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Syntax
I. Definition of Syntax
II. Types of Grammar
III. Hierarchical Structure
A.
B.
C.
D.
Tree diagram
Phrase structure rules
Recursiveness
Deep/surface structure
IV. Universal Grammar
A. Principles
B. Parameters
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Definition of Syntax (1)
 “syntaxis” (Greek) = “arrangement”
 The rules of sentence formation; the study of
the structure of sentences.
Language Structure
Phonology
Grammar
morphology
Semantics
syntax
(the specific sense; more traditional)
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Definition of Syntax (2)
Popularized by Chomsky (the general sense)
Grammar
Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics
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II.
Types of Grammar
A.
Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic knowledge
B.
Developmental Grammar: a learner’s grammar
C.
Prescriptive Grammar: a set of prescribed rules which
tells people how to speak/write
D.
Descriptive Grammar: how people do speak in actual
utterances.
E.
Pedagogical Grammar: teaching grammar widely used in
schools
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A. Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic
knowledge
Grammar
Phonology (Morphology) Syntax Semantics
 Linguistic knowledge in the mind
 Here, we’ll just consider grammatical
knowledge as structural knowledge; but NOTE
you also must know how to USE the structural
knowledge.
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Grammar
mental grammar ling. etiquette
the nature of lang.
(psycholing. view)
(ling. view in general)
Internal ling. knowledge
(what goes on in lang.
user’s mind; subconscious, not result
of any teaching)
(socioling. view)
social attitudes
and values
(proper or best
structures to be
used in a lang.)
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a description of the grammar
(study and analysis of the
structures found in a lang.)
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B. Developmental Grammar: a learner’s
grammar
 The mental grammar in the developmental stage
 Type of lang. produced by learners who are in
the process of learning a language.
 In the language use of a L1 or L2 learner; which
is the result of a normal pattern of development,
and is common among language learners.
e.g. “comed,” “goed,” “breaked”
 Because of overgeneralizations; a natural or
developmental stage in lang. learning.
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C. Prescriptive Grammar: a set of
prescribed rules which tells people how to
speak/write
A set of “rules” about how you SHOULD
speak or write; gives judgments on which
structures are CORRECT and which are
INCORRECT
Their influence lives on in the handbook of
usage widely found today.
e.g. double negative(=affirmative), *ain’t
*it’s me, ending sentences with
preposition (*Who are you talking to?)
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D. Descriptive Grammar: how people do
speak in actual utterances
Linguistic description of the structures of a
language as they are observed to be used,
with no evaluation (non-judgmental) of
social correctness.
 Collins Cobuild dictionary example—huge
corpus analyzed and described
e.g. Either of the dictionaries are/is good.
(but should be “is” according to prescriptive view)
e.g. Neither of the books were/was a good buy.
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E. Pedagogical Grammar: teaching
grammars widely used in schools
A “teaching grammar”—designed for
developing NS students’ awareness of
their mother tongue, or for teaching a
language as a foreign language.
Often a combination of descriptive &
prescriptive grammars; more
contemporary pedagogical grammars
moving away from prescriptive.
e.g. M. Swam. Practical English Usage or a
textbook ; a grammar book.
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III. Hierarchical Structure (1)
A. Concepts of hierarchy
e.g.1: John is easy to please
John is eager to please
Q: Do the two sentences have the same
sentence structure (the same syntax)?
Paraphrase:
It’s easy for somebody to please John.
John is eager to please somebody.
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III. Hierarchical Structure (2)
 Analogy:
A. “university” school board, principle, vice
presidents, dean of academic affairs, dean of
student affairs, dean of general affairs, dean of
research and development, dean of each
college, dept. chairs….
B. “country” president, vice- president, legistrative
yuan (立法院), executive yuan (行政院), control
yuan (監察院), judicial yuan (司法院).
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University
School board
President, Vice presidents
教務長學務長總務長研發長
外語理工文法民生醫管理藝社科
院長
院長
:
:
系主任
院長院長院長院長院長院長院長
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
系主任系主任系主任系主任系主任系主任系主任系主任
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country
president
legistrative yuan
(立法院)
:
vice- president
executive yuan
(行政院)
:
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control yuan
(監察院)
:
judicial yuan
(司法院)
:
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Hierarchy
Hilary couldn’t open the windows.
VP
NP
sentence phrases words morphemes
 Constituent: part that makes up something; a
linguistic unit which is part of a larger
construction.
 e.g. Can you identify the construction and
constituents in the sentence, “the boy jumped”?
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III. Hierarchical Structure (3)
Modal of syntactic investigation: Five-rank
hierarchy (Crystal 95)
Sentences
Sentences
are analyzed into
are used to build
Clauses
Clauses
are analyzed into
are used to build
Phrases
Phrases
are analyzed into
are used to build
Words
Words
are analyzed into
are used to build
Morphemes
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Morphemes
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Upward Expansion
Phrases
e.g. cars  the cars  the big cars  all
the big cars  all the big cars in the garage
(premodification)
(head)
(postmodification)
Upward expansion:
Tom couldn’t find his notes, and Davie couldn’t
find his textbook, and (repeat the structure) . . . but
he still lectured for three hours.
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Hierarchy
Another way to look at “hierarchies”:
construction and constituents
The young must respect the old people.
(A) the young
(C) the
(B) must respect the old people
(D) young
(G) must
(E) must respect
(H) respect
(F) the old people
(I) the
(J) old people
(K) old
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(L) people
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Clauses
Clause Types:







S+V
(The dog + is running)
S+V+O
(The dog + bites + him)
S+V+C
(The car + is + ready)
S+V+A
(The picture + lays +on the ground)
S+V+O+O (I + give + him + a pen)
S+V+O+C (He + calls + John a fool)
S+V+O+A (Mary + saw + John +yesterday)

Note: subject (S), verb (V), complement (C), object (O), adverbial (A).
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Formats of the Hierarchy
Tree Diagrams: different levels in analysis
Phrase Structure (in tree diagrams)
Recursiveness (Recursion)
Deep and Surface Structure
Transformational Generative Grammar:
e.g.1. Imperative Transformation
e.g.2. Reflexive Transformation and
Imperative Transformation
e.g.3. Passive Transformation
e.g.4. Particle Movement
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1.Tree Diagrams (1)
“The girl chased the dog.” (Crystal 96)
The girl chased the dog
a. Identify the 2 major constituents (The girl + chased
the dog)
b. Divide the next-biggest constituent into 2: chased
+ the dog
c. Continue dividing constituents into 2 units until we
can go no further.
e.g. the + girl, the + dog, chase + -ed
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1.Tree Diagrams (2)
 Tree Diagrams: Different levels in analysis
 The tree diagram format may be viewed
as:
a. A static representation of the structure of the
sentence at the bottom of the diagram.
b. A dynamic format, representing a way of
“generating” a very large number of sentences
with similar structures (by the use of phrase
structure rules).
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2. Phrase Structure
S
NP
ART
(DET)
the
VP
N
girl
V
chased
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NP
ART
N
the
dog
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Phrase Structure Rules
Phrase structure rules (Nash 75-77): present
the information of the tree diagram in an
alternative format
S
NP + VP
VP V + (NP) + (PP) + (ADV)
(ART) + (ADJ)* N
NP
PRO
PP
P + NP
 Note: see Yule 105 for symbols and abbreviation definition.
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3. Recursiveness (Recursion)
 Recursive rule: VP VS (Yule 107)
e.g.: John said [ Cathy thought (Mary helped George)].
 Another e.g. of recursiveness
The Rose in My Garden
This is the rose in my garden.
This is the bee that sleeps on the rose in my garden.
These are the holly hocks high above ground, that
give shade to the bee that sleeps on the rose in my
garden.
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4. Deep and Surface Structure
Deep and surface structure: “the form of a sentence
we produce and understand is very often not the same as the
basic form which shows its meaning” (Nash 79)
A. Deep Structure: the abstract, underlying level, but basic
form of the sentence
B. Surface Structure: the superficial, syntactic form that
we produce in reality
e.g. old men and women
e.g. Annie whacked a man with an umbrella. (Yule 103)
same surface structure form, two underlying interpretations
(deep structures)
Other examples:
1. Look! 2. *Help herself. 3. The runner broke the world record.
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Transformational-generative grammar
Transformations: processes that change the deep
structure into surface structure.
Generative: using phrase structure rules, se can
produce (generate) infinite sentences.
Surface Structure:
S
NP
VP
V
eat
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NP
ART
N
the chou tofu
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Deep Structure:
S
NP
VP
pro
V
NP
ART
N
you
eat
the
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imperative
transformation
chou tofu
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Surface structure: Help yourself!
Deep Structure:
S
S
NP
VP reflexive NP
VP
pro
V
NP transformation pro
V NP
pro
(reflexive pro)
you
help
you
you
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help yourself
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S
NP
Pro
VP
V
imperative
NP
transformation
(reflexive pro)
You help
Help yourself
yourself
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Transformation: important criteria
A. Some transformations are required;
some are optional.
B. Transformation is in a certain order.
e.g. “Help yourself!”
reflexive transformation is required.
imperative transformation is optional.
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Passive transformation
NP1 V NP2 and changes it into
NP2 BE V-EN BY NP1
e.g. The runner broke the world record.
The world record was broken by the runner.
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Transformational Process
 In this process: won’t change the relationship
and the meaning of the sentence
1. Combination e.g.: You have
You’ve
2. Substitution e.g.: You
Yourself
3. Deletion
e.g.: You
X
4. Movement e.g.: Put…on
Put on…
5. Additione.g.: relative clause
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Important Contribution of TGG
Not everything we know about a sentence
is revealed in the actual form we
produce—the surface structure. We must
look for deeper structural information.
The deep—surface structure idea=a very
important contribution.
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Relative clause (1)
S
NP
VP
NA
(+N)
(+definite)
(-human)
lecture
S
NP
N
V
VP
V NPx
(+N) gave N
(-common)
Nash
confused
(+N)
(+definite)
(-human)
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lecture
NP
ART
N
the students
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Relative clause (2)
 1st TRNAS: relative clause transformation
S
NP
VP
NP
S
+ART
(+DEF)
(-Human)
N1
lecture
(+N)
(+DEF)
(-Human)
NP
(+ART)
(+DEF)
(-Human)
(+WH)
(+PRO)
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N
NP
lecture
(+N)
N
(+DEF)
(-Human) Nash
(+WH)
(+PRO)
VP
V
gave
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Problems of TGG
1. Theory is unwieldy. (too cumbersome,
too clumsy—too many transformations)
2. Not universal (It’s language specific,
not conform to all languages).
3. Psychological unreal (Semantics
should be applied first, then comes the
syntax)
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Ambiguity
Children are nice to understand.
 1. It’s nice for someone to understand children.
 2. It’s nice for children to understand something.
 S-structure:
 Children are nice [ Ø to understand Ø ]
 D-structure:
 Children are nice [ Ø to understand Ø ]
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D-Structure and S-Structure
 Definition:
D-structure—in which the basic order of
phrases is represented.
S-structure—in which the actual linear order of
phrases is observed; deep
structure positions of phrases are
represented by empty categories.
 What will Frances drink [Ø] ?
 Drano, he drank [Ø] !
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D-structure
S
S
NP
VP
N
V
i=identical index
NPi
NP
N
N
Drano
he
drank
Drano
S-structure
S
S
NP VP
N
V
NP
he drank ti
T=trace “an inaudible copy of the
moved NP is left in the D-structure
position of the moved phrase”
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 D-structure
S
S
NP
I
 S-structure
S
NPj
VP
S
Willi
S
NP
I
N
N
V
VP
N
VP
V NP
What Frances ti drink tj
Frances will drink what
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Language Ambiguity
1. Sentence Ambiguity:
e.g.: Visiting relatives can be a nuisance.
2. Word Ambiguity:
e.g.: The man put his straw on the floor.
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IV. Universal Grammar
Definition: “a set of limits” on the form
of mental grammar.
Two kinds of limits:
1. Principles: invariable principles which dictate
the form that grammar can take.
2. Parameters: strictly defined possibilities of
variation across languages.
(There is limited number in choices)
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Principles (1)
An example of “principles”:
Subjacency
A. “No constituent can be moved over
more than one bounding category.”
B. “A set of universal constraints on
movement”
C. It can move only from a layer that is
subordinate and adjacent.
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Principles (2)
 Bounding category:
S (sentence) and NP (noun phrase) in English
e.g.1: What did Sue destroy? (a correct sentence?)
S
Ø
What [did Sue destroy t] ?
e.g. 2: What did Sue destroy a book about? (correct?)
S
NP
Ø
What [did Sue destroy (a book about t)] ?
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Principles (3)
S
[(That all of us but you were upset) is obvious.]
S
[(That all of us were upset) but you is obvious.]
S
S
*[(That all of us were upset) is obvious] but you.
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Principles (4)
S
S
[(John saw a horse) that kicked a box.]
S
S
*[(What did John see a horse) that kicked Ø]?
S
[What did John see a horse kick Ø?]
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Parameters (1)
Definition:
Any of the established limits within which
something must operate. [dictionary definition]
Strictly defined possibilities of variation across
languages.
A range of possibilities and languages choose
within that range: every language must set its
parameters.
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Parameters (2)
An example:
Pro-drop (an overt pronominal subject is
dropped/optional): subjectless sentences
English: I am going to the cinema.
*Am going to the cinema.
Spanish: “Yo voy al cine.”
“voy al cine.”
Italian: Io vado al cinema. (I go to the movies.)
Vado al cinema.
 Spanish + Italian= pro-drop languages.
(but English is not)
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Parameters (3)
More Spanish examples:
A. Salieron a las ocho.
*“Left at eight.” (They left at eight.)
B. LloviÓ mucho ayer.
*“Rained a lot yesterday.”
(It rained a lot yesterday.)
Free subject-verb inversion:
Han llegado mis estudiantes.
*“Have arrived my students.”
(My students have arrived.)
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Conclusion
UG: the ling. System involved rules too
abstract and complex to be learned
without the aid of innate knowledge about
the nature of the system . . . The child is
equipped with a set of blueprints that
define and limit what a human language
can be like.
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The child is assumed to be biologically
equipped with knowledge of universal
grammar—the basics of lang. structure.
The child has blueprints for all the possible
types of lang. in her head. In the course of
lang. development she settles on the
particular grammar of the lang.
surrounding her.
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The primary role of UG in lang.
development is to limit the hypotheses that
a child can form concerning the rules of
speech and ease with which lang. is
learned.
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