you have terrible handwriting. There are three necessary
aspects of learning to letter:
• knowing the proportions and forms of the letters (to make good letters, you need
to have a clear mental image of their correct shape)
• spacing of letters and words for legibility
• practice
2.13 LETTERING STANDARDS
AUTOCAD TXT FON T
ROMAN SIMPLEX
ROMAN DUPLEX
TITLES
l{~VP'
l{eycp£ POJfl'S
2.20 An Example of Lettering and
Titles Using CAD
Most hand-drawn notes use lettering about 3 mm (1/8") in height. Light horizontal
guidelines are useful to produce con sist ent letter height s. CAD notes are set using the
keyboard and sized to be in the range of3 mm ( 1/8") tall according to the plotted size
of the drawing. Lettering heights vary with the size of the she et and the intended use
of the drawing.
CAD drawings typically use a Gothic lettering style, but often use a Roman style
for titles. When adding lettering to a CAD drawing, a good rule of thumb is not to use
more than two fonts within the same drawing. See Figure 2.20 for a sample of the
fonts available using CAD . You may want to use one font for the titles and a differ­
ent font for note s and other text. It may be tempting to use many different fonts in a
drawing because of the wide variety available, hut this tends to look distracting on
the drawing . Drawings that use too many lettering styles and size s have been jokingly
referred to as having a "ransom note" lettering style.
2.14 VERTICAL LETTERS AND NUMERALS
There are standard widths for the various letters. The propor­
tion s of vertical capital letters and numbers are shown in
Figure 2.21. In the figure, each letter is shown on a 6-unit-high
grid that shows its width in relation to its height. The numbered
arrows indicate the traditional order and direction in which the
lettering strokes are made.
Aside from the letters I and W, letters are either five or six
grid divisions wide, or about as wide as they are tall. Thi s is
probably a little wider than your usual writing . It is easier to
remember the six-unit letters if you think of them as spelling a
name: TOM Q. VAXY. The letter I is a pencil width , and the
letter W is eight grid-units wide (1-1/3 times its height).
With the exception of the numeral 1, whieh use s only a
pencil width , all numerals are five units wide.
2.15 LOWERCASE LETTERS
Lowercase letters arc rarely used in engineering sketches ex­
cept for lettering large volumes of notes . Vertical lowercase let­
ters are used on map drawings, but very seldom on machine
drawings. Lowercase letters are shown in Figure 2.22 . The
lower part of the letter (or descender) is usually two-thirds the
height of the capital letter.
When large and small capitals are combined, the small
capitals should be three-fifths to two-thirds the height of the
large capitals. The inclined letters and numbers shown in
Figures 2.23 and 2.24 will be discussed in the next section.
2 .15
LOW ERe A 5 E LET T E R 5
Straight-line letters
1- -
1 I~11 UJH fl ~ 1 ~ 1 ~; l' lgWZt: 1 ~ffit t}12 .~~t ~f\'
-
~
l-Bffi3 W j Iftt-I , ~\
~j ~ fJ l+'_j
2" - Letter "i" has short bars
2­
/~ 1{31
\\
1­
\~ V110i 1 r3A!~4f, 2 ~~1 21 1 ~~. I r{%t1
[ 1I .t1j ~ ~t1 1 111
ft±{] ' rt2~ ~~1J
1
t
t
~
t'17"1 l:~~
+rJ
3­
" - "W" is only letter over 6 units wide. Letters in "TOM Q. VAXY" are 6 units wide -all others are 5, except " I" and "W"
Curved-line letters
rn
. "~ :,f~~
' ~l ~
.~-. ' ," . ); t.flHl t-JIJ 1~Ufi. l 'l ~
'UI :"+;W) ~l ~ '~I ,~; ~i
1
The letters 0, Q, C, G and 0 are based on a true circle. The lower portion of of the) and U is elliptica l
Curved-line letters and numerals
The 8 is composed of two ellipses. The 3, S, and 2 are based on the 8
Curved-line letters and num erals
Number "1" is a straight line. The 0, 6, and 9 are elliptical
2.21
Vertical Capital Letters and Numerals
2.22
Vertical Lowercase Letters
37
38
CHAPTER
2
L A Y O UT S AND
LE TT E RI N G
Straight- line lette rs
1­
IE:H
I/li;~- ;/!fj~~~~:;
l
2_
'I;,.,. Letter " i" has short bars
AV~W
2­
Curved- line lette rs
~
+j;"'~+f-
2
-745~
J
'( 2@
;t
+--0
\ .
J
"."7" ~j/
r-
"
L'
1
I
{j
//,I
_/JJIjj
~/_ - . c. T I/
1
~I
~
{
I
""""-- - ' '''''
The letters 0 , Q, C, G and D are based on a tru e ellipse, The lower portion of of the I and U is elliptical
Curved -line lett ers and numeral s
Cur ved-line lett ers and numerals
Number " 1" is a straight line, The 0, 6, and 9 are elliptical
2.23
Inclined Capital Letters and Numerals
2.24
Inclined Lowercase Letters
2.16
INC LIN E D LET T E R SAN D N U M B E R S
39
2.16 INCLINED LETTERS AND NUMBERS
Inclined (italic) capital lett ers and numerals, shown in
Figure 2.23, are similar to vertical characters, ex cept for the
slope. The slop e of the lett ers is about 68° from the hori zontal.
Whi le you may pra cti ce drawing slanted hand lettering at
approxima tely this angle, it is important in CAD dra wing s to
a lways set the amount of inc line for the letters at the sa me value
within a drawing so that the lettering is con sistent. Inclined
low ercase letters, shown in Figure 2.24 , are similar to vertical
low ercase lett ers .
Keep in mind that only one style of lett ering. e ither verti­
cal or inclined, should be used throughout a drawing.
2.17 FRACTIONS
Fractions are shown twice the height of the corresponding whole
numbers. Make the num erat or and the denominator each about
three-fourths as high as the whol e number to allow enough space
betw een them and the fracti on bar. For dimensionin g, the most
co mmonly used hei ght for whole numb ers is 3 mrn (1/8"), and
for fractions 6 mm (1/4 "), as shown in Figure 2.25.
5
8
1
4
(a)
1
4"
• Never let num eral s touch the fraction bar.
• Cent er the denom inator und er the num erator.
• Avoid using an incl ined fraction bar , except when lett ering
in a narrow space, as in a part s list.
• Make the fracti on bar slightly longer than the wide st part
of the frac tion.
1
25
Y2
2
(b)
32
(c)
2.25 Common Errors in Lettering Fractions
2.18 USING GUIDELINES
Use extrem ely light hori zontal guidelines to keep lette r height
uniform. as sho wn in Figure 2.26. Capit al lett ers are co mmonly
mad e 3 111m (1/8 ") high , with the space betw een row s of letter­
ing bein g from three-fifths to full height o f the letters. Do not
use vertic al guidelines to space the di stance from one letter to
the next within a word or se nte nce . Thi s should he done by eye
while lettering. If nec essary , use a vertica l guideline at the be­
ginn ing o f a co lumn o f hand lettered text to help yo u line up the
left edg es o f the following rows . Beginners can also use ran­
doml y spaced vertical guidelines to practice maint ainin g the
correct slan t.
( vertical guide lines dra.wn.at random
IG1E-[[
~±.I IEB1lSJILlb-'
_+
+ E~S]-+-~-'+-I-1-tI
I
TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
For even freehand letters
• Use 1/8 " gr idded paper for drawing to make lettering
easy.
• Use a scale and set off a series of spaces, making both the
letters and the spaces between lines of letters 1/8" high.
• Use a gu ideline template like the Berol Rapidesign 925
shown in Figure 2.27 .
• For wh ole numbers and fractions, draw five equally
spaced guidelines.
I
1
1
1
I
~['H-YB-~
.--yB- F r:t1 q:~ p;~ -~_ ~ - _0
1
\:-\J:S_EL~~q]I~JI_t USlES---+-~
Space betw een lines usually from ! to total height of letters
2.26
Using Guidelines
~ (--- -­
r---
1
12 (- - - - -­
REVERSEWITl-I INKING PEN
-
-
-
- -­
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
- - - . . ) '4
-
- - ------.,) ~
1
]' C:::=====================:: JJ
12
~ c:::==========================:::)d-
BeroLRo piDesign.
R-925
LEITERING AID
2.27 The Berol Rapidesign 925 Template Is Used to
Quickly Create Guidelines for Lettering
40
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND LETTERING
2.19 SPACING OF LETTERS AND WORDS
Spacing Between Letters
L may be shortened when followed by A. In
typesetting, pairs of letters that need to be
Uniform spacing between letters is done by
spaced more closely to appear correctly are
eye. Contrary to what might seem logical,
called kerncd pairs.
putting equal distances from letter to letter
causes them to appear unequally spaced. The
background areas between letters, not the dis­ Spacing Between Words
tances between them, should be approxi­ Space letters closely within words to make
mately equal to get results that appear each word a compact unit, but space words
balanced. Figure 2.28 illustrates how using well enough apart to be clearly separate from
equal spacing from one letter to the next does adjacent words. For both uppercase and low­
not actually appear equal. Space your letter­ ercase lettering, make spaces between words
ing so that background areas appear equal, approximately equal La a capital O.
like the example shown in the bottom balf of
the figure .
Some combinations, such as LT and VA, Spacing Between Rows
may have to be slightly closer than other let­ Be sure to leave space between rows of letter­
ters to look correctly spaced. In some cases, ing, usually equal to the letter height. Rows
the width of a letter may be decreased spaced too closely are hard to read. Rows
slightly. For example. the lower stroke of the spaced too far apart do not appear La he related.
LATHING
literate
u
L.U
u
u
u u
U
U
UJ
u
U
Using equal spacing from one letter
to another does not actually appear
equal, as in this example
LATHING
liierate
U
L.LJ
U
I
U
LJ
U
L....L....J
W
L...J
U
Spaceyour lettering so that
background areas appear equal,
like the example shown above
2.28
Visually Balancing
Letter Spacing
, - - - TIP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Creating letters that appear stable
Certain letters and numerals appear top-heavy when
they are drawn with equal upper and lower portions
like the example below.
To correct this, reduce the size of the upper portion to
give a balanced appearance, as in this example.
If you put the central horizontal strokes of the letters
B, E, F, and H at midheight, they will appear to be below
center.
To overcome this optical illusion, draw the strokes for
B, E, F, and H slightly above the center as you letter,
keeping letters uniform, as in the second example
below.
The same practice applies to numerals. In the
illustrations below, the example at left looks top-heavy.
Note how the example at right looks more balanced .
A good exampl e
of uniform lett ering
REL AT IVELY
These examples show what not to do
Nonuniform style
Nonuniform
letter height
REL AT I VE.LY
RELAT IVELY
Nonuniform
angle
R'LLAT ! V E L Y
RELATIVELY
Nonuniform
stroke thickness
RE LATIVELY
RELATIVELY
Nonuniform
letter spacing
RELATIVELY
Nonun iform
word spacing
NOW IS THE TIME FOR EV E RY
GOOD PERSON TO COME TO T HE
AID 0;: ....rs OR HER COUNTRY
2 .20
2.20 LETTERING FOR TITLES
In most cases , the title and related inform ation are lett ered in ti­
tle boxes or title strips as sho wn in Figure 2.29 . The main draw­
ing title is usuall y centered in a rectan gular space, whi ch is easy
to do, using CAD.
Wh en letterin g by hand , arra nge the title sy mme trically
about an imagin ary centerline, as shown in Figure 2.30 . In any
kind of title , g ive the most imp ortant word s prom inence by
making the lettering larger. hea vier, o r both . Oth er data, such as
scale and date, can be sma ller.
Figure 2.31 shows examples of freehand lettering at actual
size .
LET T E R I N G F OR TI T L ES
41
TOOL GRINDING MACHINE.
TOOL REST SLIDE
SCA L E
AMERICAN
NEW
DRAWN
2.29
:
F UL L
SIZ E
MACHINE. COMPANY
ev _
YORK
CITY
CHE CKED BY _
Balanced Machine-Drawing Title
Scrap of paper underneath
2.30
2.31
Centering Title in Title Box
Pencil Lettering (Full Size)
, - - - TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , Lettering with a Pencil
• Since practically all pencil lettering will be reproduced, the
lett ers should be dense black, not gr ay or blur red. Use a
sharp, soft pencil, such as an F, H, or HB to make lett ering
dark and sharp.
• If you like using wooden pencils, sharpen them to a needle
point, then dull the po int very slightly.
• Don't w orry about making the exact letter strokes unless
you find it difficult to make the letters look right, but do use
them as a reference if you are having trouble drawing uni­
form, symmetrical lette rs.
• Use extremely ligh t, 1/8 " (3 mm ) horizontal guidelines to
regulate the height of letters. A few light, vertical or inclined
lines randomly placed help you Visually keep the letters uni­
formly vertical or inclined .
• Draw vertical strokes downward with a
finger movement.
• Draw hori zontal strokes from left to
right with a wri st mov ement and with­
out turning the paper.
• Draw curved strokes and in­
clined strokes with a downward
motion.
Leit-handers: Traditional lettering
st rokes were designed for right­
handed people . Exper iment with
each letter to find out which
strokes are best and develop a
system of stro kes that works best
for you .
lE
Vertical
Inclined
42
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND LETTERING
2.21 DRAWING PENCILS
High-quality drawing pencils help produce good quality tech­
nical sketches and drawings . Use light lines for construction
lines, lettering guidelines, and precise layout work. Use dark,
dense black lines for the final lines, lettering, and arrowheads.
Drawings are often reproduced and the lines need to be dark for
the copies to turn out well.
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with a polymer
hinder or clay binder. They are divided into 18 grades from 9H
(the hardest) to 7B (the softest) as shown in Figure 2.32. Spe­
cially formulated leads of carbon black particles in a polymer
hinder are also available in several grades for use on polyester
film (mylar) .
Hard leads are used where accuracy is required, such as on
graphical computations and charts and diagrams. For other
uses, their lines are apt to be too light.
Medium leads are used for general purpose technical
drawing, such as sketching. lettering, arrowheads, and other
freehand work on mechanical drawings.
Soft leads are not useful in technical drawing. They make
smudged, rough lines that are hard to erase, and the lead dulls
quickly. These grades are generally used for artistic drawing.
Whieh grade of pencil works best for you depends on your
hand pressure, the humidity, and the type of paper you are using.
among other things. For light lines, use a hard lead in the range of
4H to 6H. For dark lines. use a softer lead in the range of 2H to B.
Mechanical pencils are available with 0.3-, 0.5-, 0.7-, or
0.9-mm-diameter drafting leads in several grades (Figure 2.33).
Their thin leads produce uniform-width lines without sharpen­
ing. The .5-mm lead is a good general size, or you can use a
.7-mm lead for thick lines and .3 mrn for thin lines.
r--
~/Y~
.'
~ ~
9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H
Hard
The hard leads in this
group (left) are used
whereextreme
accuracy is required,
as on graphical
computations and
chartsand diagrams.
The softer leads in this
group (right) are
sometimes used for
line work on
engineering drawings,
but theiruse is limited
because the lines are
apt to be too light.
2.32
~
2.33
F HB
B
2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
Medium
These gradesare for
general purpose work in
technical drawinq. The
softer grades (right) are
used for technical sketch­
ing, lettering, arrowheads,
and other freehand work
on mechanical drawinqs,
The harder leads (left) are
used for line work on
machine drawinqs and
architectural drawinqs, The
Hand 2H leads are widely
used on pencil tracinqs for
reproduction.
Soft
These leads are too
soft to be useful in
mechanical drafting.
They tend to produce
smudged, rough lines
that are hard to erase,
and the lead must be
sharpened continually.
These gradesare used
for artwork ofvarious
kinds, and for full-size
details in architectural
drawing.
Sharp conical point
for general line
work
Thin leads require
no sharpening
Drawing Pencils
(a)
Drawing Pencil
(b)
Mechanical Pencil
(c)
Thin-Lead Mechanical Pencil
Be aware that some lead holders
require special sharpeners.
You can sometimes tell the difference
in hardness of a mechanical pencil
lead just by looking at it. Smaller
diameter leads are used for the
harder grades and larger diameter
leads are used to give more strength
to the softer grades.
Lead Grade Chart
Drafting penci l leads
avai lable in all grades
~
3H 2H H
TI P - - - - - - - ,
You might be surprised how much
your drawings benefit from finding a
style of pencil that suits your use.
Soft pencils, such as HB or F, are
mainly used in freehand sketching.
Choose a pencil that:
• Is soft enough to produce clear
black lines, but hard enough not
to smudge too easily
• Is not so soft that the point breaks
easily.
• Feels comfortable in your hand .
• Grips the lead without slipping.
Grade Mark
Do not sharpen
this end!
Plain wooden pencils work great.
They are inexpensive, and it is easy to
produce thick or thin lines by varying
the amount that you sharpen them.
An old trick to keep the lead sharp
longer is to turn the pencil frequently
as you work to wear it down evenly.
Gum erasers and nylon erasers work
well to pick up smudges without
leaving much eraser dust.
Nylon eraser strips that come in
refillable holders like mechanical
pencils can be convenient for areas
that require some precision. A trick
for erasing fine details is to sharpen
the end of the eraser strip in a small
hand-held pencil sharpener.
2.22
43
T E M P L ATE S
2.22 TEMPLATES
Templates are available for a great vari­
e ty of specia lized needs (Fig ure 2.34 ).
Templates may be found for drawing
almost any ordinary draft ing symbols or
repetitiv e feature s,
7 !
r . ,.
2.23 THE COMPUTER
AS A DRAFTING TOOL
/"
Most people who creat e technic al draw­
ings usc CAD. Advantages includ e accu­
racy, speed, and the abilit y to present
spatial and visual information in a vari­
ety of way s.
However, these advantages don 't
eliminate the need for drawin gs to be
easily and accurately interpreted. CAD
drawings use the same general concepts
and follow the same draftin g standards as
drawin gs created by hand.
Most CA D drawings are plotted on
standard shee t sizes and to similar scales
as hand drawings. Both CAD and hand
drawings should contrast thick lines for
objects with thin lines for hidden , center,
and dimensions to make the print ed
drawing eas y to read . CAD drawings
2.34
Drawing Templates. Courtesy of Chartpak.
should use co rrec t line patterns. Like­
wise, lettering on CAD draw ings should
follow these same general guidelines as
for hand drawings.
One benefit of CAD is the ability to
draw perfe ctly straight uniform line s
and otbe r geo me tric elem ent s. Another
is the ability to quickl y repr esent the
variou s styles of lines (Figure 2.35).
Making changes to a CAD draw ing
take s about a tenth the time that it takes
to edit a drawing by hand . Using CAD,
yo u ca n quickl y plot drawing s to differ­
ent scales.
Keepin g CA D drawing files organ ­
ized, backing up data regularly, and fol­
lowin g conventions for naming files so
that yo u can find them aga in are impor­
tant co nsiderations. Even the most
skilled CAD user s need to also be skilled
in freehand sketching, in order to quickly
get idea s down on paper.
Chin ; "
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1000
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2.35 A Drawing Created Using CAD. Courtesy of Zuta Sport s, Inc.
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MODEL SPACE AND PAPER SPACE IN AUTOCAD 2008
(A) In AutoCAD 2008, paper space allows you to see how
various views of the full size model can be shown on a sheet
of paper. Reprinted by p ermission of Pearson Education, tnc.,
Using CA D, you can make an accur ate model of the dev ice or
struc ture . To do this, you create the object at the actu al size that
it exists in the real world, usin g whatever system of measur e­
men t that you would use whe n co nstruc ting it.
On pap er it is a different matter. You would have to have
so me reall y large shee ts to print your building full size . Aut o­
CAD 2008 software uses the co nce pt of two "s paces," model
space and paper space , to descri be how to tran sform the full
size CAD model to prop ortionate vie ws that fit your shee t of
paper.
Unders tanding sca le as it relat es to paper dr awin gs or as it
relates to creating layout s from a CA D drawin g is an important
concept for technical dra wing because the ultimate goal is for
drawings to be interpreted and used in the real world . There­
fore, they must be easy to prim and read .
Upp er Saddle River, Nj.
00
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(B) The wind ow at left shows a paper space representation of the full size CAD model in the smaller w indow at right. Note that
AutoCAD uses icons to help users d ifferentiate the two "spaces." Courtesy of Autodesk, Inc. © 2006-200 7. All rights reserved.
2.24
S K ETC H I N G AND 0 RAW I N G M E0 I A
45
2.24 SKETCHING AND DRAWING MEDIA
Man y cho ices of media (paper and other) are available for par­
ticular sketching or drawing purposes. Wheth er you are sketch­
ing or are plottin g a drawing from a CAD wor kstation, choose
the type of sheet and size that suits your need s.
Small notehook s or ske tch pad s are useful when work­
ing at a sit e or wh en it is necessary to quickly record infor­
mati on. Man y co mpanies use bound not ebook s of graph
pap er for rec ording e ng ineering des ign notes for patent and
docum entati on purposes. Graph pap er can be helpful in mak ­
ing neat ske tche s like the one in Figure 2.36. Paper with 4, 5,
8, or 10 sq uares per inch is conv en ient for maintaining
prop orti on s.
A sketch pad of plain paper with a master grid shee t show ­
ing through underneath work s well as a substitute for grid
paper. You ca u create your own master grid shee ts using CAD.
Specially ruled isometric paper is availabl e for isom etric
sketching, or you can use CAD to create masters.
Th e best drawing papers ha ve up to 100% pure rag stock.
Their strong fibers hold up well for eras ing and foldi ng, and
they will not discol or or grow brittl e with age. Good drafting
paper sho uld have a fine grain (or too th) to pick up the graphit e
I
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"7iba
/.50
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Sketch on Graph Paper
and produ ce clean, dense black lines. Paper that is too rou gh
produ ces ragged , grainy lines, is harder to erase, and wears
down pen cils quickly. Look for paper that has a hard surface
that will not groove too eas ily under pencil pressure.
2.25 POLYESTER FILMS AND COATED SHEETS
Polyester film is a high quality drafting material available in
roll s and standa rd siz ed shee ts. It is mad e by bond ing a matte
surfac e to o ne or both sides of a clear pol yester shee t. Its
transparenc y and printing qualities are goo d and it provides
an excell ent matt e dr aw ing surface for pencil or ink , it is
easy 10 erase without leavin g gh ost marks, and it has high
dimensional stability. Its resistance to crackin g, bending, and
tear ing makes it very durabl e. Man y compa nies still plot their
drawings in ink on pol yester film for long-term storage and
rep rodu cti on.
Even large coated sheets of aluminum (which provides a
good dim ensi onal stability) have been used in the aircraft and
auto indu stry for full-sca le layout s that were scribed into the
coati ng with a stee l point rather than a pencil.
2.26 STANDARD SHEETS
The re are ANSI/ASME standa rds for international and U.S.
sheet sizes. Table 2.2 describes the height and width of these
standard shee ts, the letters used to refer to them , and their
margins and zones . Note that drawing shee t size is given
as hei ght x width. Most standard shee ts use what is called a
"landscape" orientation.
The use of the basic sheet size. 8.5" x 11.0" or 210 mm x
297 nun , and its mul tiples permit filin g folded print s in stan­
dard files with or without correspondence . Th ese sizes can be
cut from standard rolls of medi a.
Table 2.2 Sheet Sizes.
Nearest
International
Size (mm)
International
Numbe r of Zones
International
Margin
A4 210 x 297
6
10
A* 8.5
A3 297 x 420
6
A2 420 x 594
Standard U.S.
Size (In.)
U.S. Number of
Zones (width)
U.S. Margin
(in.)
x 11.0
2 (optional)
.50
10
B 11.0 x 17.0
2 (optional)
.50
8
10
C 17.0 x 22.0
4
.50
Al 594 x 841
12
20
022 .0 x 34.0
4
.50
AO 841 x 1189
16
20
E 34.0 x 44.0
8
.50
.. May also be used as a vertical sheet size at 77" tall by 8.5 " wide.
46
L A YO UT S AN D L ETT ERIN G
CHAPTER 2
2.27 STANDARD LAYOUT ELEMENTS
Margins and Borders
Eac h layou t begins with a border draw n
insi de the sheet margin . D raw ings in the
U.S . use a .50 " margi n. Refe r to Tabl e 2.2
for international shee t sizes and margins.
So me co mpanies use slightly larger
shee ts to provide fo r binding draw ings
into a set. Th is ex tra allowance sho uld be
added on to the standard sheet size so
that the d raw ing border meets the size
standards (see Fig ure 2.37). Figure 2.38
shows th e alterna te orientat ion of an
A size d rawin g.
num bers to make sure you are talk ing
a bout the sa me item . Zon e number s are
also useful fo r locat ing revis ion s. You
should provid e zo ne numbers o n all
sheets larger than size B.
+
Typical Letter Sizes
.
Most lettering on dra wings sbo uld be at
least 3 mm or . 12 " (about 1/8") tall. Le t­
tering is typ ically s ized as foll ow s:
Draw in g Titl e, Drawin g Size
6 mrn (.24 ")
CAG E Code
6 mm (.24" )
Draw ing N umbe r, Re vision Lette r
6 mm (.24 ")
Secti on and View Lett ers
6 111 m (.24 ")
Z on e Le tters and N umbe rs
6 mm (.24")
Draw ing Bl ock Headi ngs
2.5 rnm (. 10")
All Others
3 nun (. 12" )
Zones
You ha ve prob abl y see n zone numbers
on maps, wh ere the marg in is subdivi de d
by letters alo ng one side a nd by number s
alo ng the othe r. Th ese are also use d
alo ng the o uter edges o f technical d raw­
ings so th at you ca n refer to item s by the
area o n the sheet where they are located.
Th is is particularly use ful whe n a cl ient
call s wi th a qu esti on. You ca n use zo ne
A Size (vertical)
.
+
i
j
~
~
2.38
I
+
Vertical Orientation of A Size
~ Opt'lana I drawinq
number block
I
3
I
-.
0
A Size (horizontal)
c
"­
V
Revision
history block
0
--
B Size
Revision
status block
c
I
C Size
V
o Size
I
A
4
I
I~
,
3
1
2.37
7
6
5
,/
...........
Projection block - - . . . . . .
,
Zone
I
Tolerancing bloc k
A
B~
A
M icrofi lm
centering
arrows
4
~
3
z
I
~
Titl e block
A
Round corners
optional on
all sides
U
Typical Sheet Sizes and Bord ers. (See the inside front cover for Esize and international standard sizes.)
ST AN 0 A R0 L A YO U TE L EM EN T S
2027
47
NAME ~ o nqmatmq
o
Company N ame
0
0
(and address if desired)
Approval blocks \..
DRAWING TITLE
2.00
3.87
DRAFTEDBY:
Name Date
ENGINEERED:
I
I
ADDITIONAL APPROVAL
Name Date
Name Date
~ ZE
ADDITIONAL APPROVAL
Name Date
SCALE
CAGE CODE
OJII
Sheet size /
from table 2
1 - -- - - - - - - - - -
2.39
1.38
-1.38
I
I j1
DWGNO.
REV
_
I SH EET 1 OF 2
I WEIGHT ~
II
Predominant scale
(use NONE when NTS)
2.75
I
(actual or )
estimated)
I
.62
.25
-1
1.75
I
3.25
4.25
6.25 -
- - - - --
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
------{
Title Block for A, B, and C Sized Sheets
Title Block
The title block is located in the lower right corner of the form at.
Standard areas in the title bloc k provi de the follo wing informa­
lion. Refer to Fignre 2.39 for dim ensions for a typical title
block for A, B, and C sized shee ts:
Name Show the originating company or bus iness (and
address if desired). Refer to Figure 2.40.
Drawing Title Briefly descr ibe the item using a singular
noun or noun phrase and modifiers if necessar y to distin guish
it from similar items. Do no t use the term s " for" or "o r" in the
title. For exa mple, "Dust Ca p" would be preferr ed over "Cap
or Cover for Dust Protecti on," which is too wordy.
Drawing Nu m ber Give eac h dra wing a uniqu e num ber,
usin g the co mpa ny's numb erin g system.
Sheet Revi sion Block Track the drawin g version usin g
the numb er of the revision. Th e original release of the drawin g
typ ically shows revision O.
Approval Block List the name(s) of the person(s) approv­
ing the drawing and the date it was app roved . Additiona l areas
of this block ca n be used for various design act ivities, if sepa­
rate approval is requ ired. For exa mple, a co mpany may use
separate areas for structural design or manufac turing enginee r­
ing appro vals (Figure 2.4 1).
Scale List the predominant scale for the drawing. Drawings
may include details at other scales, which should he noted below
the detail. If the drawing is not made to a particul ar scale, note
NONE in the scale area. Refer to Section 2.6 .
Drawing Size List the shee t size used for the drawing.
This help s track the origi nal size when the drawi ng is rep ro­
duced at a sma ller size.
Sheet Number Lis t the numb er of the sheet in the se t. us­
ing Whole num bers starting at 1. A format that lists this shee t
out of the total number helps keep track of the e ntire set. For
exa mple, I OF 2.
CAG E Code List the Commercial and Government
Entit y (CAGE) code if applicab le. This is a numh er assigned to
NAME
DRAWING TITLE
ORAmOll'l'
I
f NGlNE
. FH D:
"OOl1'1ONAlIlJ'f'AOVAJ.
A DDmON "'- A ~o\l.
2.40
SIZE CAGECODE
SCALE
I
I
DWGNO.
I WEIGfIT
REV
I
SHEET1 OF2
Company Name and Drawing Title
NAME
DRAWINGTITLE
D!lAI TrD RY
I
I
SCALE
I WEIGHT
I N(.iINH Il W .
A(XKl IONo\l."-W11OVA.l.
AOOI r lC\NA.L A;>Pfl lj\l A\.
SIZE CAGECODE
I
DWG NO.
REV
I SHEET 1 OF 2
2.41 Approval Block, Scale, Revision,
and Drawing Size
NAME
DRAWINGTITLE
ORArTEOSV
ENGINH Rt:O
AODInoNAlAWl'lOVAI.
AoornoNAl A,Pr P,OIIA,
2.42
SIZE
I
CAGECODE
SCALE
I
I
DWGN O.
I WEIGHT
REV
I SHEET I OF 2
CAGE Code and Weight May Be Listed
entities that manu factu re items for the government. Th e code is
ass igned based on the original design activity.
Weight List the actual or es timated weight of the part if
requ ired (Figure 2.42).
*For more for mats, ti tle blocks, revision blocks, and a list of
materia ls blocks, see inside the front cover of th is book.
48
CHAPTER 2
LAYOUTS AND LET TERING
2.28 LAYOUTS
A parti cular size sheet with a drawing
bord er is called a layout. Using a CAD
system, you may often be able to select
from standard layouts or templates that
set the sheet size limits, the border, and
even the title block as the starting point
for your drawing . Regardless of whether
you draw by hand or use CAD or 3D
modeling methods, you need to plan
your sheet so that the information will fit
and show clearly.
When sketching, your layout may be
a simple border and title strip along the
bottom of the sheet (or you may be using
preprinted tablet s that have space to
record the sketch title, date, and other
pertinent data).
When creating a 2D CAD drawing,
you may use a drawing template show­
ing the sheet and border and title block,
perhaps using different templates or even
software interface settings for different
types of drawings, such as mechanical!
manufacturing, architectural , or civil.
When creating a 2D drawing to plot
from a 3D sol id model, you may use a
layout space that contains different view­
ports that allow you to show different
views of the same 3D model with a bor­
der and title block.
2.29 PLANNING YOUR DRAWING OR SKETCH
When laying out a drawing sheet, you will
need to consider:
Ample space for
dimensions and details
Too big for
sheet. Leave
more space
notes and
dimensions
• the size and scale of the object you will
show.
• the she et size.
• the measurement system (units) for the
drawing.
• (he space necessary for standard notes
and title block.
The object you are drawing is the "star"
of the sketch. Keep the object near the center
of the sheet. It should be boldly drawn, using
thick visible line s. Make it large enough to
fill most of the sheet and so that details show
clearly (Figure 2.43 ).
Show Details Clearly
- --
-
-
- t- - -- - - ­
I
Too small to show
detai ls clearly
2.43
Show Details Clearly by Selecting Appropriate Scale and Sheet Size
Show small objects larger than their actual
size to represent the details clearly. If the de­
tails are too small, switch to a larger sheet
size and use a larger scale. You can also add
details at a larger scale if necessary to show
features that are smaller than the typical fea­
tures of the drawing, If you add details at a
different scale. label the view, for example,
DETAIL A, and note the scale for the detail
below it.
2 .29
P LAN N I N G YOU R D RAW I N G 0 R 5 K ETC H
49
SHEET LAYOUT
Given drawing
To draw the part
Orient paper
shown in the
and tape
given figure, se lect the
down, if you
8.5"
sheet size, keeping in
find that
mind the size of the ob­
helPfUI~
j ect s. Show the part
large enough to repre­
sent features clearly.
11"
Use larger sheets for
larger or more detailed
objects. (8.5 x II" will he large enough for the part shown.)
Add the border and title hlock to the sheet using the margin
sizes specified in the standards. Refer to Table 2.2.
Determine the units ~
~
for the drawing.
!
'~
Will it he metric or
Lightly blo k
i
U.S. Customary (inches.
,
in cente rline
feet and inches)? What
system will he used to
IV - Short dashes,
construct. manu facture,
not dbts
and inspect the actual oh­
ject? Use that system of
measurement
for
the
drawing. Thi s part is iu inches.
Befo re you hegin drawing, determine the sca le at which the
object will best fit on the sheet.
First, figure the available space within the draw ing border.
For example the horizontal 8.5 x II" sheet with a .5" margin
leaves 7.5 x 10". If you subtract space for a .375" title strip
acro ss the bottom, it leaves 7.125 x 10" for the drawing.
Now, consider the size of the object. Will it fit on the sheet
at full- size ? Half-size'? Do you need to enlarge it to show
small features larger than actual size? The 12" gasket shown
in the example will fit well at half- size on the 8.5 x 11" sheet
select ed and still show the details clearly. Use typi cal scales
when possible. Refer to Section 2.5.
Approximately center the object on the sheet. To do this,
subtract the size of the scaled drawing from the available
sheet space and use half of the difference on each side of the
object .
One quick technique
is to find the center of
the available space and lay
out the drawing on each
side of that centerline,
Usiug CAD, you can easily
move the drawing to the
ce nter of the sheet visually.
Lig t lv bloc in over II
size to scale centering
on lines
Sketch es do not have to be perfectly centered, hut plan
ahead so the drawing isn't crammed in one corner of the
sheet. Let your drawing: be the "star" of the page. Rernem­
her to leave enough space aro und your drawing for notes
and dimensions. If you don't, you will run out of room and
your layout will look crowded.
Lightly add details
of the drawing.
vn
--.
0
0
-
Add details
Darken final drawing
lines .
"
V-m
. ~Y'
fl
-$
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Darken final lines
and add title block
....--- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Scale When Using CAD
Keep in mind that when using CAD you will create the
object the size that it actually exists in real life. On the
plotted sheet, when showing the drawing to scale, it is
easy to try a few different scales and see which fits. You
can always change the scale later if needed.
SCALING ANNOTATIONS AUTOMATICAllY USING AUTOCAD 2008
Iil!lAUloCAO 2008 ·
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FOR R£SAl E · [C;lP rog rom FiI.,lAuloCAO 2008\Sampl•. . .
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You might thin k that di spl ayin g text in a CA D drawing is one
of the easies t things to do. Yo u ca n qu ickl y type in the text yo u
want to di spla y an d se lec t the fo nt, height sla nt, and ro tatio n
ang le. Th at part is ea sy. but a nno tatio ns are useless if nob od y
ca n read them.
Wh en you cre ate drawings that will be plott ed on di fferent
sized sheets or at di ffe rent sca les, sizing the te xt can require a
lot o f planning . Take the plot architec tura l plan dra win g sho wn
in Fig ure A for ex a mple . Wh en plo tte d to sca le 3" = 1'-0", the
text sho wing dimen si on s is clearly visible . But wh en sho wn
at o ne- twe lfth of that size, sc a le 1/4" = 1'-0", that same te xt
becomes illeg ible.
Th e abili ty to reu se the sa me C AD da ta at different scales
witho ut having to recrea te the dra wing is one of its big adva n­
tages o ve r pen and paper dra wings. Yet c umbe rso me
worka rounds were o nce necessar y to make legible text at
different sca les. O ne workarou nd was ha ve severa l diffe rent
sizes of the sa me te xt , whic h the user wo uld turn o n or off
de pe ndi ng on what d ra wing sca le wa s used .
No w, AuloCAD 2008 soft ware pro vid es a fe ature ca lled
annotat ion sca ling . Here is how it works: Drawing o bjects that
are co m monly used to a nno tate d rawings (provide text infor­
mat ion ) ca n have their a nnota tio n pro pe rty turned on. Thi s
a llo ws yo u to create one anno tative object that displays a t
d ifferent size s, based o n sca le pr operti es.
In the AutoCA D soft wa re, o bject typ es that c an have
anno tative o bject properties incl ude Te xt , Mtext, Dim en sion s,
Hatch es, Tol er an ces, Mulrileaders , Leade rs. Blocks, and
Att ributes.
LlJ ~
1M! Annotation Object Scale
~ 77.7'3G. ~9.5'i 1 9 . 0.0000
(A) Wh en plotted to scale 1/4 " = 1'-0" o n an 8.5 x 11" sheet,
th e text sho w ing the dim ensions is clearl y visible . Courtesy of
Object Scale List
1/ 4" = 1'·0"
3" = 1'·0"
3/16" = 1'.()"
Add..
Q.elele
Autodesk, Inc. © 2006- 2001. All rights reserved.
0.25paper units = 12 drawingunits
o !..ist allscales selectedobjects
o List scales QOmmon to all selected objects only
101
OK
II
Cancel
1[
!:!.elp
(B) Using th e annotati on scaling feature of AutoCAD 2008
software, annotative te xt can be made legibl e a t var ious
scales . Courte sy of Autodesk, Inc. © 20 06-200 1. All rights
reserved.
PORTFOLIO
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63224100
61124290
61124291
21620101
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21226200
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61124820
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DESCRIPnON
DRUM MODULE
CARRIAGE R U N~ER·RiGHT, M/CJ
CA RRIAGE RUNNER·LEFT, M/C3
ANGLE, RAILMOUNT·LEFT
ANGLE. RAILMOUNT-RIGHT
BULKHEAD - DRUMMODULE
CARRIAGE MIDDLEBULKHEAD
FRONTCARRIAGE ASSY
3G SUPPORTBOX
CARRIAGE FRONT PANEL ASSY
HOOD WLDMNT·TOP· DRUM
HOO D, DRUM MODULE
CARRIAGERIGHTTOPCOVERASSY
CARRIAGE LEFT TOP COV ERASSY
WIRINGZ·BRACKET
HOOD·SIDE. DRUM MODULE
CARRIAGELEFTSIDE PANEL
CARRIAGERIGHT SIDE PANEL
CARRIAGE TOPCENTER PANELV2
NEWDYNO WIRING BRACKET
SCREW. 3/8-16xl-I/4-, BH·Fl NG
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CHA PT ER
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LAYOUTS AND
LETTERING
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u. A civil drawing showing approval blocks and eng ineers' stamp . Courtes y of Perlit er and Ingalsbee Consulting Engineers and
I-
Calleq uos Municipal Water District.
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Window and Door schedules are used in archite ctural drawings to specify the type of window or door, rough op ening size,
rnanatacturer and othe informatio n. Courtesy of Frog Rock Desiqn, LLP.
K EY W 0 R D S
KEY WORDS
Station Poin t
Plane of Projection
Proj ectors
Piercing Points
Perspecti ve Projecti on s
Parall el Proj ect ion s
O rthog raphic Projecti on s
Oblique Projection
Multi view Projecti on
Drawing Lines
Letterin g
Measurem ent Systems
Sca le
Title Block s
Thi ck Lines
53
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that yo u have comp leted this chapter you should be able to:
Unde rstand the basic prin ci ples of projecti on used in
draw ings ,
o
Dem onstr ate the line we ights (thic kness) and types
(dashed or so lid) of lines used in the alpha bet of lines that
specify meaning in techn ical drawings.
o
List the two main system s of measur em ent used on
drawings.
o
Use different types of sca les to make measurem ent s.
• Note the seale for a drawin g in the title block . Pape r draw­
ings are sca led before they are drawn. CAD draw ings are
scaled wh en they are to be printed .
• List the adv antages of seve ral different dr awin g medi a and
the qu alit ies that distin gu ish them .
o Add legibl e and qui ck to produce notes and dime ns ions to
sketc hes using uppercase lett ers draw n by hand .
o
Lay out a sheet and rill in the infor ma tion in the title block
usin g standard letter shape s.
o
Thin Lin es
Freeha nd Lin e
Co nst ruc tion Li nes
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Drawing Scale
I . Draw the alphabe t of lines and lahcl eac h line.
2. Whi ch architects ' sca le represent s a size rat io of I:24'!
Whi ch metr ic scale represent s a half size'! Which en gi­
neer s' scale wo uld be used for full size?
3. Which scale type is the only one to use fracti on s of an
inch ?
4. Wh at are the main advantages of pol yester film as a draw­
ing media?
5 . What are the four standa rd types o f projecti ons?
6. Wh ich draw ing lines are thick? Whi ch are thin? Which are
very light and sho uld not reproduc e when copied?
7. What font provid es the shape of standard engineering
lettering?
8. Describ e the characteristics of goo d freehand lettering.
9. Wh y should guide lines be used for lett erin g ?
10. Lis t the standard items foun d in a title block.
Scales
Engi neers' Sca le
Deci ma l Inch
ArchitectsSc ale
Fo nt
Ser if
Italic
Rom an
Sa ns Serif
Guidel ine s
Verti cal
Inclined
Kern ed Pairs
Media
Sheet Sizes
Zo ne Number s
Na me
Dra wing Title
Drawin g Number
Shee t Re visiou Block
App ro val Block
Scale
Drawing Size
Sheet Numb er
CA GE Co de
Weight
Layout
54
CHAP TER 2
LAYO U TS AND
LETT E R ING
EXERCISES
Drawing Exercises
Prac tice you r skills for making measurem ent s, layin g out dra wing s heets, and for m­
ing ueat standard lett erin g with these dra win g exerc ises .
Th ese problems arc designed to fit eas ily on a shee t. (See the ins ide front cover
o f thi s book or the form provid ed on the Web as a pd f file that yo u ca n print to ske tch
on) . Dra w all co nstruction lines lightl y, usin g a hard lead (41-1 to 61-1), and all requ ired
lines den se b lac k with a so fte r lead (F to 1-1). Dr aw yo ur co nstruc tio n lines lightly so
that they do not need to be erase d.
In exercises 2.1-2 .3 yo u will pract ice mea suring. and in Exe rcises 2.4-2.6 yo u
will practi ce draw ing layo uts.
Exercise 2 . 1 Measure the lines sho wn a bove and list their len gth s usin g mi llimete rs.
List the inch me asurem ents for eac h in sq uare bracket s
ter measur em ent.
r[ to the right of the millime ­
Exercise 2 .2 Measure the lines show n above and draw them at Scale I :2, Sc ale 2: I,
and list their sca les bel ow them usin g the form Scal e: X :X.
Exercise 2. 3 Measure the overall interior dim ensions of your roo m. Letter the meas­
ured len gth neatl y in the first co lumn as shown in the exa mp le. In the second co lum n
list how long you would draw that line at a sca le of 1/4" == I'. third col umn at 3/~" == I',
fourth co lumn at I" == I', fifth co lum n at I : 100 metri c scale ( 10 111m == I meter )
I PUBLICK .
BASE.
I
I DAT E.: A UG. 1.2002 I DRAWN
I N STITU T E OF T E CHN OL OGY
SCAL E: 1/1
J O HN
Q.
I
I' ; I'
I 8 -1-02
F IXTURE B RA CKET
BY : ..J O SE PH
E . BLOUGH , JR.
J
A-6
I
3
I S EAT 25
I S H EET 2
Exercise 2.4 Create the layout for and
8.5 x II" sheet as shown at left.
Exercise 2.5 Creat e the layout for the
210 mm x 297 mm sheet shown at left.
Exercise 2. 6 Design a title block and layout for a C- sized sheet. Creat e a name and logo
for your compauy. Use an attractive but .legible fo nt for the titles on your layout. If
assigned, design a special north arrow to be used on your drawings.
Lettering Exercises
Layouts for lettering problems are given in Exercises 2.7-2.1 I. Draw complete horizontal and vertical or inclined guid e lines very
lightly. Draw the vertic al or inclin ed guide lines through the full height of the lettered area of the sheet. For practice in ink letter­
ing. the last two lines and the title strip on each sheet may be lettered in ink, if assigned by the instructor. Omit all dimensions.
Exercise 2 .7 Letter the words to your favorite song, joke, or inspirational quote of 50 word s or more. Use 1/8" tall UPPERCASE
engineering lettering. Cent er the word s near the middle of the shee t. Make sure to leave a row of space between each row of
lettering. Make sure that the subjec t you choose is profession al and appropriate.
L AYOUTS AND L E T T ERI N G
CHAPTER 2
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Exercise 2.8 Layout shee t as shown. Add vertical or
'
L
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S ECTI ON
=
, N AME
I
Exercise 2 .9 See instructions for Exercise 2.8.
inclined guide lines and fill in vertical or inclined capital
letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millim eter equiv­
alents of given dimen sion s. see inside back cover.
I..
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Exercise 2.10 See instruc tions for Exercise 2.8.
Exercise 2. 1 1 See instructions for Exercise 2.8 .